Monotone Sequences

Monotonicity:
The sequence sn is said to be increasing if sn  sn+1 for all n 1, i.e., s1  s2  s3  ....
The sequence sn is said to be decreasing if sn sn+1 for all n 1, i.e., s1 s2 s3 ....
A sequence is said to be monotone if it is either increasing or decreasing.

Example
The sequence n2 : 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, ... is increasing.
The sequence 1/2n : 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, ... is decreasing.
The sequence ( 1)n 1
/n : 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, ... is not monotone.

University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 1 / 11

Example
Let r 6= 0. Consider the geometric sequence sn = r n : 1, r , r 2 , r 3 , r 4 , ....
If r > 1, then sn is increasing: 1 < r < r 2 < r 3 < r 4 < ...
If r = 1, the sn is a constant sequence 1, 1, 1, 1, ...
If 0 < r < 1, then sn is decreasing: 1 > r > r 2 > r 3 > r 4 > ...

If r < 1, then sn is alternately positive and negative, but it is increasing in magnitude:

2 3 4
1 < |r | < |r | < |r | < |r | < ...
If r = 1, then sn is the sequence 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, ....
If 1 < r < 0, then sn is alternately positive and negative, and it is decreasing in magnitude:
2 3
1 > |r | > |r | > |r | > ...

University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 2 / 11

Common strategies to prove monotonicity (for reference):
Direct logical and algebraic deductive argument to prove either (a) sn+1 sn , or (b)
m n =) sm sn to show that sn is increasing.

Example
I sn = r n is increasing if r > 1, since sn+1 = r n+1 = r ⇥ r n > 1 ⇥ r n = sn for all n.
I sn = 1/n is decreasing, since m n =) 1/m  1/n, i.e., sm sn .

Consider the di↵erence sn+1 sn . If this di↵erence is positive for all n, then the sequence is increasing.

Example
sn = n2 is increasing, since sn+1 sn = (n + 1)2 n2 = (n2 + 2n + 1) n2 = 2n + 1 > 0 for all n.

Consider the ratio sn+1 /sn . If this ratio is greater than 1 for all n and if sn is positive for all n, then sn+1
is increasing.

Example
n
sn = is increasing, since sn > 0 for all n and
n+1
sn+1 n+1 n+1 (n + 1)2 n2 + 2n + 1 1
= ⇥ = = 2
=1+ 2 > 1.
sn (n + 1) + 1 n (n + 2)n n + 2n n + 2n

University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 3 / 11

Common strategies to prove monotonicity (for reference):
Check the monotonicity of a function f (x) such that f (n) = sn for all n. If f is increasing on [1, +1),
then the sequence sn is increasing.

Example
n x
sn = is decreasing, since the function f (x) = is decreasing on [1, +1). Indeed,
n2 + 1 x2 + 1
0 1(x 2 + 1) x(2x) 1 x2
f (x) = = 2  0 for all x 1.
(x 2 + 1)2 (x + 1)2

By the method of mathematical induction: Prove that “upward movement” is a continuing pattern, i.e.,
prove that (1) s2 s1 , and (2) whenever sk+1 sk , we will necessarily have sk+2 sk+1 . This method
is often useful for sequences defined by a recursive formula.

Example
sn + 3
The sequence defined by sn+1 = for all n and s1 = 1 is decreasing. This is because:
5
s1 + 3 4
1 s2 = = < 1 = s1 , and
5 5
2 whenever sk+1 < sk , we necessarily have
sk+1 + 3 sk + 3
< sk+2 =
= sk+1 .
5 5
The “downward-moving” pattern continues.

University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 4 / 11

Boundedness:
The sequence sn is bounded above if there exists a number M such that sn  M for all n. M is called an
upper bound for sn .
The sequence sn is bounded below if there exists a number K such that K  sn for all n. K is called a
lower bound for sn .
A sequence is bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded below.

Example
1
sn = is bounded, since it is both bounded above (by 1, for example) and bounded below (by 0, for
n
example):
1
0< < 1 for all n.
n
sn = n is bounded above (by 0, for example) but not bounded below.
sn = 2n is bounded below (by 0, for example) but not bounded above.
sn = ( 1)n 1
n is neither bounded above nor bounded below.

Remarks:
If a sequence is bounded above, then there are infinitely many upper bounds, not just one. Any number
greater than some upper bound is itself an upper bound. However, among all the upper bounds, there is
a least one, the least upper bound, also known as the supremum.
If a sequence is bounded below, then there are infinitely many lower bounds, not just one. Any number
less than some lower bound is itself a lower bound. However, among all the lower bounds, there is a
greatest one, the greatest lower bound, also known as the infimum.

University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 5 / 11

Common strategies to prove boundedness (for reference)
Direct algebraic deductive argument to prove that for all n 1, sn  M. This will show that sn is
bounded above.

Example
n n
sn = is bounded above by 1, since n < n + 1 =) < 1.
n+1 n+1

Use known bounds such as 1  sin x  1 for all x.

Example
!
n2 + 1
sn = sin is bounded above by 1 and bounded below by 1.
3n2 + 4n + 5

By the method of mathematical induction.

Example
sn + 3 1
The sequence defined by sn+1 = for all n and s1 = 1 is bounded below by . This is because:
5 2
1
1 s1 = 1 > , and
2
1
1 sk + 3 2
+3 7 1
2 Whenever sk > , we necessarily have sk+1 = > = > .
2 5 5 10 2
The pattern “greater-than-one-half” continues.

University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 6 / 11

Convergence of Monotone, Bounded Sequences
Theorem (Convergence of Monotone, Bounded Sequences)
If a sequence is either (a) increasing and bounded above, or (b) decreasing and bounded below, then it
converges.

Figure: Terms will start to “pile up” as they keep moving upward/foreward

Remarks.
An increasing sequence that is bounded above will converge to the least upper bound for the sequence.
Likewise, a decreasing sequence that is bounded below converges to the greatest lower bound for the
sequence.
An increasing sequence that is not bounded above necessarily diverges to +1.
A decreasing sequence that is not bounded below necessarily diverges to 1.
University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 7 / 11
Example
Consider the sequence defined by
sn + 3
sn+1 = for all n ands1 = 1.
5
Prove that it converges and find its limit.

Solution.
In previous examples, we have proved that this sequence is decreasing and bounded below.
So, by the theorem on the convergence of monotone bounded sequence, sn conveges.
Suppose sn ! L as n ! 1.
Letting n ! 1 in the recurrence relation, we have
L+3
L= .
5
3
Solving, we get L = .
4

University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 8 / 11

Geometric Series
Recall what we know about the geometric sequence sn = r n :
sn converges to 0 if 1 < r < 1.
sn is the constant sequence 1 and so, it converges to 1, if r = 1.
sn diverges to +1 if r > 1.
sn diverges in all other cases.

Geometric series: A geometric series is the sum of terms coming from a geometric sequence.

There are two types depending on whether we are adding up finitely many or infinitely many terms:
Finite Geometric Series a + ar + ar 2 + ... + ar n 1
. In case r 6= 1, the value of this sum is given by
2 n 1 a(1 r n)
Sn = a + ar + ar + ... + ar = .
1 r
Here is a proof:
Start with Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + ... + ar n 1
. Multiply by r to get rSn = ar + ar 2 + ... + ar n 1
+ ar n .
The the sums above have lots (actually, almost all) of their terms in common. Let us bracket them out:
⇣ ⌘ ⇣ ⌘
2 n 1 2 n 1 n
Sn = a + ar + ar + ... + ar , rSn = ar + ar + ... + ar + ar

Subtracting rSn from Sn , most of the terms got cancelled out.

We are left with Sn rSn = a ar n , or, (1 r )Sn = a(1 r n ).
Divide both sides by 1 r to get the formula.

University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 9 / 11

 Infinite Geometric Series a + ar + ar 2 + ... + ar n 1
+ ....
I Question: What does it even mean? What is this sum equal to?
I Answer: It is a “formal sum”. Its value S is defined to be the limit of S n as
n ! 1. That is,
2 n 1 a(1 r n)
S = a + ar + ar + ... + ar + ... = lim Sn = lim .
n!1 n!1 1 r
Taking limit of r n , we see that (assuming a > 0)
a
S= if |r | < 1, S = +1 if r 1, S does not exist in all other cases
1 r

Example
X1 ✓ ◆n 1 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆3
3 3 3 3 4
I 4 =4+4 +4 +4 + ... = = 10.
n=1
5 5 5 5 1 35
X1 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆3
1 n 1
1 1 1 8
I 8 =8 8 + 8 + ... = = 6.
3 3 3 3 1
n=1
1 3

X1 ✓ ◆n 1 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆3
3 3 3 3
I 7 =7+7 +7 +7 + ... = +1.
n=1
2 2 2 2

University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 10 / 11

Further Examples and Exercises

For each of the following sequences, determine whether it is (a) increasing, decreasing or not monotone,
(b) bounded above or not, and (c) bounded below or not.
2 n2 n 1
sn = , sn = 2
, sn = ln n, sn = ( 1) , sn = cos n
1 + 3n 1+n
[Note: Examining the first few terms may or may not be enough to determine the answer.]
Consider the sequence defined by
sn + 6
sn+1 =
for a;; n 1, and s1 = 1.
4
Use mathematical induction to prove that sn is (a) increasing, and (b) bounded above by 10. Deduce
that it converges and find its limit.
Find the sums of the following infinite geometric series:
1
X 1 ✓ ◆n
X 1
X
4 4 n
n
, , e
n=1
3 n=1
3 n=1

m
Express the number 0.5757575757... as the quotient of two positive integers, by treating it as the sum
n
S = 0.57 + 0.0057 + 0.000057 + ...

University Calculus II (University of Calgary) Winter 2018 11 / 11