systems from the external environment
Carcinoma
Carcinoma is a form of a common
cancer that derives from epithelial cells1,
which is either skin cells or the lining of
internal cavities, and these tumors spread
throughout the body. Carcinoma refers to a
1
malignant tumor that originated in the
epithelial layer and has invaded another part
of the body. There are many different forms
of carcinomas depending on the origin of the
tumor. Although all carcinomas start with
the damage or mutation of the DNA within a
single cell.
Epithelial Cell Layer
The epithelial cell layer consists of a
single cell layer of specialized cells. This
layer lines either the outside of the body
(skin) or the internal cavities (various organs
and digestive tract). The cells in the
epithelial layer originate from the ectodermf
of the embryo3. The role epithelial cells play
is essential to the human body. This layer
makes up a significant portion of the skin,
the lining of internal cavities, as well as
most of the tissue in organs themselves.
Some of the responsibilities the epithelial
cells have are to protect the body from
outside foreign objects. The epithelial layer
of the skin protects our internal organs and
alongside keeping our organs intact. The
epithelial layer also lines the internal
cavities which include the respiratory cycle
(nasal, mouth, throat, and lungs) as well as
our digestive tract (mouth, throat,
esophagus, stomach, and small/large
intestines)4. By lining the different tracts, the
epithelial cells can protect the organs from
any pathogens or harmful agents that are
exposed to the body through food or the air.
Epithelial cells have what are called
glandular structures that oversee secretion of
important hormones, mucosa, and enzymes1.
These secretions are responsible for various
tasks throughout the body, whether it be for
digestion, hormonal control, or absorption.
Filtration of the blood through the kidneys is
also performed by the epithelial cells.
Lastly, epithelial tissues contain sensory
receptors that can relay information to the
nervous system to be processed.
There are a couple different types of
epithelial cells including simple squamous,
simple cuboidal, simple columnar, stratified
squamous, pseudostratified columnar and
transitional. In the figure blow shows the
different morphologyi epithelial cells can
take on (Figure 1)2.

Figure 1. Different morphologies that correspond to the
location of epithelial cells.2
How carcinomas are formed/what
happens in the body
To most cancers there is a pathway
or process most of them follow. Usually,
carcinomas start off as a single epithelial
cell that either has damage to its DNA from
various sources or has an issue with the
regulation of cell function. If the DNA is
damaged within the cell this can cause
mutations in the morphology and function of
the epithelial cell. If there is a change in
regulation of how the cell functions this can
lead to the upregulation of cell proliferation,
causing a tumor.
Typically, the cell will go through
stages of abnormalities before becoming a
full-fledged tumor and cancer.
o Hyperplastic, meaning the cell will
have normal morphology and function but
there will be a plethora of cells. The root
word hyper- means to be “over” or “high”
and the suffix plastic- means “change”3. The
cell proliferation is uncontrolled in
hyperplastic epithelial cells causing an
abnormal tissue growth.
o Metaplastic phase, meta- meaning
“after or beyond”, where the cells still look
and act accordingly but will be overlapping
into an area, they do not belong3. These cells
still have the same function and shape as the
normal tissue cells but will be found in an
unusual location for that tissue type. This
starts to commonly occur at the transition
zones (one epithelial type meets another).
o Dysplastic, dys- root meaning
“ill/bad”, this is when the cell will have
abnormal morphology3. Dysplastic cells will
display an increase in nuclear staining, the
nuclear itself will have an abnormal shape
and size, mitotic activity will be increased,
and the cell will lack differentiating features.
o Neoplastic cells, neo- meaning
“new”, can be benign or malignant, at this
stage in the process the cell will start to
increase in size3. If the neoplastic cells are
benign the cells will not invade into the
stroma of the tissue. The benign neoplastic
cells still have an increased cell size but will
revert to the early stages of cell
differentiation. This stage makes the cell
more generic, and scientists have a hard time
figuring out what type of cell it was
originally. For malignant neoplastic cells
they will have both dedifferentiation and
increased cell growth along with the
invasive cell growth into the stroma.
o Metastatic cells are full blown
cancerous tumors, this is when cancer cells
will travel to distant sites either on the same
organ or a completely different part of the
body5. Once these cells become metastatic
the cancer is then termed to be malignant.
The cells must reach this stage for the tumor
to become cancerous. Once cells start to
invade into the stroma and be able to travel
to other sites within the body the tumor can
then be classified as a malignant carcinoma.
Causes/why does it occur
There are several causes for different
forms of carcinomas, and some cancers
researchers still don’t fully understand what
the direct cause may be. There are several
forms of cancer that scientists and doctors
till this day still have not discovered the
origin of the disease. Cancer cells make it
very hard for researchers to track down
where and what type of cell the cancer had
originated from. Although there is still hope
because some of the carcinomas do have
known causes. Carcinogens are substances,
or radiation that encourages the formation of
cancer. These carcinogens can alter the
gnome and/or the normal metabolic
processes within the cell, thus leading to
abnormal cells and cell growth.
Mutagens can potentially change the
genetic material by increasing the number of
mutations within the organism’s DNA6.
Most mutagens are a chemical agent that
enter the body and cause mutations, but
these mutations do not necessarily lead to
cancer.
Some say that environmental factors,
occupation, and life habits can also increase
the incident rate of cancer. Environmental
factors such as living close to a factory
where the air is polluted or the food that is
eaten in a specific area can be tainted can
lead to an increased incidence rate.
Occupations that involve high exposure risk
to chemicals, carcinogens and mutagens can
increase the risk of forming cancer. Along
with life habits such as smoking or diet can
lead to the increase in cancer formation6.
Definitions [e] glandular – regarding the glands

[a] proliferate – when cell division inside the epithelial layer

occurs and there is an increase in the number [f] ectoderm – this is the embryotic

of cells present2. stage of cells that will become the skin and

[b] benign – when a tumor is non- the nervous system

cancerous and does not invade into any [i] morphology – this is the size,

other parts of the tissue, but the tumor can shape and defining characteristics of cells

still grow in size [j] gastric – stomach

[c] malignant – when the tumor is [k] incidence rates – the rate at which

cancerous and will spread to other locations there are new cases of cancer

within the body [l] assays – a form of a test

[d] stroma – the deeper layer of the performed usually within the research field

skin, past the basal lamina (basement to determine contents and quality

membrane)

References

[1] Arce, L. (2021, August). The Nature of Cancer. Biology of Cancer. Fullerton; California

State University of Fullerton. 

[2] M, R. (n.d.). Epithelial tissue: Tissue Biology, human anatomy and physiology, anatomy and
physiology. Chegg. Retrieved September 21, 2021, from
https://www.chegg.com/flashcards/exam-3-eecf8ed0-1988-4494-8022-
84028c0b4661/deck. 

[3] Brooke. (2020, June 16). 120 root words, prefixes, and suffixes PDF list. Literacy In Focus.
Retrieved September 22, 2021, from https://www.litinfocus.com/120-root-words-prefixes-
and-suffixes-pdf-list/. 

[4] Weinberg, R. A. (2014). The Biology of Cancer (2nd ed.). Garland Science, Taylor & Francis
Group. 

[5] McDivitt RW, Stewart FW. Breast Carcinoma in Children. JAMA. 1966;195(5):388–390.

doi:10.1001/jama.1966.03100050096033

[6] PANTUCK, A. J., ZISMAN, A., & BELLDEGRUN, A. S. (2001). THE CHANGING
NATURAL HISTORY OF RENAL CELL CARCINOMA. The Journal of
Urology, 166(5), 1611–1623. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347(05)65640-6
[7] Kasper, Maria, et al. "Basal cell carcinoma--molecular biology and potential new thearapies."
Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 122, no. 2, Feb. 2012, pp. 455+. Gale In Context:
Opposing Viewpoints, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A279614989/OVIC?
u=csuf_main&sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=546ab028. Accessed 27 Sept. 2021.

[8] Infante M, Berghmans T, Heuvelmans MA, Hillerdal G, Oudkerk M. Slow-growing lung

cancer as an emerging entity: from screening to clinical management. Eur Respir J. 2013
Dec;42(6):1706-22. doi: 10.1183/09031936.00186212

[9] Maurie Markman. (2021, September 21). Adenocarcinoma - types and treatment options.
Cancer Treatment Centers of America. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from
https://www.cancercenter.com/adenocarcinoma. 

[10] Cancer disparities. National Cancer Institute. (17AD). Retrieved September 26,
2021, fromhttps://www.cancer.gov/about cancer/understanding/disparities. 

[11] NCI-designated Cancer Centers. National Cancer Institute (2019, June 24) Retrieved
September 25, 2021, from https://www.cancer.gov/research/infrastructure/cancer-cente