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Open-Ocean Barrier Islands: Global Influence of Climatic, Oceanographic, and

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 Journal of Coastal Research 27 2 207–222 West Palm Beach, Florida March 2011

Open-Ocean Barrier Islands: Global Influence of Climatic,

Oceanographic, and Depositional Settings
Matthew L. Stutz{ and Orrin H. Pilkey{
{
Meredith College {
Duke University www.cerf-jcr.org
Department of Chemistry, Physics, Box 90228
and Geoscience Division of Earth and Ocean Sciences
3800 Hillsborough Street Nicholas School of Environment and Earth
Raleigh, NC 27607, U.S.A. Sciences
stutzmat@meredith.edu Durham, NC 27708, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
STUTZ, M.L. and PILKEY, O.H., 2011. Open-ocean barrier islands: global influence of climatic, oceanographic, and
depositional settings. Journal of Coastal Research, 27(2), 207–222. West Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

A satellite-based inventory of barrier islands was used to study the influence of depositional setting, climate, and tide
regime on island distribution and morphology. The survey reveals 20,783 km of shoreline occupied by 2149 barrier
islands worldwide. Their distribution is strongly related to sea level history in addition to the influence of tectonic
setting. Rising sea level in the late Holocene (5000 YBP–present) is associated with greatest island abundance, especially
on North Atlantic and Arctic coastal plains. Stable or falling sea level in the same time frame, a pattern typical of the
Southern Hemisphere, is associated with a lower abundance of islands and a higher percentage of islands along deltas
rather than coastal plains. Both coastal plain and deltaic island morphology are sensitive to the wave–tide regime;
however, island length is 40% greater along coastal plains whereas inlet width is 40% greater on deltas. Island
morphology is also fundamentally affected by climate. Island lengths in the Arctic are on average (5 km) only half the
global average (10 km) because of the effect of sea ice on fetch and thus wave energy. Storm frequency in the high and
middle latitudes is suggested to result in shorter and narrower islands relative to those on swell-dominated low-latitude
coasts. The ratio of storm wave height to annual mean wave height is a good indicator of the degree of storm influence on
island evolution. The potential for significant climate and sea level change this century underscores the need to improve
understanding of the fundamental roles that these two factors have played historically in island evolution in order to
predict their future impacts on the islands.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Sea level rise, deltas, storms, climate, wave energy, morphology.

INTRODUCTION island chains. Among the criteria used to classify barrier

Numerous studies have summarized the global distribution
of barrier islands (Cromwell, 1971; Glaeser, 1978; Leontyev,
1965; Stutz and Pilkey, 2001; Zenkovitch, 1967). Each yielded
somewhat variable results depending on the database—
usually small-scale maps—and on the criteria applied to define
and identify barrier islands. Most studies have suggested that
close to 10% of the world’s open ocean coasts are lined with
barrier islands.
Previous studies without the benefit of publicly available
satellite imagery did not include important island chains. For
example, the longest chain of islands in the world—54 islands
totaling 571 km in length—is situated along the macrotidal
coast of equatorial Brazil on the fringe of a 25-km-wide
mangrove forest and was not previously recognized as a barrier
island coast.
Regional and global reviews of barrier island geology (Davis,
1994a; Leatherman, 1979; Schwartz, 1973) have highlighted
the unique morphologic character of individual islands and
DOI: 10.2112/09-1190.1 received 27 July 2009; accepted in revision 1
November 2009.
’ Coastal Education & Research Foundation 2011
islands have been climate (Hill et al., 1994; Martinez et al.,
1995), wave and tidal regime (Davis and Hayes, 1984; Hayes,
1979), depositional setting (i.e., deltas; Allen, 1965; Hayes and
Ruby, 1994; Penland, Suter, and Boyd, 1985), transgressive or
regressive stratigraphy (Oertel and Kraft, 1994), sediment
grain size (Carter and Orford, 1984), shoreface type (Riggs,
Cleary, and Snyder, 1995), and antecedent geology (Davis,
1994b; Hayes, 1994; Wiseman et al., 1973). It is evident that
local geologic inheritance greatly complicates attempts to
quantify the effects of coastal processes on barrier island
morphology.
Barrier islands, especially in the temperate zone, are under
tremendous development pressure, a rush to the oceanfront
that ironically is timed to a rising sea level and essentially
ubiquitous shoreline retreat problem. Geopolitically (Table 1),
the problem is particularly critical in the United States, which
with 405 islands has by far the largest number of any nation. In
terms of total length of barrier island shoreline, the United
States has approximately 24% of all islands, followed by Mexico
(11%), Russia (8%), and Australia (7%). Mozambique, Brazil,
and India have roughly 4% each, and Madagascar, Colombia,
and Nigeria each have 3% of the global length total of barrier
islands.
208 Stutz and Pilkey

Table 1. Geopolitical distribution of barrier islands showing total primary sources used to identify barrier islands were Earthsat
number of islands, percentage of the world’s total, and total length Geocover Landsat mosaics, topographic maps, and hydro-
in kilometers.
graphic maps. Full-resolution (30-m) satellite mosaics dis-
Continent Islands (n) % Total Length (km)
played at a scale of approximately 1:75,000, and map sources
varied from 1:24,000 to 1:250,000. Each island chain was
North America subtotal 663 30.9 7611
classified according to geologic setting, wave–tide regime, and
Arctic Ocean 272 12.7 1184
Atlantic Ocean 161 7.5 2287
climate (Table 2).
Gulf of Mexico 116 5.4 2398 The geologic (i.e., depositional) setting was categorized as
Pacific Ocean 114 5.3 1742 either coastal plain or delta (Figure 1). Coastal plain islands as
Asia subtotal 530 24.7 4475 defined in this study as islands built across the mouths of
Arctic Ocean 203 9.4 1441 flooded river valleys, usually on broad coastal plains. The
Indian Ocean 159 7.4 1648 islands consist of sediment eroded or transported from the
Pacific Ocean 130 6.0 1124 continental shelf or subaerial headlands, whereas modern
Persian Gulf 34 1.6 230
fluvial sediment is sequestered in estuaries. The origin of the
Red Sea 4 0.2 32
eroded sediment is highly variable, including but not limited to
Africa subtotal 354 16.5 3527
Pleistocene beach and barrier island deposits (e.g., Sea Islands,
Indian Ocean 259 12.1 1631
Georgia), glacial deposits (e.g., Long Island, New York),
Atlantic Ocean 74 3.4 1587
Mediterranean Sea 21 1.0 309 thermokarst topography (e.g., Beaufort Sea, Canada), and
shelf carbonate sediment (e.g., Abu Dhabi, United Arab
Australia subtotal 253 11.8 1726
Emirates).
Indian Ocean 127 5.9 824
Pacific Ocean 75 3.5 575 Deltaic islands consist of fluvial sediments delivered directly
Indonesia/Papua New Guinea 44 2.0 248 to active and recently abandoned deltaic lobes. Examples of
Southern Ocean 6 0.3 55 previously studied deltaic barrier island systems include the
New Zealand 1 0.1 24
Mississippi (Penland, Suter, and Boyd, 1985), Niger (Allen,
South America subtotal 196 9.1 2039 1965), Copper (Hayes and Ruby, 1994), and Indus deltas (Wells
Pacific Ocean 114 5.3 982 and Coleman, 1984). Overall deltaic morphology and barrier
Atlantic Ocean 72 3.4 898
island morphology on deltas is highly variable (Stutz and
Caribbean Sea 10 0.5 159
Pilkey, 2002) as a function of fluvial, wave, tidal, and sediment
Europe subtotal 153 7.1 1405
variability (Galloway, 1975). Ambiguities arise in this classi-
Mediterranean Sea 71 3.3 391
fication where fluvial sediment is dispersed alongshore beyond
Atlantic Ocean 33 1.5 292
North Sea 31 1.4 472 the boundaries of the delta plain. In such cases, islands that
Black Sea 12 0.6 202 extend downdrift from the delta plain are counted as deltaic
Baltic Sea 6 0.3 48 islands if there is no break in the island chain.
WORLD TOTAL 2149 100.0 20,783 The mean annual wave height for each island was calculated
from the average of 12 monthly means contained in the Marine
Climatic Atlas of the World (U.S. Navy, 1995). Mean tidal
METHODS amplitude was obtained from global tide tables (National
Ocean Service, 1999). The wave–tide regime was determined
A new global survey of barrier islands was conducted with by plotting the mean annual wave height and mean tidal
the Earthsat Geocover Landsat mosaic combined with a large amplitude on a classification chart (Figure 2) based on
number of topographic and navigational charts. The Earthsat Fitzgerald and Van Heteren (1999). Four classes are used in
data (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1999) this study: wave dominated, mixed energy wave dominated,
form a powerful new dataset that allows improved recognition mixed energy tide dominated, and tide dominated.
of barrier islands and more accurate assessment of their The annual maximum wave height was also calculated by
morphologic characteristics. Google Earth arrived toward the adding two standard deviations to the highest of the 12
end of the study and was used to verify and amplify some of the monthly mean wave heights. The maximum wave height was
observations. The global survey provides the basis for an not used to determine the wave–tide regime; however, it was
analysis of islands according to climate, wave–tide regime, and used as a climatic parameter as a proxy for storminess.
geologic settings (Table 2). These factors were chosen because The climate classification was based on a composite map of
they are easily recognized and vary globally. Specific geologic coastal zonality (Kelletat, 1995) using the following five
data, such as sediment grain size or stratigraphy, are simply categories: arctic, temperate, arid, subtropical (alternate wet
unknown for most barrier islands and cannot be adequately and dry seasons), and tropical (wet).
evaluated. The distribution, morphology, and evolution of The morphology of islands was measured on topographic
islands are considered within this framework. maps, navigation charts, and satellite images. Island length
Barrier islands identified in this study fit the criteria was measured as the true shoreline length with a planimeter.
suggested by Oertel (1985) that have lagoon, tidal inlet, Island width and lagoon width were calculated as the average
shoreface, and mainland elements in association with the of at least three evenly spaced transects, not exceeding 2 km
island. Bay mouth barriers (Roy et al., 1994) were not included, between transects. Inlet width was measured at the narrowest
and spits were included only if adjacent to an island. The portion of the channel throat perpendicular to the channel axis.

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

 Global Barrier Island Distribution and Morphology 209

Table 2. Geology, climate, and wave–tide regime of prominent barrier island chains shown on the map in Figure 2.

Chain Location Geology Climate Wave–Tide Regime

Mississippi Delta, LA USA Delta Temperate Wave dominated

Lena Delta RUS Delta Arctic Wave dominated
Nile Delta EGY Delta Desert Wave dominated
Indus Delta PAK–IND Delta Desert Mixed wave dominated
Zambezi Delta MOZ Delta Subtropical Mixed tide dominated
Niger Delta NGA Delta Tropical Mixed wave dominated
San Juan Delta COL Delta Tropical Mixed tide dominated
Gurupi Delta BRA Delta Tropical Tide dominated
Mekong Delta VNM Delta Tropical Mixed tide dominated
Outer Banks, NC USA Coastal plain Temperate Wave dominated
Padre Island, TX USA Coastal plain Temperate/desert Wave dominated
Venice ITA Coastal plain Temperate Wave dominated
Frisian Islands NLD–DEU Coastal plain Temperate Mixed wave/tide dominated
Sea Islands, GA USA Coastal plain Temperate Mixed wave dominated
North Slope, AK USA Coastal plain Arctic Wave dominated
Shishmaref, AK USA Coastal plain Arctic Wave dominated
Baja Peninsula MEX Coastal plain Desert Wave dominated
Abu Dhabi ARE Coastal plain Desert Mixed wave dominated
Bazaruto MOZ Coastal plain Subtropical Wave dominated
Yucatan Peninsula MEX Coastal plain Subtropical Wave dominated
Fraser Island AUS Coastal plain Subtropical Wave dominated
Gulf of Carpentaria AUS Coastal plain Subtropical Wave dominated
West Florida USA Coastal plain Subtropical Mixed wave dominated
West Madagascar MDG Coastal plain Subtropical Mixed tide dominated
West Africa NGA–GHA Coastal plain Tropical Wave dominated

ARE 5 Argentina, AUS 5 Australia, BRA 5 Brazil, COL 5 Columbia, EGY 5 Egypt, ITA 5 Italy, MDG 5 Madagascar, MEX 5 Mexico, MOZ 5 Mozambique,
NGA 5 Nigeria, NGA–GHA 5 Nigeria–Ghana, NLD–DEU 5 the Netherlands–Germany, PAK–IND 5 Pakistan–India, RUS 5 Russia, USA 5 United States,
VNM 5 Vietnam.

RESULTS
The Global Distribution of Barrier Islands
Based on the selected criteria (Oertel, 1985), we can
recognize 2149 individual barrier islands totaling 20,783 km
in length (Figure 3), revising an earlier estimate by Stutz and
Pilkey (2001) of 1492 islands totaling 15,100 km. The revision
was possible due to a subsequent expansion of the Earthsat
Geocover database of Landsat mosaics. Most of the islands
added to the revised estimate are not part of ‘‘major’’ island
chains but nonetheless have a large cumulative impact on the
total. The new total represents about 10% of all continental
shorelines (210,000 km) or 6% of the combined coastline of
continents and large islands (346,000 km) as reported by
Inman and Nordstrom (1971).
Table 3 summarizes island distribution according to tectonic
setting, depositional setting, climate, and wave–tide regime. Of
the total, 68% barrier islands occur on coastal plains vs. 32%
along the rims of deltas. Of the islands, 39% are wave
dominated, 49% are mixed energy (wave or tide dominated),
and only 12% are tide dominated. The distribution according to
climate is 23% arctic, 23% temperate, 10% desert, 30%
subtropical, and 14% tropical.
Glaeser (1978) demonstrated the strong tendency for barrier
islands to be located on tectonically stable, trailing edge
continental margins as defined by Inman and Nordstrom
(1971). These margins are typically characterized by wide, low-
relief coastal plains with shallow embayed estuaries. Glaeser
(1978) reported 49% of barrier islands along trailing edge
margins, 24% on collisional margins, and 27% along marginal
seas. Our results (Table 3) indicate 63% of barrier islands are
on trailing edge margins, 16% on collisional margins, and 21%
in marginal seas.
The proportion of coastal plain to deltaic islands varies
significantly from region to region. Coastal plain islands make
up 73% of the total on trailing margins and marginal seas. Of
barrier islands on collisional margins, 58% are deltaic islands
because deltas provide the low gradient that supports island
formation along with abundant sediment. Coastal plain islands
are clearly most abundant along the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico,
and Arctic coasts of North America and Eurasia, where 95% of
all barrier islands are found on coastal plains. These temperate
and Arctic barrier island systems also represent 40% of all
islands worldwide. Coastal plain islands make up a lesser
proportion in subtropical, tropical, and desert climates,
ranging between 40 and 70% of the total.
Seventy-four percent of barrier islands are found in the
Northern Hemisphere (Table 4). The greater number of islands
in the Northern Hemisphere is expected since approximately
70% of the world’s coastline, excluding Antarctica, is north of
the equator. However, interesting differences exist between the
environmental distribution of Northern and that of Southern
Hemisphere islands (Table 4). One striking difference is the
climatic distribution. In the Northern Hemisphere, 61% of
islands lie in temperate or arctic zones compared to just 2% in
the Southern Hemisphere, where 96% of islands are either
tropical or subtropical. A second major difference lies in the
wave and tidal regimes. In the Northern Hemisphere, 51%
islands are wave dominated compared to just 5% of Southern
Hemisphere islands, another likely reflection of the latitudinal
distribution of landmasses.

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

210 Stutz and Pilkey

Figure 1. The Outer Banks, North Carolina (A), and Malpeque, Prince Edward Island (B), are excellent examples of coastal plain barrier island systems.
The mainland rivers empty their discharge and sediment into the broad bays. The Mississippi Delta (C) and Niger Delta (D) provide classic examples of
deltaic barrier islands. The islands are located along abandoned (Mississippi) or active (Niger) depositional lobes. (Earthsat Geocover, 2000.)

Geologic Influence on Island Morphology
A global comparison of the average morphologic parameters
for coastal plain and deltaic island systems reveals fundamen-
tal differences between these two settings. Coastal plain
islands are on average 40% longer than deltaic islands (9.8
vs. 6.9 km) whereas inlets are 40% narrower (0.9 vs. 1.4 km).
The tendency for longer islands and narrower inlets in coastal
plain systems is consistent relative to each of the four wave–
tide regimes. The average width of coastal plain islands is also
significantly larger (0.8 km) than the average width of deltaic
islands (0.5 km), whereas lagoon widths of coastal plain islands
are much narrower (2.6 vs. 4.3 km).
The large difference between the mean attributes of coastal
plain and those of deltaic barrier islands can be attributed to
differences in the fundamental dynamic processes in the two
environments. Deltaic inlets generally must accommodate the
tidal prism in addition to river discharge, possibly a factor
resulting in larger inlets. Lagoon width on deltas is likely
larger due to the presence of wide, low-relief deltaic plains.
Subsidence of deltas causes progressive lagoonal expansion on
Mississippi Delta barrier islands (Penland, Suter, and Boyd,
1985). The size of coastal plain lagoons can be highly variable
and is often influenced by inherited geologic factors. Inheri-
tance is illustrated well in North Carolina, where Pleistocene
barrier islands control the lagoon width (Riggs, Cleary, and
Snyder, 1995). The Outer Banks island system in northern
North Carolina is separated from the Pleistocene shoreline by
the immense Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds, up to 100 km
wide. The islands south of Cape Lookout, North Carolina, are
separated by no more than a few kilometers from the relict
Pleistocene shoreline. The greater lagoon width on deltas also
contributes to a larger tidal prism for equal tidal amplitude,
favoring larger or more numerous inlets. Island lengths on
deltas are constrained by the spacing of distributary channels,
which generally results in shorter islands. Distributary

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

 Global Barrier Island Distribution and Morphology 211

Table 3. Barrier island distribution by tectonic, depositional, climatic,

and oceanographic setting.

Geographic Setting Islands (n) Islands (%) Length (km)

Hemisphere
Northern 1596 74 16,472
Southern 553 26 4312
Tectonic setting
Trailing 1354 63 12,378
Marginal 455 21 5210
Collisional 340 16 3196
Depositional setting
Coastal plain 1464 68 15,043
Delta 685 32 5740
Climate
Arctic 468 22 2819
Temperate 521 24 5980
Desert 216 10 2552
Subtropical 639 30 6217
Tropical 305 14 3216
Wave–tide regime
Wave dominated 843 39 10,395
Figure 2. A graphic plot of mean annual wave height and mean tidal
Mixed wave dominated 411 19 3697
amplitude used to classify the wave–tide regime of a barrier island chain,
Mixed tide dominated 642 30 5176
showing examples cited in the text. (Modified from Davis and Hayes, 1984;
Tide dominated 253 12 1515
Fitzgerald and Van Heteren, 1999.)

Our data quantify the expected relationship that islands

channel abandonment may eventually lead to a breakup of
adjacent barrier islands, which again results in short, narrow
islands such as those on the Mississippi Delta (Penland, Suter,
and Boyd, 1985).
Influence of Wave–Tide Regime on Island Morphology
The wave–tide regime was determined by estimating the
mean annual wave height and the mean tidal amplitude
(Hayes, 1979). This is one of the most widely recognized and
most successfully employed classification systems of barrier
island morphology. Its flexibility has allowed subsequent
additions and modifications of its original form (e.g., Davis
and Hayes, 1984; Fitzgerald et al., 1984; Fitzgerald and Van
Heteren, 1999).
tend to grow longer as the influence of waves relative to tides
increases. Originally proposed for coastal plain island systems,
it is a less robust classification system for deltaic island
systems. Table 5 shows that the length of wave-dominated
islands in coastal plain systems is much longer than the
average for tide-dominated islands: 13.8 km and 3.5 km,
respectively, and the length of deltaic islands exhibits much
smaller variability of 7.2 vs. 4.6 km, respectively.
Somewhat surprisingly, no significant increase in average
inlet width occurs with increasing tidal influence in coastal
plain systems. This is not the case for deltaic barrier island
systems, where inlet morphology appears to be highly sensitive
to the wave–tide regime (Table 5). The global average inlet
width ranges from 0.8 km for wave-dominated deltaic islands
(e.g., Nile Delta) to 2.5 km for tide-dominated deltaic islands
(e.g., Gurupi Islands, Brazil). The wave–tide regime thus seems
to primarily modify the length of islands in coastal plain
systems, whereas it is more likely to modify the inlet size in
deltaic systems.
The barrier–inlet ratio (Fitzgerald and Van Heteren, 1999) is
sensitive to the wave tide regime for both coastal plain and
deltaic islands. The average barrier–inlet ratios for wave-
dominated islands are 53.8 and 29.8 in coastal plain and deltaic
islands, respectively, and for tide-dominated islands they are
11.4 and 2.9, respectively. In both cases, the increasing
importance of waves relative to tides is manifest as a significant
increase in the barrier–inlet ratio.

Influence of Climate on Island Morphology

Figure 3. Global distribution of significant barrier island chains. Table 6 shows the numbers and lengths of barrier islands in
Extensive chains not included in previous distribution surveys are found
in Brazil, Madagascar, and Australia.
various climatic zones as defined by Kelletat (1995). Climate
affects islands in a number of important ways, including storm

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

212 Stutz and Pilkey

Table 4. Barrier island distribution in the northern (N) and southern Table 5. Coastal plain and deltaic island morphology as a function of
(S) hemispheres. wave–tide regime.

Geographic Setting N Hemisphere (%) S Hemisphere (%) Mean Island Length (km) Mean Inlet Width (km)

Tectonic setting Wave–Tide Regime Coastal Plain Delta Coastal Plain Delta
Trailing 56 84 Wave dominated 13.8 7.2 0.9 0.8
Marginal 23 15 Mixed wave
Collisional 21 1 dominated 8.4 7.9 0.9 1.0
Total 100 100 Mixed tide dominated 7.3 6.6 1.0 1.8
Depositional setting Tide dominated 3.5 4.6 0.7 2.5
Coastal plain 70 62 Average 9.8 6.9 0.9 1.4
Delta 30 38
Total 100 100 (Figure 7) are probably responsible for reducing both the
Climate
penetration and the volume of overwash and aeolian sands
Arctic 30 0
Temperate 32 2
(Allen, 1965; Martinez et al., 1995).
Desert 13 1
Subtropical 11 82 DISCUSSION
Tropical 14 15
Total 100 100
Barrier Island Formation and Evolution
Wave–tide regime
Barrier islands are generally acknowledged to form along
Wave dominated 51 5
Mixed wave dominated 19 18
shorelines having a low gradient, available sediment, and
Mixed tide dominated 23 50 energetic sediment transport. Along with sea level fluctua-
Tide dominated 7 27 tions, these factors control the morphology and evolution of the
Total 100 100 islands (Woodroffe, 2003). We briefly discuss the roles of these
factors in light of the distribution and morphologic data
compiled in this study.
frequency and influence of vegetation. Perhaps the most critical
is the control by sea ice of the summer fetch on Arctic islands Gradient
that make up 23% of the total global island number. Winter
freeze-up makes the islands impervious to winter storms (Hill et Barrier islands occur most abundantly on low-gradient
al., 1994). In addition, permafrost is believed to act as a form of coasts because they may easily straighten the shoreline across
shoreline armoring. The observed increased seasonal melting of shallow embayments. Globally, the largest influence on coastal
permafrost may be adding significantly to Arctic barrier island gradient is the tectonic setting. Of all barrier islands, 63% are
retreat. Arctic islands are less than half the average length of on tectonically trailing continental margins vs. 16% on leading-
islands in any other climatic setting (Figure 4). edge continental margins and 21% along marginal sea coasts.
Desert and subtropical barrier islands may have beachrock The lower gradients on trailing margins offer more numerous
holding shorelines in place, preventing or slowing migration shallow embayments for barrier island formation. Seventy-six
and hence allowing extensive accumulations of dune and percent of barrier islands on trailing edges are classified as
perhaps overwash sand on an island. The Abu Dhabi desert coastal plain islands. On steeper leading-edge margins, island
islands in the Persian Gulf (Figure 5A) are lined with formation would require a greater volume of sediment. Deltas
beachrock, producing an unusual sharply angular outline of thus provide the site for 58% of islands on leading-edge coasts
because they create both the necessary gentle gradient and the
the islands (Pilkey, 2003). In addition, the warm saline waters
sediment volume. Where local tectonics causes subsidence on
of the Persian Gulf favor oolite production in the shallow wave-
these active margins, e.g., in Colombia, barrier islands can be
agitated waters of the ebb tidal deltas—the primary source of
particularly abundant (Martinez et al., 1995).
sediment for the Abu Dhabi islands (Purser and Evans, 1973).
Bazaruto Island, Mozambique (Figure 5B), has extensive
Sea Level History
beachrock representing at least two earlier sea level cycles,
as well as widespread aeolianite cementing the frontal dunes McGee (1890), Leontyev (1965), Hoyt (1967), and Swift
(Cooper and Pilkey, 2002). The large unvegetated sand sheet (1975) each recognized sea level rise as a fundamental reason
visible on the image Bazaruto, more than 100 m high, for the formation and present existence of Holocene barrier
represents a new modern phase of dune building. Lack of islands. Sea level rise creates embayed coasts that may be
vegetation is characteristic of desert islands such as the Baja straightened out by barrier island construction, as first
Peninsula, Mexico (Figure 6A). Hot dry islands such as envisioned by Gilbert (1885). Embayments can be produced
southern Padre Island, Texas, are also favorable environments by drowning fluvial valleys (e.g., eastern North America),
for the development of backbarrier aeolian tidal flats in thermokarst topography (e.g., North Slope, Alaska), or lime-
hypersaline lagoons (Morton, 1994; Figure 6B). These tidal stone karst topography (e.g., Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico).
flats widen the barrier island by aeolian transport, and they Embayments are abundant on deltaic coasts (e.g., Mississippi
remain unvegetated by salt marsh or mangroves due to the Delta) adjacent to depositional lobes. If an embayment is
high salinity in Laguna Madre. Rainforests on tropical islands sufficiently shallow and the sediment supply is large enough,

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

 Global Barrier Island Distribution and Morphology
Table 6. Variability of wave-dominated island length vs. climate.
Mean Island Length (km)
Climate All Islands Wave Dominated
Arctic 5.5 5.0
Temperate 10.9 13.1
Desert 12.2 17.5
Subtropical 8.9 22.0
Tropical 9.5 15.8
barriers can develop across the mouth. Deeper embayments
such as fjords will rarely be closed by a barrier because it would
require too much sediment. The size of a bay, along with tidal
amplitude and river discharge, determine its tidal prism (Davis
and Hayes, 1984). Relatively large tidal prisms result in
numerous inlets and barrier islands, although islands are
usually absent where tidal amplitude exceeds 4 m (Hayes,
1979). Small tidal prisms promote formation of closed bay
mouth barriers or barrier spits (e.g., Eastern Australia).
The sea level history subsequent to barrier island formation
will determine its chances for long-term survival. Extremely
rapid increases in sea level, particularly when coupled with a
reduction of sediment supply, may lead to island breakup or in-
place drowning, which has been observed in recent decades in
eastern Canada (Carter et al., 1987), the Mississippi Delta
(Penland, Suter, and Boyd, 1985), and northern Alaska (Ruz,
Hequette, and Hill, 1992; Wiseman et al., 1973).
Falling sea level diminishes the tidal prism and therefore
may reduce the size and number of tidal inlets in a barrier
island system. Tidal prism will further decrease due to fluvial
and lagoonal sedimentation, even during a sea level stillstand
(Woodroffe, 2003). Many examples of closed lagoons and
estuaries have been noted in Australia and South Africa
(Cooper, 1994; Roy et al., 1994). Sea level data from these
regions also indicate stillstand or falling sea level conditions for
the late Holocene (Thom and Roy, 1985). Extensive investiga-
tion of the Patos Lagoon in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, has
shown that numerous tidal inlets existed when sea level stood
approximately 1.5 m higher than present (Martin, Dominguez,
and Bittencourt, 2003). Today there is a single artificially
maintained opening to the lagoon.
A gradual, continuous sea level rise thus provides the most
favorable conditions to achieve and maintain a steady-state
tidal prism and tidal inlets in a barrier island system, but such
conditions have not prevailed globally during the late Holo-
cene. Eustatic sea level rise occurred rapidly worldwide in the
early Holocene and slowed in the mid-Holocene between 7000
and 5000 BP (Woodroffe, 2003). Many modern barrier island
systems initially formed at this time as sea level rise slowed
and approached present-day sea level. Eustatic sea level has
changed little during the late Holocene; however, relative sea
level change has varied regionally due to the influence of
vertical tectonic and glacio- and hydroisostatic crustal move-
ment, as well dynamic redistribution of oceanic water mass
(Woodroffe, 2003).
Four regional patterns of late Holocene relative sea level
change are shown in Figure 8, which are most strongly
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011
213
Figure 4. Islands along the Beaufort Sea coast in Alaska are extremely
short and narrow—those seen here are just a few hundred meters wide.
Notice the wide inlets between islands, a function of little longshore
transport. The recurved spits at the western end of these islands reveal
that they are migrating westward by cannibalizing the eastern end.
Erosion of the Arctic coastal plain into thermokarst lakes, which form
when permafrost collapses, leads to the highly jagged mainland shoreline.
(Earthsat Geocover, 2000.)
influenced by proximity to the most recent Pleistocene ice
sheets (Pirazzoli, 1991; Woodroffe, 2003). Zones 2 and 3—which
include the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf coasts; the Alaskan,
Canadian, and Russian Arctic coasts; and the European
Atlantic coast (excluding Scandinavia)—have experienced a
favorable, gradual sea level rise in the late Holocene (Figure 9).
This is partly due to isostatic subsidence of the crust near the
margins of the former Pleistocene ice sheets and partly due to
subsidence of the continental shelf as it has been immersed by a
sea level rise of more than 100 m during the Holocene
(Woodroffe, 2003).
The areas noted previously hold 40% of the world’s barrier
islands, of which an overwhelming 95% are classified as coastal
plain types. Along all other coasts, barrier islands are almost
equally divided between coastal plains and deltas, with coastal
plain islands locally ranging from 40 to 70%. The distributional
pattern indicates that coasts with both a favorable tectonic
setting and a sea level history produce the greatest numbers of
barrier islands. Deltaic subsidence may improve the chances of
barrier island formation in areas where either the gradient or
the sea level trend is less favorable, accounting for the increase
in the number and percentage of deltaic islands elsewhere.
The scarcity of wave-dominated barrier islands in the
Southern Hemisphere (2 vs. 51% in the Northern Hemisphere)
may also reflect the region’s sea level history. As falling sea
level in the late Holocene has reduced tidal prisms, tidal inlets
in the lowest tidal regime would be most prone to closure and
those in higher tidal regimes may persist longer. Therefore, it
may be possible that mixed-energy and tide-dominated barrier
islands have survived during the Holocene but wave-dominat-
ed islands have not.
214
Figure 5. (A) In the Persian Gulf, the shoreline is pinned by underlying relict limestone. (B) Beachrock has formed a fixed headland on Bazaruto Island in
Mozambique. (Google Earth, 2006.)
Wave Energy
Because beaches and barrier islands are wave-constructed
features, wave energy plays a critical role in barrier island
formation and evolution. Clearly, the most extensive barrier
island chains are formed along well-exposed ocean coasts.
However, barrier islands can and do exist in quiescent
environments. Fetch-limited barrier islands (Pilkey, Cooper,
and Lewis, 2009), while not discussed or described in detail
here, are so ubiquitous globally as to require careful consider-
ation of the importance of wave energy in forming barrier
islands.
Fetch-limited islands in lagoons and bays (Figure 10) are
mostly less than 2 km long and 50 m wide, so they are clearly
different from open-ocean islands. Because barrier islands do
not form in all fetch-limited settings, factors other than wave
energy, particularly sediment availability, are necessary for
their development.
Most fetch-limited islands are rarely or never modified by
fair-weather conditions but evolve primarily during storms,
e.g., the islands in King Sound, Australia (Jennings and
Coventry, 1973). ‘‘Storm’’ conditions, however, may be much
less severe than on open coasts.
The limitation on barrier island formation is not necessarily
the prevalence of low-energy conditions but rather the
difference between normal low-energy conditions and storm
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011
Stutz and Pilkey
magnitude. In low-energy environments that are truly fetch
limited, storms provide enough energy to transport and deposit
sediment but they may only rarely reach the catastrophic level
that would destroy small incipient islands. In a more energetic
storm environment, small islands in equilibrium with lower-
energy conditions are not likely to persist.
A good example of an open-ocean low-energy coast is
Florida’s so-called zero-energy coast in the northeastern Gulf
of Mexico. The low wave energy is sometimes cited, along with
sparse sediment availability, as the reason for the absence of
barrier islands in that corner of Florida.
It is possible that storm conditions in the northeastern Gulf
affect the formation of barrier islands there. Sporadic sandy
beaches (i.e., potential barrier islands) do exist along some
portions of this region where sediment availability is sufficient.
Much like fetch-limited barrier islands, they are mostly
unaffected by fair-weather waves and probably owe their
existence to increased wave action during typical winter
storms. It would be highly unlikely for any islands of this size
to survive the impact of a Category 4 or 5 hurricane, which
would produce a storm surge of more than 6 m in the
northeastern Gulf of Mexico. In this respect, it is unlike
fetch-limited environments. Hurricane Katrina’s 7-m storm
surge destroyed extensive portions of the Chandeleur Islands
along the Mississippi Delta in 2005 (Figures 11C and D).
Another catastrophic event—the 2004 Asian tsunami—erased
 Global Barrier Island Distribution and Morphology 215

Figure 6. (A) Aeolian activity and sand sheets, such as these along the Baja Peninsula, Mexico, are typical in desert climates. (B) Padre Island, Texas, has
broad wind–tidal flats along the lagoonal margin. Construction of these flats is an island-widening process. The lack of salt marsh and mangroves on the tidal
flats is due to the high salinity of Laguna Madre. (Earthsat Geocover, 2000.)

Figure 8. Global Holocene sea level history generally follows four

Figure 7. Tropical barrier islands on the Pacific coast of Colombia are
vegetated by rainforest (light gray) and backed by the darker-appearing
dense mangrove forest. (Earthsat Geocover, 2000.)
patterns directly related to the location and melting of Pleistocene ice
sheets. Barrier islands are most abundant in zones 2 (ice margin) and 3
(intermediate), where relative sea level rise has occurred since mid-
Holocene time. Relative sea level has fallen rapidly in zone 1 (nearfield)
and slowly in zone 4 (farfield) for the last approximately 5000 years.
(Woodroffe, 2003, after Pirazzoli, 1991.)

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

216
Figure 9. Four generalized relative sea level curves corresponding to the
four regions shown in Figure 8. Barrier islands are most abundant in zones
2 and 3, where relative sea level rise has occurred since the mid-Holocene.
a number of narrow barrier islands in Banda Aceh, Indonesia
(Figures 11A and B). Only large, wide barrier islands could
withstand these types of events.
Low-energy, open-ocean barrier islands may be particularly
susceptible to a change in wave and storm climate brought on
by climate change. The Arctic is home to almost 25% of the
world’s barrier islands despite its limited fetch and low waves,
averaging less than 0.4 m annually and with no waves present
during the Arctic winter. The average length and width of
Arctic barrier islands exhibit a strong correlation to fetch and
wave height (Figure 12) and are overall much smaller than
islands in any other climate. In the Arctic, and in other low-
energy settings, barrier islands owe their small size to the
limited availability of wave energy to drive longshore and
cross-shore sediment transport. Since 1950, thinning sea ice
(Serreze et al., 2000) has increased the fetch along Arctic coasts
and is exposing Arctic islands to greater wave energy.
Furthermore, the fast-ice season between autumn and spring
has shortened by several weeks as freezing occurs later and
melting earlier. Thawing permafrost within islands also
contributes to island vulnerability in the Arctic. With ice loss
accelerating, it appears more likely that the entire Arctic
Ocean will be ice free in the summer well before the end of the
century, resulting in more open-ocean conditions throughout
the Arctic.
Today’s Arctic barrier islands are dramatically out of
equilibrium with an open-ocean wave climate. Recently
determined erosion rates in the Beaufort Sea average 2 m/y
(Reimnitz, Graves, and Barnes, 1988; Hequette and Ruz, 1991)
or roughly three to four times average erosion rates in the
continental United States. Further acceleration of these rates
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011
Stutz and Pilkey
Figure 10. Cedar Island, North Carolina, is located within Pamlico Sound
and is a fetch-limited island (Pilkey, Cooper, and Lewis, 2009). The
presence of the Outer Banks limits the fetch in Pamlico Sound. Cedar
Island faces northeast, the direction of greatest fetch and strong storm
winds. Winter storms and hurricanes tracking offshore can generate large
storm surges and waves, but wave activity is negligible in calm weather.
(Earthsat Geocover, 2000.)
resulting from a change in wave climate will possibly lead to the
rapid breakup of many islands. Sea level rise also has the
significant potential to increase the impact of storms globally.
The difference between ‘‘average’’ and ‘‘extreme’’ wave
conditions is significant across broad climatic boundaries.
Although the importance of storm impacts on barrier islands
is well known, storms are not factored into barrier island
classification systems.
The frequency of storms varies by latitude and climate. Due
to frequent storms, Arctic and many temperate coasts
experience a storm wave climate (Davies, 1980). Low-latitude
coasts experience few storms and a swell wave climate that is
consistent year-round.
One way to predict the relative importance of storms and
storm waves on barrier islands is to determine the ratio of the
maximum storm wave height relative to the mean height.
Arctic islands have storm–to–mean wave height ratios greater
than 5, temperate islands have ratios between 3 and 5, and
tropical islands have ratios of less than 3. These groups of
islands plot along different trajectories in Figure 13.
The ratios reveal that Arctic islands by far are the most storm
dominated—often the only sediment transport on Arctic
islands occurs during summer and autumn storms (Hill et al.,
1994). Thus, the features observed on those islands are
predominantly generated during storms. Tropical islands,
meanwhile, evolve primarily in response to fair-weather swells
and rarely experience storms. These islands should display few
storm-related features.
Evidence of overwash and inlet formation is abundant in
storm-dominated settings, particularly along microtidal or
wave-dominated coasts (Hayes, 1979). In the Arctic, a majority
of the islands are composed exclusively of overwash deposits.
Mixed-energy islands (Hayes, 1979) do not possess the same
 Global Barrier Island Distribution and Morphology 217

Figure 11. (A) Indonesian barrier islands near the city of Banda Aceh before the December 26, 2004, tsunami. (Earthsat Geocover, 2000.) (B) The barrier
islands were completely destroyed by the tsunami. (Google Earth, 2006.) (C) The Chandeleur Islands in Louisiana before Hurricane Katrina. (Earthsat
Geocover, 2000.) (D) Much of the island chain was destroyed by Katrina’s storm surge of more than 7 m. (Google Earth, 2006.)

abundance of storm-related features, both because storm surge
can be carried inland through existing tidal inlets rather than
across islands and because storm impacts are diminished
during low tidal stages.
Low-latitude barrier islands differ considerably from islands
in storm-prone higher latitudes. The near absence of storms
close to the equator means that low-latitude barrier islands
experience a swell-dominated wave climate (Davies, 1980).
Swell waves typically promote accretion and the development
of beach ridges, which are widely observed on low-latitude
barrier islands. Overwash is conversely a minor component of
most tropical barrier islands. Even on eroding tropical islands,
dense rainforest vegetation, as on Columbian (Martinez et al.,
1995) and Nigerian (Allen, 1965) islands, has the effect of both
stabilizing beach ridges rapidly and limiting overwash pene-
tration.
Storms might be expected to affect the length and width of
islands depending on their frequency and intensity. Island
length or inlet frequency can be a highly variable island
characteristic over brief periods on a decadal scale due to the
effects of storms. According to Mason and Jordan (1997), 18th-
and 19th-century explorers of the Bering Sea Alaskan shores
reported more numerous inlets than are present today. They
attribute the decrease in inlet frequency and the increase in
island length to a decrease in storminess. Also, historical charts
from the late 17th through the 20th centuries show that more
than 20 inlets have existed on the North Carolina Outer Banks
(long enough to be depicted on navigation charts) where only 1
inlet exists presently. Pilkey et al. (1998) suggest the large
number of inlets was a product of increased storminess in the
Little Ice Age.
A comparison of the average length and width of wave-
dominated islands shows that those in temperate and arctic
climates are significantly shorter and narrower than those in
subtropical and tropical climates (Table 6). Islands in arid
climates are also notably longer. One plausible explanation is

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

218
Figure 12. Arctic island morphology is highly sensitive to fetch controlled
by the proximity of sea ice offshore. The low-fetch Beaufort and Laptev
Seas have both the lowest wave heights and the shortest islands, whereas
the Chukchi, Kara, and Barents seas, with greater fetch, are more
energetic and have longer islands. These numbers are changing. (Note:
Each point represents the average length and wave height for an entire
island chain, plotted in relative geographic position from east to west. Not
to scale.)
the difference in storm impacts, leading to the differences of
morphologic features discussed earlier and especially the
differences in number of tidal inlets.
Interestingly, the wave-dominated islands compared here
may have a similar mean annual wave height and tidal
amplitude. Mean wave height is traditionally a strong
predictor of island morphology (Hayes, 1979); however, it
cannot be particularly meaningful to compare this parameter
between two islands in different climates. The original
suggestion by Hayes (1979) that it be applicable in a regional
context along temperate coastal plain barrier islands appears
to remain most appropriate.
Apparently there is no upper limit to wave energy conditions
for barrier island existence. Sandur barrier islands in South-
eastern Iceland (Nummedal, Hine, and Boothroyd, 1987) exist
under what is described as some of the highest known coastal
wave conditions.
Sediment Quantity and Quality
The unquantified term ‘‘sediment supply’’ is always rela-
tive—if a barrier island exists, there must be enough sediment
available to build one. The smaller size of barrier islands in
reduced energy settings such as the Arctic suggests that less
sediment is required under such conditions. All that is
necessary is that it be sufficiently sandy or gravelly to be
concentrated by waves.
Sediment Quantity. Present-day evolution of barrier islands
is heavily influenced by the reduction of sediment supplies
due to coastal engineering, dam construction, mining, and
various irrigation and navigation activities (Ericson et al.,
2006). Examples of island chains on major river deltas that
have been impacted by sediment cutoff include the Mis-
sissippi, Nile, and Niger rivers. In these examples, the
response of the barrier islands to reduced sediment supply
includes accelerated subsidence, rapid oceanfront erosion
(Nile and Niger deltas), and island migration and break up
(Mississippi Delta).
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011
Stutz and Pilkey
Figure 13. Storm and swell wave climates can be distinguished on a plot
of mean annual wave height vs. maximum wave height. Storm wave
climates have a larger maximum wave height (and hence ratio) for the
same mean wave height than swell wave climates. Storm-dominated Arctic
and temperate islands trend along the two more steeply sloping lines
(average ratios of 7.5 and 3.4, respectively). Swell-dominated tropical and
subtropical islands trend along the two more gently sloping lines (average
ratio of 2.9 for each).
Madagascar barrier islands are conversely experiencing a
massive spike in sediment supply resulting from widespread
deforestation and soil erosion. Abundant evidence points to
rapid delta and barrier island progradation on Madagascar’s
central west coast along Mozambique Channel. However,
island evolution is locally complex, as erosion appears to be
common adjacent to prograding islands.
Icelandic charts from the 1940s show a much greater
number of islands (i.e., more frequent inlets) along the
southeast sandur coast than are present today. This has
occurred as the glaciers that supply sediment to the sandur
have retreated substantially. Accelerated melting means more
runoff and an increase in sediment supply to the barrier
islands over this time frame. The sandur islands have
responded to the influx of sediment by migrating seaward
about 4 m/y (Pilkey, 2003), and some tidal inlets have
subsequently closed.
Sediment Quality. Barrier islands receiving a surplus of
sandy sediment may grow to considerable length and width
through the welding of new beach ridges to the existing islands
(Figure 14A). The Niger Delta islands are on average the
widest barrier islands (3 km) in the world as a result of their
extensive beach ridges (Allen, 1965). Other West African
islands, such as Sherbro Island, Sierra Leone, also exhibit
wide accumulations of beach ridges.
Barrier islands with a mud-rich sediment source, however,
tend to be narrow even if the overall supply is enormous. On the
Mekong Delta, new islands are repeatedly formed as the delta
builds seaward (Figure 14B). Because of a combination of a low
offshore gradient and an enormous volume of fine sediment,
mudflats typically accumulate in front of the sandy islands (Ta
et al., 2005). The mudflats pave the way for new islands to
‘‘step’’ seaward, converting the older islands into cheniers.
 Global Barrier Island Distribution and Morphology 219

Figure 14. (A) Barrier islands on the Niger Delta typically consist of wide sets of densely vegetated beach ridges (in light gray; mangroves are dark). The
delta progrades primarily by the seaward accretion of ridges on the existing barrier islands. Compared to the Mekong Delta, the continental shelf is steep and
narrow. (Earthsat Geocover, 2000.) (B) The Mekong Delta has grown seaward gradually through a series of leaps. The present shoreline is lined by low,
narrow barrier islands interrupted by major distributary channels. The modern islands are offset from a wide chenier plain, visible as bright subparallel
strips. Backbarrier deposition and mangrove development accompany the growth of new islands, while mud flats grow seaward of the islands on a wide,
shallow shelf. Note that mangroves are present only in the shelter of the active islands. (Google Earth, 2006.)

These islands tend to be less than 100 m wide because
progradation of mud is too rapid to allow concentration of a
large volume of sand. Other deltaic coasts with this pattern of
island formation include the Irrawaddy (Myanmar), Indus
(India and Pakistan), and Gurupi (Brazil; Souza Filho and
Cohen, 2003).
The pattern observed on deltas is also observed on nondeltaic
coastlines in Madagascar and in the Gulf of Carpentaria,
Australia, where mud is also abundant. Here, many islands
also grow laterally and gradually overlap the older islands
(Figure 15). In the Gulf of Carpentaria, a well-documented sea
level fall has probably also caused these islands to jump
seaward.
CONCLUSION
A New Classification of Barrier Islands?
A useful and efficient global classification of barrier islands
does not yet exist. However, global distribution and morpho-
logic patterns do emerge from a broad-based investigation. In
particular, the influence of sea level rise and storm impacts on
barrier island distribution and morphology can perhaps be
more appreciated than before.
It is clear that no simple hierarchical relationship exists
among the factors that influence barrier island distribution
and morphology. It is more apparent that any single factor may
be most influential in a given setting and more useful as a basis
for describing variability between islands. For example,
locations such as south Texas have extreme climatic gradients
but little change in the oceanographic regime. In other settings,
such as the Georgia Bight and German Bight, there are
substantial gradients in the wave–tide regime but little
climatic variability (Hayes, 1979).
Our examination of barrier island distribution shows that
whether barrier islands can exist or not exist in a particular
place is mostly determined by the history of tectonics and sea
level changes. As is true for most geologic processes, inheri-
tance plays a crucial role. Within these constraints, barrier
islands will form most preferentially along low-gradient coastal
plains under rising sea level, with deltaic island abundance
greatest along higher-gradient coasts experiencing falling sea
level. The varying roles of marine vs. fluvial processes on
coastal plains and deltas result in fundamentally different
island morphologies at the global scale. Islands will form
virtually anywhere if the sediment supply is favorable, even
given low energy levels. The greatest influence on sediment

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

220 Stutz and Pilkey

Figure 15. (A) Growth of new barrier islands parallel to and seaward of recent island complexes in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Queensland, Australia. Modern
islands developed as falling sea level and a flat inner shelf promoted the abandonment of existing islands. Each generation of islands is separated by a bright
white supratidal surface. (B) In Western Madagascar, parallel lines of lightly shaded islands and former islands are distinguishable from dark mangrove
vegetation. (Google Earth, 2006.) (C) The islands of northern Brazil near Rio Gurupi are short and crescent shaped and are situated at the tip of mangrove
covered peninsulas, somewhat like the islands of the Mekong Delta. Groups of relatively closely spaced islands are separated by large funnel-shaped river
mouths. Cheniers are commonly preserved within the mangrove forest. The tidal amplitude here is 4–7 m. (Earthsat Geocover, 2000.)

supply—both quantity and quality—is the climate (Milliman
and Meade, 1983). The relative roles of storms vs. swells can
determine the typical morphologic features present on islands,
and the dominant vegetation can significantly influence island
evolution. Within a given tectonic and climate setting, the
balance of wave and tidal energy can account for much of the
variability in island morphology and evolution, although more
clearly in coastal plain island systems.
There does not appear to be a clear prototype island for each
division and subdivision. However, the influence of the lowest-
level factors on barrier island evolution can be most accurately
analyzed when the higher-level factors are understood and
accounted for. The high-order factors of sea level and climate
are likely to experience dramatic change in this century,
signaling a potential large-scale response of barrier islands
worldwide. The most climatically sensitive barrier islands, in
the Arctic, will likely experience the most dramatic climate
change and the most severe impacts. The combined roles of
climate and sea level rise in barrier island evolution need to be
better understood in all regions to improve predictions about
the impacts of future sea level and climate change.
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Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2011

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