Figure 10.1a: Air sources and uses (schematic).

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aircraft systems.

Airconditioning

Pressurisation

Aerofoil and engine anti-icing

Air turbine motors

Engine starting
Hydraulic power
Thrust reverse

Hydraulic reservoir and potable water tank pressurisation

Cargo compartment heating

Figures 10.1a and 10.1b. Other sources of supply are engine driven

Some older turbo-propeller and piston engined aircraft use high pressure pneumatic systems

and hydraulic power has become the normal method of operation for these systems.

The engine bleed air system consists of the power source (the engine) and control devices for
temperature and pressure regulation during operation. Because of the great variation of air
output available from a gas turbine engine between idle and maximum rpm there is a need to
maintain a reasonable supply of air during low rpm as well as restricting excessive pressure when
the engine is at maximum rpm. It is usual to tap two pressure stages to maintain a reasonable
pressure band at all engine speeds.

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 Figure 10.1b: Air sources and uses (pictorial).

Figure 10.1a shows a typical bleed air system with air being ducted from two stages of the

used are the 5th and 9th. The two sources are combined together at the High Pressure Shut-

the engine speeds up the LP air pressure will increase until it closes the high pressure shut-

airconditioning is selected to minimise the possibility of a surge of air pressure. They are also

The bleed air control valve is the separation point between the engine and the pneumatic system
manifold and allows the bleed air to enter the pneumatic system and is controlled electrically

Most multi-engined aircraft also keep the supplying engines or sides separate with each engine
supplying its own user services. These are kept independent by isolation valves which are
normally closed but which may be opened if an engine supply is lost to feed the other side’s
services.

sensors both inside and outside the supply ducts.

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to over pressure or overheat.

close.

An electrical temperature switch downstream of the bleed air control valve will close
the valve if the temperature of the air reaches a predetermined level.

Both overheat and over pressure conditions will be indicated to the pilots by warning

and the isolation valve opened to restore the lost system.

Modern aircraft are pressurised for the following reasons.

avoid the worst of the weather conditions whilst maintaining cabin pressure at a
comfortable level.

Aircraft can achieve high rates of climb and descent with small corresponding rates of
cabin pressure changes

The requirements of an air-conditioning system as laid down in BCAR’s are described below.

not less than 0.5 lb following a failure of any part of the duplicated air-conditioning system

member”)

Temperature

relative humidity is only 1 to 2%).

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 Contamination

Adequate ventilation must be provided on the ground and during unpressurised phases of

The air-conditioning system must be duplicated to the extent that no single component failure
will cause the provision of fresh air to fall to rate which is lower than 0.5 lb per seat per minute.
An aircraft air conditioning system must be capable of maintaining an adequate supply of
air for ventilation and pressurisation at a temperature and relative humidity which ensures
comfortable conditions for both passengers and crew. These requirements are met as follows:

achieve cabin pressurisation when cruising at maximum operating altitude.

Temperature
The temperature of the air supply to the cabin is controlled by mixing hot and cold air in variable
proportions to maintain the cabin air temperature within prescribed limits.

Humidity

unit and the operating characteristics of the aircraft concerned.

atmospheric air is introduced to the cabin through forward facing air intakes. Some of this ram
air can be heated by exhaust or combustion heaters and then mixed with the cold ambient air in
varying proportions to give a comfortable cabin temperature. It is of extreme importance that

or the air used for combustion.

A typical system for a light aircraft is shown in Figure 10.2 which also features hot windscreen

close contact with the hot exhaust pipe to provide hot air for heating the cabin. Fresh cold air can
be allowed into the cabin through the ram air inlets on the wing leading edge. After use the air
is dumped overboard through a vent on the underside of the aircraft.

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Figure 10.2: Light aircraft hot and cold air system.

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 The fuel used in the heater is normally that which is used in the aircraft’s engines and the heater

supplied by a fan or blower and the fuel is supplied via a solenoid operated fuel valve. The fuel
valve is controlled by duct temperature sensors but can be manually overridden. The system
is designed so that there is no possibility of leaks from inside the chamber contaminating the
cabin air. In addition the system must be provided with a number of safety devices which must
include:

-
tion chamber.

Figure 10.3: A combustion heater.

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When a supply of air from the compressor of a gas turbine engine for air conditioning or

accessory gearbox or by turbo compressors driven by bleed air. Such systems were necessary
for piston engined and turbo-propeller aircraft and are used for some turbo-jet aircraft where
the air supply from the compressor is considered to be too dirty (contaminated).These blowers
may be of the centrifugal or positive displacement (Rootes) type.

conditions which means that at sea level with the engine running at high speed too high a mass

is wasteful and is avoided where possible by using variable speed drives.

choke valve which can be progressively closed to increase the temperature and pressure of the
air leaving the blower and opened to prevent excessive temperatures and pressures. The hot and
cold air supplies are mixed in varying proportions to maintain the delivery temperature
at a comfortable level for both passengers and crew. Selection and control may be automatic or
manual.

Figure 10.4

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 This the most widely used method of supplying charge air for the air conditioning systems of

A tapping is then taken from the duct to supply the air-conditioning system. This air is passed

supply is always at a higher temperature than that required for passenger comfort a means of
cooling this air is accomplished by the air conditioning pack.

This is the preferred system for most modern jet transport aircraft and uses the principles of
energy conversion and surface heat exchange for it’s operation. At the heart of the system is the

the brake- turbine and the turbo-fan.

This is the most popular air cycle system in current use being used where high pressure bleed
air is not available or its use is undesirable as in the case of aircraft using high by-pass ratio or
small turbo propeller engines. The low pressure bleed air (or air from a blower) is pre-cooled
in the primary heat exchanger and then has its pressure boosted by the compressor. This is
done in order to make the energy conversion (i.e heat and pressure to work) process across the

which serves to remove any excess temperature rise across the compressor.

The point to note is the pressure rise across the compressor which allows the use of much lower

on the ground or at low speed in the air a fan is provided to draw in air through the ram air

position or modulated automatically by signals from the temperature control system. This fan
may be electrically powered or be a third wheel of the cold air unit.

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 Figure 10.5: Typical bleed air (“bootstrap”) system.

Figure 10.6: Typical performance of a bootstrap system.

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 In this system the initial tapping pressure is higher and the charge air is supplied directly to the

ambient air and expels it through a restriction. This causes a back pressure on the compressor

removes the heat from the charge air. Some installations feed the output from the compressor

cool the charge air when the aircraft is on the ground.

Figure 10.7: Schematic brake turbine unit.

the primary heat exchanger so that the unit is not dependent on ram air for it’s operation and can
therefore be operated on the ground. The general design of the unit is such that it is extremely
light and compact. The delivery pressure (and therefore temperature) is higher and the turbine
speed must be higher to achieve the necessary pressure drop.

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These components operate on the principle of surface heat exchange and normally use ram air

reduce the charge air temperature below that of ambient hence the need for the cold air units.
It should be noted that in the vapour cycle system both the evaporator and condenser are also
heat exchangers but use a refrigerant for cooling the charge air and ram air for changing the
vaporised refrigerant back to its liquid state.

the secondary heat exchangers. It may be electrically driven or be powered by a third wheel on
the cold air unit.

excess water which condenses during the cooling process. This is a problem at low altitude
and when running the system on the ground during conditions of high humidity. A safety

water extractor icing up. In some installations a temperature sensor controls an anti-ice by-pass

separator to prevent icing.

Figure 10.8: Water separator.

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 In aircraft operating at high altitudes for long periods of time it may be necessary to increase
the moisture content of the conditioning air from the 1-2% relative humidity of the ambient air
to a more comfortable level to prevent physical discomfort arising from low relative humidity.

drinking water supply is used and the water is atomised by air from the air conditioning
supply.

The ram air valves (inlet and outlet doors) are opened and closed by the pack controller and
regulate the amount of air entering the ram air duct. This is done automatically as part of the

passes to the system irrespective of changes in the value of the pressure upstream and
downstream of the unit.

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The temperature of the air entering the cabin is usually achieved by mixing hot air with cooled

The simple non-automatic manual method consists of valves which are manually positioned to
regulate the temperature by mixing hot and cold air prior to it entering the cabin. Automatic

selected temperature with the temperature of the mixed air inlet to the cabin etc. Sensors in
the cabin and the supply ducts are compared electronically with the selected value and any

cooling components to obtain the correct temperature at the point of mixing. In manual control

H C

Figure 10.10

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 direct heat losses which in turn allows the entering air temperature to be closer to the cabin

heated air. The cold (conditioned) air is supplied to the passengers through the gasper air

misting purposes.

Figure 10.11: Cabin air distribution.

Gasper air is tapped from one of the zone supply ducts upstream of where trim air is added and
the gasper fan provides a positive supply of conditioned air to all zones through individually
controlled outlets (punkah louvres).

In order to avoid large temperature gradients between the extremities of the cabin it is often
necessary to divide the cabin into sections and deal with each as a separate distribution problem
(zone trim).

The temperature delivered by the packs is determined by the zone requiring the coolest air

packs. The pressure and quantity of trim air is dependent on inputs from cockpit and cabin
temperature control systems. The pressure of the trim air is controlled by pressure regulating
valves.

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These augment the air conditioning packs allowing the packs to be operated at a reduced
rate during the cruise which decreases engine bleed requirements and maintains a constant

of toilets and galleys is not re-circulated but is vented directly overboard by the pressurisation
discharge valves.

The vapour cycle air conditioning system is similar in operation to the domestic refrigerator or
the galley cart cooling system used on some large aircraft. Its use for aircraft is now generally
limited to small piston engined types.

A refrigerant is used to absorb heat from the charge air by changing its state from liquid to gas.
The heat is carried by the refrigerant to a condenser where it is given up to the atmosphere and
the refrigerant returns to its liquid state.

In the vapour cycle system the refrigerant alternates between the vapour and liquid phases. It is

at approx 3.5°C (38°F) at sea level atmospheric pressure. At higher pressures the boiling point
is increased and vice versa. Refrigerant at low pressure is drawn through the evaporator by
the compressor (which may be electrically or air driven). As it passes through the evaporator
the refrigerant changes state from liquid to gas absorbing heat from the cabin air supply and
therefore cooling the air as it does so.

The compressor raises the pressure and therefore the boiling point of the refrigerant before it
enters the condenser. The condenser is positioned so that cold ram air passes over it and the
refrigerant changes back to its liquid state giving up latent heat to the ram air. The pressurised
liquid then passes to the receiver which acts as a reservoir and then through an expansion valve
which reduces its pressure and boiling point before entering the evaporator to repeat the cycle.

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 CABIN AIR
HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID

HIGH PRESSURE VAPOUR

LOW PRESSURE LIQUID

LOW PRESSURE VAPOUR

EVAPORATOR

BLOWERS

EXPANSION VALVE

COMPRESSOR

CONDENSER RAM AIR RECEIVER-

DRYER

Figure 10.12: Vapour cycle (refrigeration system).

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