General Characteristics of Class Mammalia:

1. These animals are warm blooded, hairy and have mammary or milk producing glands, (mammary
glands). They are the only animals which nourish their young ones with milk. There are about 4,000
species of mammals found in the world.

2. They are warm blooded.

3. Oil glands (sebaceous glands) and sweat glands (sudoriferous glands) are present in the skin.

4. Teeth are of different types (heterodont) and are embedded in the sockets of jaws (the codont). These are
developed twice during the life-time of the animal (diphyodont), milk and permanent teeth.

5. Except a few, mammals possess seven cervical (neck) vertebrae.

6. The skull is dicondylic i.e., with two occipital condyles.

7. Respiration is by lungs.

8. They possess a muscular diaphragm dividing trunk into thorax and abdomen.

9. The coelom is divided into four cavities; a pericardial cavity lodging the heart, two pleural cavities each
containing the lung and an adominal cavity having the rest of viscera.

10. The heart is four chambered. Sinus venosus is absent. The red blood corpuscles are without nucleus.
Renal portal system is absent.

11. The brain has large cerebrum and cerebellum. Optic lobes are divided into four lobes called corpora
quadrigemina. Corpus callosum connects the two cerebral hemispheres internally.

12. 12 pairs of cranial nerves are present.

13. Each ear consists of three parts: external, middle and internal. Pinna is a part of external ear. Middle ear
has 3 bony ear ossicles (malleus— hammer shaped, incus-anvil shaped and stapes-stirrup shaped). Internal
ear has organ of Corti, the actual hearing organ.

14. Except egg laying mammals they are viviparous. There are present four embryonic membranes:
chorion, amnion, allantois and yolk sac. Except egg laying mammals a well developed placenta is present.

15. Mammals occur in all sorts of habitats. They are dominant animals and are capable to learn because of
their better developed brain.

1 RAMAN TIKORIA
 Affinities of mammals
Affinities with invertebrates

Similarities

• Members of kingdom animalia

• Many invertebrates have organ and organ-system level of organization

• Some arthrpodes have hemoglobin pigment in blood

• Some of the mammals and all invertebrates have Aquatic habitat

Differences

• Mammals have notochord

• Mammals breathe by lungs while invertebrates breathe by general body surface or trachea

• Dorsal nervous system in mammals

• Different embryonic development

• Relatively more complex body organization

• Affinities with fishes

Similarities

• Both are vertebrates

• Both have notochord

• Both have well developed dorsal nervous system

• Whale have close phylogenetic relationship with mammals.

Differences

• Mammals breathe air. Fish do not (except for a few species who can breathe air if necessary) — they
breathe water, extracting the oxygen from it.
• Mammals have hair. Fish have scales or scutes.
• Mammals feed their young with milk from their own bodies. Fish do not

2 RAMAN TIKORIA
• Mammals have limbs, fishes have fins
• Fish have 2 chambered heart, mammals have 4 chambered heart

Affinities with Amphibia

Similarities

• Same body plan

• Both have notochord

• Both require lungs to breathe

• Both require water to fulfill their basic needs of life

• Both are tetrapods

Differences

• Mammals have a skin that conserves water and do not need to stay moist, but amphibians must stay wet
because they do part of their breathing via the skin, and they cannot effectively hold water within their
body.

• Mammals are warm blooded with four chambered hearts, but amphibians are cold blooded and have
three chambered hearts.

• Amphibians lay eggs in water, (except some species of frog which give birth to live young, rather than
laying eggs, such as members of the African genus Nectophrynoides) but most mammals give birth to
live young (except a few that lay eggs on land)

• Amphibians go through metamorphosis, mammals do not. Mammals also have hair and produce milk
for their young

Affinities with reptiles

Similarities

• Same body plan

• Terrestrial habitat

• Both have notochord

• Some reptiles have 4 chambered heart

• Both require lungs to breathe

3 RAMAN TIKORIA
• Both have brain and nervous system

• Same eyes and sense organ

• Both are tetrapods

• Differences
Mammals have skins usually covered with hairs while reptiles have scaly skin
Mammals have oil and sweat glands on their body while reptiles do not have oil and sweat glands.
Mammals give births to young ones and feed them with their own milk(only females do so) while
reptiles do not give birth to their young ones instead of that they lay eggs
• Mammals can maintain their own body temperatures (they are warm blooded) while reptiles can't
maintain their own body temperature
Mammals require energy more than reptiles.
• Reptiles do not have mammary glands means that do not feed their babies with milk

Economic importance of mammals

Beneficial Mammals:

Domesticated Mammals:

Since the beginning of civilization, man has been domesticating various mammals for work, food and
clothing. Man would probably not be able to survive without mammals, particularly the domesticated
species. All the domesticated mammals provide meat and hides, some provide milk, wool and hair; others
serve for transport, draft or hunting

For food and other products- Cattle provide a large part of the leather used for clothing products such as
shoes, handbags and belts, as well as for upholstery. Wool has been used for centuries for clothing
including suits and tweed jackets as well as knitwear such as pullovers. The primary source of wool is
sheep, but goats provide angora and cashmere, and alpacas provide a luxurious fleece.

Meat- The domesticated mammals provide enormous quantities of various kinds of meat and meat
products. Large even-toed ungulates, such as cattle, buffaloes, pigs, goats, sheep, reindeer, etc., provide the
bulk of meat supply of the world
Milk- Cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, llamas, camels, reindeers, etc., provide milk which forms an
important product for human food. Ghee, butter, cheese and curd are prepared from milk

Commercial Products- Countless items of commercial value are produced by different products of
mammals like- hides, hair and wools, perfume, oil, fat, Ivory, Baleen, Glue and Gelatin

4 RAMAN TIKORIA
For work and transport-Working domestic animals including cattle and horses have been used for work
and transport from the origins of agriculture, their numbers declining with the arrival of mechanised
transport and agricultural machinery. Various mammals have been domesticated by man to serve as beasts
of burden for transport and draft of heavy loads. In the more progressive countries, they have been greatly
replaced by automotive vehicles.

In agriculture:

Bullocks, buffaloes, yak, horses and camels are employed for ploughing fields. They provide manure in the
form of dung and urine. The manure nitrifies soil and yield fuel biogas. Bone meal is prepared by crushing
bones of cattle, sheep and goats, etc., is a good fertilizer.

Some carnivorous predators, such as mongooses, prey upon rats and mice which are serious pests of crops.
Ant-eaters feed upon harmful insects.

As Pollinators:

Arboreal mammals such as bats, squirrels, monkeys, etc., visit one tree after another in search of fruits may
incidentally help in the pollination of flowers. In East Indies, bats are said to pollinate bananas.

Zoos:

Lions, tigers, horses, elephants and monkeys are generally employed in sports and circuses.

As Scavengers:

Hyaenas and jackals are of great utility as scavengers in nature. The common pig also clears away the
refuge in the Indian villages and towns.

In Recreation:

In amusement no animal is safe.

In science-Mammals serve a major role in science as experimental animals, both in fundamental biological
research, such as in genetics, and in the development of new medicines, which must be tested exhaustively
to demonstrate their safety. Millions of mammals, especially mice and rats, are used in experiments each
year. A knockout mouse is a genetically modified mouse with an inactivated gene, replaced or disrupted
with an artificial piece of DNA. They enable the study of sequenced genes whose functions are unknown.
A small percentage of the mammals are non-human primates, including the grivet, the rhesus macaque, and
the crab-eating macaque, which are used in research for their similarity to humans

As pets- Mammals are the most popular pets in the Western world, with the most kept species being dogs,
cats, and rabbits. For example, in America in 2012 there were some 78 million dogs, 86 million cats, and
3.5 million rabbits.

5 RAMAN TIKORIA
For sport

Mammals have been the subjects of art from the earliest times, both historical, as in Ancient Egypt, and
prehistoric, as in the cave paintings at Lascaux and other sites in the Dordogne, France and elsewhere.
Major animal paintings include Albrecht Dürer's The Rhinoceros, George Stubbs's horse portrait
Whistlejacket, Edwin Landseer's The Monarch of the Glen, and Henri Rousseau's tiger in an imaginary
landscape

In literature and film

Mammals from mice and foxes to elephants play a wide variety of roles in literature and media including
photography and film

As toys- may animals may be use as toys for kids

Medicine-pig pancreas is a source of insulin, sheep thyroid is a source of thyroxin use in hypertension

Cod liver is use for source of vitamin A and D. blood of animals is use in preparation of vaccine

Source of entertainment- bullfighting, dog fighting, circus animal, hunting are source of entertainment for
human

Source of shelter- fur are primarily used for fashion in the outer garments

Harmful Mammals:

1. Pests:

Many mammals act as pests. Most dangerous mammals to crops are the rodents. They destroy crops in
fields. They are harmful in houses and buildings also. They consume all kinds of food stuffs and destroy
property.

Rabbits, mice, wood chucks and some others forage in vegetable fields and gardens and gnaw at bark to
trees. Pocket gophers eats roots of plants, while squirrels damage grain and other crops. Besides, bigger
herbivorous ungulates such as deer, bear, boar, hippopotamus, elephant, kangaroo, etc., also damage and
eat up crops. Cats in kitchen forage on food besides rats.

2. Predators:

Several wild carnivorous or predatory mammals are constant menace to the lives of people and livestock.
Lions, tigers, wolves and bears prey at times on domestic cattle, sheep, hogs, poultry, etc. Wolves and
hyaenas sometimes attack sleeping persons. In tropical Africa, the sanguivorous vampire bats feed on
blood of various mammals, including man.

3. Disease Carriers:
6 RAMAN TIKORIA
Rodents are the worst carriers and distributors of the germs of certain diseases. Rats, mice, pigs, cats, dogs,
etc., transmit many diseases to humans such as bubonic plague, typhus, relapsing fever, spotted fever,
tularemia, trichinia, hydrophobia, etc.

4. Economic Importance of Rats:

Rats occur in almost all the terrestrial habitats that support life. They multiply rapidly and soon establish
their colony. Rats are omnivorous, feeding on seeds, fruits, grains, roots, insects, snails and invertebrate
and vertebrate bodies. They are mainly fossorial, nesting and living much of the time in burrows. They live
freely in competition with humans.

Damage caused by rats includes grazing of young trees, root destruction and seed eating. Generally rats
prefer very young plants having a high nutritional value than mature ones. These injured plants remain
weak and small. Various species of rats are distributed in different parts and cause damage to different
crops.

When the food is exhausted, a large number of rats die and enormous external parasites grow on their dead
bodies. Rice field rat, Rattus agriventor and other species of rat are serious pests of rice. They gnaw the
small plants and eat grain in fields.

In sugarcane fields, the populations of rats are established. They find suitable shelter and food in sugarcane
fields. Rats cause direct loss of cane by eating into internodes. This permits entry of harmful
microorganisms and cause physiological stress, which can reduce weight of sugar content. Rats also
damage the oil palm crop by eating upon their ripe oil bearing fruit lets and carrying them with them.

Unripe fruit lets are also gnawed by the rats Rattus rattus diandi, which is the commonest oil palm pest in
Malaysia. Rat species like Rattus praetor, Rattus exulans attack coconuts. Rats climb the palms of all ages
to feed on developing nuts when then fall prematurely. In some regions the loss due to coconut fall is up to
50%.

Rats also damage the crops of potato, groundnut, sweet potato, maize, casava and others to large extent. Up
to 16% of ripening pine apples are damaged by Bandicota bengalensis and Rattus rattus.

Rats as Carriers of Disease:

Some rodent species are reservoirs of a large number of infectious organisms of man. If these infectious
organisms are transmitted to human and domestic animal populations may cause outbreak of diseases often
leading to high mortality. Plague, rabies etc.

Rats as Food:

In India and Central Asian, African and some European countries some species of rats are used as food.
The rats, Ondalria zibethica is served as a delicacy in restaurants in Holland and Belgium. The cane rat,

7 RAMAN TIKORIA
 Jhryononys swinderianus forms an important constituent of the food of majority of the population in West
Africa.

Use of Rat Skin:

Skin of larger species of rats is tanned. It can be used in preparation of gloves, purses and other small
items. This helps in providing jobs to people and also controls the rat population

RAT
HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION

• The rat originated in India and Southeast Asia, and spread to the Near East and Egypt, and then throughout
the world. The black rat is again largely confined to warmer areas, having been supplanted by the brown rat
(Rattus in cooler regions and urban areas. In addition to the brown rat being larger and more aggressive,
the change from wooden structures and thatched roofs to bricked and tiled buildings favored the burrowing
brown rats over the arboreal black rats. In addition, brown rats eat a wider variety of foods, and are more
resistant to weather extremes.
• Black rat populations can explode under certain circumstances, perhaps having to do with the timing of the
fruiting of the bamboo plant, and cause devastation to the plantings of subsistence farmers; this
phenomenon is known as Mautam in parts of India.
• Black rats adapt to a wide range of habitats. In urban areas they are found around warehouses, residential
buildings, and other human settlements.
• They are also found in agricultural areas, such as in barns and crop fields. In urban areas, they prefer to live
in dry upper levels of buildings, so they are commonly found in wall cavities and false ceilings. In the wild,
black rats live in cliffs, rocks, the ground, and trees.
• They are great climbers and prefer to live in trees, such as pines and palm trees. Their nests are typically
spherical and made of shredded material, including sticks, leaves, other vegetation, and cloth. In the
absence of trees, they can burrow into the ground.
• Black rats are also found around fences, ponds, riverbanks, streams, and reservoir

8 RAMAN TIKORIA
Digestive System
The digestive system of Rat is constituted by the alimentary canal and the digestive glands

(i) Alimentary Canal:

It is a long tube starting from mouth to anus. But the tube is demarked into different regions. The function
of each region is different.

(a) Mouth:

The alimentary canal begins from the mouth. It is a transverse aperture and is guarded by two soft and
movable lips. The upper lip is provided with a cleft in the middle.

(b) Buccal cavity:

Mouth leads to the buccal cavity. The roof of the buccal cavity is formed by a palate. The anterior portion
of the palate is called hard palate. The palate separates the mouth cavity from the nasal passage. The floor
of the buccal cavity houses the tongue. The anterior end of the tongue is free and the posterior end is
attached with the floor.

The tongue is muscular and movable. The upper surface of the tongue is rough and contains numerous
papillae or taste buds. Both the jaws are provided with teeth. The teeth help in ingesting food. Teeth are
thecodont, heterodont and diphydont type. Dental formula is 1.0.0.3/1.0.0.3. The incisors are long, chisel-
shaped and can be seen from outside.
9 RAMAN TIKORIA
A tooth has two parts, crown and root. Each tooth bears an inner pulp cavity. This cavity remains filled up
with jelly-like pulp, blood vessels and nerves.

(c) Pharynx:

Buccal cavity leads to another chamber called pharynx. The dorsal part of the pharynx is called
nasopharynx and the ventral part is called buccopharynx. Paired internal nostrils and Eustachian tubes enter
into the nasopharynx region.

A slit called glottis is present on the floor of the buccopharynx just posterior to the tongue. The tongue is a
large, elongated muscular organ covering most of the floor of the mouth cavity. The glottis communicates
with the respiratory tube and is guarded by a cartilaginous flap called epiglottis. Posteriorly, the
buccopharynx opens into the oesophagus through an aperture called gullet.

(d) Oesophagus:

Oesophagus is a long tube running along the mid-ventral line of the neck region. It runs through the
thoracic region and after passing through the diaphragm opens into the stomach.

(e) Stomach:

Stomach is a highly muscular and glandular sac. The inner concave side of the stomach is called lesser
curvature and the outer convex surface is called greater curvature. The end of the stomach towards the
esophagus is called the cardiac end and its opposite end is called pyloric end.

Due to twisting, the cardiac end has taken a position towards the left and the pyloric end has taken a
position towards the right in the abdominal cavity. The opening at the pyloric end is guarded by a valve
called pyloric sphincter.

(f) Intestine:

The remaining part of the alimentary canal is known as intestine. It is divisible into duodenum, ileum and
large intestine. The duodenum begins from the pyloric end of the stomach and forms a ‘U’-shaped loop.
Ileum is much coiled continuation of the duodenum. The coiled loops of the ileum are held in position by
folds of mesenteries.

Ileum opens into the large intestine and the opening is guarded by an ileocoelic valve. The large intestine is
wide and is divisible into proximal colon and distal rectum. The colon is coiled and beaded in parts while
the rectum is straight. A large blind sac called caecum is present at the point of opening of the ileum into
the colon.

(g) Anus:

The terminal part of the alimentary canal is represented by an aperture called anus. The anus is guarded by
sphincter muscle.
10 RAMAN TIKORIA
(ii) Digestive Glands:

(a) Salivary glands:

There are five pairs of salivary glands. All the glands have separate openings into the buccal cavity through
ducts. The secretion of the salivary glands is known as saliva. Saliva helps in moistening food and contains
an enzyme called ptyalin.

(b) Liver:

It is a massive gland located beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It is a four-lobed structure and
remains attached to the diaphragm by falciform ligament.

The secretion of the liver is bile. Bile is kept temporarily stored in a pyriform gall bladder lodged in the
quadrate lobe of the liver. A common bile duct formed by the union of hepatic duct (from liver) and cystic
duct (from gall bladder) carries bile to the duodenum.

(c) Pancreas:

It is a whitish, elongated and irregular-shaped gland located between the limbs of the duodenum. The
secretion of the pancreas is known as pancreatic juice. The juice is carried to the distal part of the duo-
denum by a pancreatic duct.

(d) Gastric glands:

Innumerable gastric glands are present along the inner lining of the stomach. The juice produced by these
glands is known as gastric juice.

(e) Intestinal glands:

Numerous glands are present in the inner lining of the duodenum and intestine.

(f) Spleen:

It is an elongated brown colored organ. It is morphologically connected with the alimentary canal, being
situated on the dorsal side of stomach by a fold of mesentery. Spleen is devoid of any duct, and does not
produce any hormone. It is believed that it destroys old red blood corpuscles.

Physiology of digestion

the small intestine of the GI tract is primarily responsible for digestion, secretion and absorption of
nutrients. Digestive enzymes from the pancreas and the intestine itself are secreted into the lumen of the
small intestine where the chemical breakdown of food occurs. It also acts as a barrier to the passage of
luminal contents into the body and serves as a channel for the undigested food to pass out of the body.

11 RAMAN TIKORIA
 in the proximal small intestine, passive movement of sodium and water is from the blood to the GI tract
lumen and vice versa in distal small intestine. The large intestine stores the digested food for further
breakdown or excretion, absorption of specific nutrients and absorption / secretion of water and
electrolytes. The caecum is primarily involved in microbial fermentation and storage of ingesta.
The bacteria present here facilitate in detoxifying or bioactivating ingested compounds and producing
essential vitamins. Re-absorption of the large quantities of water occurs in the large intestine resulting in a
mass of waste material, thefaeces. Faeces are stored in the rectum until eliminated through the anus.

The gall bladder that stores the bile is absent in the rat. The bile produced in the liver passes directly to
the duodenum, via the bile ducts. Liver is involved in metabolism of nutrients, detoxification of metabolic
wastes, synthesis of bile, plasma proteins / lipoproteins, etc. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes as
well as hormones (insulin and glucagons).

Nervous System
The entire nervous system of Rat may be divided into three groups:

(A) Central nervous system,

(B) Peripheral nervous system and

(C) Autonomic nervous system.

(A) Central Nervous System:

It includes the:

(1) Brain, and

(2) Spinal cord

(1) Brain:

In spite of general similarity in the pattern of brain with other vertebrates, there is considerable amount of
specialisation of this organ in mammals. This specialisation is responsible for their advancement over other
vertebrates. The brain consists of five divisions, telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon,
metencephalon and myelencephalon.

Following are the special features of the brain of rat:

(i) Meninges or coverings of the brain are three-layered. In-between outer Dura mater and inner Pia
mater, there is a distinct middle third layer called arachnoid layer.

(ii) Size of the brain is large and the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum are much convoluted so as to
increase the area.
12 RAMAN TIKORIA
(iii) Olfactory lobes are small and club- shaped.

(iv) Cerebral hemispheres are much enlarged and cover the diencephalon and mesencephalon. Each
hemisphere is subdivided into four lobes—frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital, by grooves called
sylvian fissure. The growth of cerebral hemisphere is due to growth of its roof called neopallium.

(v) Transverse bands of nerve fibres called corpus callosum connect the two cerebral hemispheres.

(vi)The ventral side of diencephalon is well-developed and known as hypothalamus. It bears optic chiasma,
pituitary body and a pair of small round mass called mammillary bodies. The dorsal side of diencephalon
carries pineal body or epiphysis and a vascularized fold called anterior choroid plexus.

(vii) Mesencephalon or midbrain is thick and contains four optic lobes called corpora quadrigemina.

(viii) Cerebellum is enlarged, folded and divided into a median vermis and two lateral lobes. Each lateral
lobe is with a short flocculus. A broad band called pons varolii is present on the ventral side of the
cerebellum.

(ix) Medulla oblongata is prominent and carries a vascularized posterior choroid plexus on its non-nervous
roof.

13 RAMAN TIKORIA
(2) Spinal cord:

The spinal cord runs up to the posteriormost end through the neural canal of vertebral column. Posteriorly,
the spinal cord forms a narrow, triangular cone, called conusterminalis, from which a bunch of nerves
arises. These are called filumterminale. In the brachial and lumbar regions, the spinal cord is slightly
swollen.

(B) Peripheral Nervous System:

It includes nerves which are given out from brain and spinal cord. The nerves from the brain are called
cranial nerves and those from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves. Twelve pairs of cranial nerves
are present in Rat besides the terminal nerve. The origin and distribution of the cranial nerves in rat are
basically similar to the cranial nerves of birds.

The tenth or vagus nerve, after forming the vagus ganglion, sends a branch called cardiac depressor to the
heart, and a branch anterior laryngeal to the larynx. The main trunk runs posteriorly through the neck
region.

Near thorax, the main trunk sends a branch called recurrent laryngeal, which in the left side curves around
aorta and around subclavian in the right side, and, finally, turns anteriorly to supply the larynx. After
entering the thoracic cavity, the vagus sends usual branches to lungs, heart and other visceral organs.

The eleventh cranial nerve or spinal accessory originates from the lateral side of medulla oblongata and
innervates the muscles of neck region. A branch of it called ramus internus supplies nerves to the muscles
of pharynx and larynx. This is a motor nerve. The twelfth cranial nerve or hypoglossal begins from the
mid-ventral region of the medulla oblongata and innervates the tongue muscles through a number of
branches. This is a motor nerve.

Thirty-two pairs of spinal nerves are present. They are built up in the same plan as that of toad. On each
side, the fourth and fifth spinal nerves of the cervical region unite as phrenic nerve to supply the muscles
of the diaphragm.

The brachial plexus is formed by the participation of first four nerves in the cervical region and first
thoracic nerve. It innervates the forelimbs. Hind limb is innervated by sciatic plexus, which is formed by
last two lumbar nerves and sacral nerves.

(C) Autonomic Nervous System:

It consists of a pair of sympathetic nerve cords, one on each side of the aorta. Each cord bears one anterior
and one posterior cervical ganglia.

Sense Organs:

To receive different types of stimuli, there are different categories or receptors. The stimuli in the form of
touch, pain and temperature are received by numerous free nerve endings or encapsulated corpuscles which
remain scattered within the superficial layer of the skin. Taste is determined by group of specialised cells
which remain within the papillae on the surface of the tongue.

14 RAMAN TIKORIA
These sensory papillae are called taste buds. Smell is perceived by specially sensory olfactory cells which
are distributed in the mucous membrane of nasal cavity. Eyes and ears are much specialised receptor
organs for receiving stimuli in the form of light and sound respectively. Ears, in addition to hearing, are
also responsible for maintaining balance.

(i) Eyes:

Eyes are built up in typical vertebrate plan. The upper and lower eyelids are provided with small fine hairs.
The edges of the eyelids are devoid of eye lashes.

Special features in the eyes of Rat are:

(1) Presence of lacrymal gland on the upper side of each eyeball. It secretes a fluid called tear which
cleans and lubricates the surface of the eye.

(2) Lens is biconvex and focusing is done by changing the curvature of lens through the ciliary muscles.

(3) Retina possesses both rod and cone cells. The former determines the intensity of light while the latter
deals with colors.

15 RAMAN TIKORIA
(ii) Ear:

Each ear is divisible into:

(a) External ear,

(b) Middle ear, and

(c) Internal ear

External ear:

It consists of a movable, flap-like pinna and a canal called external auditory meatus. Pinna is responsible
for collecting sound waves and sending it inside the ear through external auditory meatus.

Middle ear:

The external ear is separated from the middle ear by a tightly stretched membrane called tympanum. The
middle ear is in communication with buccal cavity by a canal called eustachian tube. Within the middle ear,
tympanum is connected with the internal ear by three ear ossicles—elongated malleus, slightly bent incus
and triangular, ring-like stapes.

Malleus is attached with the tympanum and stapes is attached with the opening in the wall of internal ear,
called fenestra ovalis. The incus is present in between the two. The ear ossicles are responsible for
carrying the sound waves to the internal ear and the Eustachian tube is for regulating the equilibrium of
atmospheric pressure.

Internal ear:

It consists of a bony labyrinth which is filled up with a fluid called perilymph. Within the perilymph a
membranous labyrinth is suspended which contains another fluid called endolymph. The membranous
labyrinth consists of following parts — lower sacculus, at the top of which lies the utriculus with which
three semicircular canals are connected.
16 RAMAN TIKORIA
The sacculus is drawn into a spirally coiled cochlea which contains special receptor cells called organ of
Corti. The bony cochlear canal encloses three cavities. The scalavestibuli is bounded by the vestibular
membrane and located above the cochlear duct.

The scala tympani is situated below the cochlear duct. The scala media is the cavity of the cochlear duct
itself. The scala vestibule and scala tympani are the perilymphatic spaces, while the scala media is filled
with endolymph. The Reissners membrane and basilar membrane are the demarcating partitions between
the three cavities.

The organ of Corti, the receptor apparatus for hearing, is supported on the basilar membrane inside the
cochlear duct. The organ of Corti is composed in differentiated cells arranged in orderly rows. The semi-
circular canals, utriculus and sacculus are responsible for balancing.

Respiratory system

Lungs are the respiratory organs in respiratory system. Rat has pair of lungs, a pair of bronchi and a
trachea. The inspiration starts from the nasal cavities, which are separated from one another by the nasal
septum and from the buccal cavity by the palate. The pharynx is divided into naso-pharynx and oro-
pharynx. Nasopharynx is present above the palate and the oro-pharynx behind the buccal cavity.

The edge of the soft palate functions as a valve to prevent food from passing into the naso-pharynx and
then into the nasal cavities during swallowing. Glottis is the opening from the pharynx into the larynx, or
voice box. The glottis is closed during swallowing with a gate-like epiglottis, to prevent the passage of
food into the larynx and lower respiratory passages.

Lungs are located on each side of the heart. The wall of the thoracic cavity is lined by the membrane called
parietal pleura. These pleura from both lungs meet in the midline to form a mediastinal septum. Lungs are
covered by the membrane called visceral pleura. Only lobe is present in the left lung and four lobes in the
right lung. The four lobes are cranial lobe, medial lobe, caudal lobe and accessory lobe.

17 RAMAN TIKORIA
Trachea

The trachea is a long tube supported with cartilaginous rings to prevent collapse as the organism inhales.
Trachea branches into a right and left bronchus and each bronchi lead to the lungs where they further
branch into bronchioles. Trachea is the windpipe which connects the larynx to the lungs and allows for the
passage of air during respiration.

Lungs

The lung proper is connected to the outside through a series of tubes; the main tube, known as the trachea
(windpipe), exits in the throat through a controllable orifice, the glottis. The lungs have numerous
microscopic functional units called alveoli. These structures are involved in pulmonary respiration. Alveoli
form many small sacs, giving them a large surface area. The walls are very thin and they are surrounded by
capillary beds. All of this makes them well-adapted for the exchange of gas between the blood and the
lungs. An important characteristic of lungs is their elasticity muscular effort supplies the motive power for
expanding the lungs, and this is translated into the pressure required to produce lung inflation. It must be
great enough to overcome

(1) The elasticity of the lung and its surface lining;

(2) The frictional resistance of the lungs;

(3) The elasticity of the thorax or thoraco-abdominal cavity;

(4) Frictional resistance in the body-wall structures;

(5) Resistance inherent in the contracting muscles; and

18 RAMAN TIKORIA
(6) The airway resistance.

Physiology

Air from outside passes through external nostrils to pharynx, then to larynx, then to trachea and finally to
bronchi. Lungs are made up of large number of minute structure called alveoli in which external respiration
takes place. Thoracic cage surrounds the lungs and heart and it contains long, curved bones called ribs.
Diaphragm located below the lungs divides the trunk into an upper thorax and a lower abdomen. The ribs
and the diaphragm play a major role in the breathing movement’s inspiration and expiration.

Circulatory system

The general structure of the circulatory system of the rat is almost identical to that of humans. Pulmonary
circulation carries blood through the lungs for oxygenation and then back to the heart. Systemic circulation
moves blood through the body after it has left the heart. The renal portal system is absent.

The Heart:
It is lodged in the pericardial cavity on the left side, at the anterior end of the thoracic cavity and oriented
slightly obliquely.

It is an ovoid, reddish brown muscular, four chambered structure

Atria (auricles):
Two muscular chambers, smaller in size and located in front of the ventricles. A large pulmonary artery lies
between the two atria on the ventral side. The three systemic veins, two precavals and a postcaval open
directly into the right atrium. The two pulmonary veins open in the left atrium through a common opening.

Ventricles:
The two ventricles together form a thick walled muscular structure constituting the major portion of the
heart. An oblique groove separates the two ventricles. The left ventricle is larger than the right one. The
pulmonary artery arises from the right and the aortic arch from the left ventricle. The right aortic arch is
absent.

A. Precaval veins:
Precaval veins bring back blood from the anterior region of the body. The right precaval is short and the
left one is quite long. A precaval vein is formed by the union of a number of veins. The veins forming right
and left precavals are similar except superior intercostal in the right and azygos in the left.

External jugular is formed by the union of anterior and posterior facial veins from the muscles of the head,
jaws, tongue and salivary glands.

Right precaval:
In addition to the above veins it receives superior intercostal from the upper part of the thoracic wall.
19 RAMAN TIKORIA
Left precaval:
In addition to the above veins it receives azygos formed by the union of intercostal and subcostals from the
lower pari of the thoracic wall.

B. Postcaval vein:
It is a large, median vessel formed by the joining of a number of veins bringing blood from the organs in
the posterior and middle region of the body.

Caudal drains blood from the tail and joins the postcaval at the point of its formation.

Internal iliac from the bladder and pelvic region.

External iliac formed by the union of:

i. Femoral from the hind limb.

ii. Epigastric from abdominal muscles and urinogenital system.

The two iliacs join to form a common iliac. The two common iliacs unite and form the postcaval vein. The
caudal joins the postcaval at their junction.

Lumbar and iliolumbar:

A few pairs from the lumbar region.

Genital:
Paired, arise from the testes or ovaries and their associated structures. The right one joins precaval and the
left one joins the renal vein. In male, these veins are long, since the testes are lodged in the scrotum). In
female, they are short.

Renal:
Paired, arise from the kidneys. The right renal is a little anterior in position.

Hepatic:
Paired, arise from the lobes of the liver.

The postcaval vein pierces the diaphragm and on reaching the thoracic cavity receives

Phrenic:
Paired, from the diaphragm.

Hepatic Portal System:

20 RAMAN TIKORIA
 It consists of veins opening in the liver. It is formed near the pylorus and ends in the liver.

Inferior (posterior) mesenteric from rectum.

Superior (anterior) mesenteric from ileum, caecum and colon.

Duodenal from duodenum.

Lienogastric from stomach, spleen and pancreas.

The veins join to form the hepatic portal vein, which ends in the liver through branches.

C. Pulmonary veins:
Small but wide veins not connected with major veins. Blood is brought back by a single vein from the right
lung and two veins, which join to form one, from the left lung. The two join to form a common pulmonary
vein and opens in the left atrium.

The Arterial System:

A. The aortic arch (Systemic aorta):
The aortic arch arises from the base of the left ventricle. It turus left, forms an arch round the left bronchus
and runs posterodorsally and medially as dorsal aorta along the mid-dorsal line of the thorax and abdomen.

Innominate:
Arises from the right side of the arch and divides into two:
a. Right common carotid runs to the head lying parallel to the trachea.

b. b. Right subclavian runs outward between the first rib and clavicle.

Dorsal aorta:
Runs posteromedially sending branches to the following organs.

Intercostals:
A few pairs of small arteries supplying the thoracic walls.

Phrenic:
A pair of small arteries supplying the diaphragm.

The dorsal aorta pierces the diaphragm and enters the abdominal cavity. It sends off

Coeliac:
Unpaired, sends branches to stomach, liver and spleen.
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Anterior mesenteric:
Unpaired, arises above the level of the kidneys and supplies pancreas, ileum, caecum and colon.

Renals:
Paired, supply the kidneys. Origin of right renal is anterior to that of the left one.

Genitals:
The right one arises from the dorsal aorta and the left one is a branch of the left renal artery. Supply
gonads, testes or ovaries and genital ducts. In male, these arteries are long and run posteroventrally to
supply testes and associated structures lodged in the scrotum (Fig. 19.5).

Lumber:
A few pairs posterior to the renals, supplies dorsal muscles of the lumbar region.

Iliolumbar:
Unpaired, posterior to the lumbar, sends branches to iliac region and dorsal abdominal wall.

Posterior mesenteric:
Unpaired, origin close to the bifurcation of the dorsal aorta; supplies descending colon and rectum.

Common iliacs:
Paired, right and left, arise from one point.

Each divides into two major branches:

a. External iliac supplies abdominal wall and continues as femoral in the hind limb.

b. Internal iliac runs backward and supplies the pelvic region.

Caudal:
A narrow artery, continuation of the dorsal aorta and extends the whole length of the tail.

B. Pulmonary trunk:
Soon after its origin from the right ventricle it courses towards the dorsal side and bifurcates into two
supplying the two lungs.

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 UROGENITAL SYSTEM

The urogenital system includes both the reproductive organs and the excretory organs. They are considered
together because they share some common ducts. the excretory system, which is comprised of the kidneys,
ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

Excretory Organs
The kidneys function to eliminate nitrogenous wastes produced during the breakdown of proteins, regulate
water balance, pH and the ionic composition of the body fluids. These bean-shaped organs are located in
the abdominal region adjacent to the dorsal body wall.

The primary organs of the excretory system are the kidneys. These large bean shaped structures located
toward the back of the abdominal cavity on either side of the spine. Renal arteries and veins supply the
kidneys with blood

ureters attach to the kidney and lead to the bladder.

The urethra carries urine from the bladder to the urethral orifice
23 RAMAN TIKORIA
The kidneys are bean shaped and are metanephric kidneys, which are a new formation. They are
retroperitoneal (outside the coelomic space) and came from a strip of mesomere, which formed the caudal
end of nephrogenic mesoderm. This piece becomes displaced and moves laterally and anteriorly.

The notch or hilus of the kidney is the site of entrance and exit of the blood vessels and the ureters.
Section a kidney (like in the diagram) and identify the cortex (outer layer), medulla (inner layer), the pelvis
(a cavity) and the papilla of the calyxes, which project into the pelvis. The rat has only one papilla. There
are also some models to show these parts.

Excretory products in the urine pass into the pelvis, thence to the ureter. Urine may either be hyperosmotic
(higher solute, excess salts) to the blood or hyposmotic (higher water).

The ureters pass posteriorly and enter the neck of the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder is a pear-shaped
sac supported by ligaments (remnants of the ventral mesentery), with a narrowing neck, which terminates
in a tube, the urethra that opens to the outside. It is very small in animals like rats which do not hold urine
for long periods.

In mammals, the bladder comes from the stalk of the allantois (evagination of the embryonic cloaca) and is
endodermal in origin. Hormones may allow water reabsorption from the bladder

Reproductive Organs

(A) Male Reproductive Organs:

The male reproductive organs are Testes, Epididymis, Deferent ducts, Spermatic cords, Urethra, Penis,
Accessory genital glands, Perineal glandular modifications and Caudal glands.

(i) Testis:

24 RAMAN TIKORIA
In the young males the testes remain inside the abdomen. In adults, the testes descend down and remain
lodged in a special fold of skin called scrotum. The scrotal cavity and the abdominal cavity remain in
communication with each other through a canal called inguinal canal. The paired testes lie in the scrotal
pouch and produce sperms.

Each testis is oval in outline and its long axis remains oriented craniocaudally. The testis remains
suspended within the pouch by mesorchium (a fold of peritoneum) dorsally and caudally by a fibrous
ligament called gubernaculum. Each testis is divided internally into lobules by many thin septa. Each
lobule contains tiny seminiferous tubules.

(ii) Epididymis:

Each testis is associated with an epididymis. The epididymis is a highly convoluted tube consisting of a
head, a body and a tail. Head is the largest and most cranial portion of it. The body is narrow and runs
along the medial border of the testis. The caudal part opens in the ductus deferentus. The function of the
epididymis is to store sperms for ejaculation. Some workers are of the opinion that the epididymis helps in
the maturation of sperms.

(iii) Ductus deferens:

The paired deferent ducts are 40 to 60 mm long and are divisible into a coiled epididymal portion and an
uncoiled portion. They open separately in the urethra. The openings are located ventral to seminal vesicles,
dorsal to the neck of the bladder and medial to the ducts of the coagulating and prostate glands.

The two ducts then open into a median slit within the urethra. Each deferent duct is supported by a
mesoductus deferens which extends through the spermatic cord as a separate fold of peritoneum.

(iv) Spermatic cord:

The two spermatic cords (one each for the deferent ducts) contain the deferent ducts and their mesenteries.
Each spermatic cord begins at the inguinal ring and ends within the scrotal pouch.

(v) Accessory glands:

The accessory genital glands consist of the following—seminal vesicles, the coagulating glands, the ventral
and dorsal lobes of the prostate gland and bulbourethral gland. A common sheath envelops the coagulating
glands, the prostate and the urethral end of the different ducts and seminal vesicle.

(a) Seminal vesicle:

Paired seminal vesicles are the largest amongst the accessory glands. Each seminal vesicle is a cylindrical
and elongated structure the free end of which may be bifid. They converge medially and enter the urethra
by a pair of ducts that lie dorso-caudal to the deferent ducts. The lumen of the seminal vesicle remains
filled up with a milky white fluid and its walls are granular.

25 RAMAN TIKORIA
(b) Coagulation glands:

These are paired and pyramid-shaped bodies. They lie latero-dorsal dorsal and in close proximity to the
seminal vesicle. Each gland has a single duct that opens into the urethra craniolateral to the opening of
deferent ducts and seminal vesicles. The secretion of these glands coagulates the secretion of the seminal
vesicle and produces vaginal plug.

(c) Prostate gland:

It consists of two pairs of lobes—large dorsal and small ventral and the lobes are joined by isthmus. It lies
caudomedial to the coagulation gland. A single pair of ducts comes from the ventral lobe and many pairs of
ducts come from the dorsal lobe. These ducts open into the urethra and the openings are located
craniolateral to the opening of the coagulating gland.

(d) Bulbourethral glands:

These paired glands are small, lobulated and lie ventrolateral to the rectum. From each gland a duct arises
and the ducts open into the urethra on the dorsal surface. Besides these glands a peculiar structure called
uterus masculines is present in male guinea-pig. It is considered homologous to the uterus of the female.
This is a flat bilobed, hollow organ that lies between the mesentery connecting the deferent ducts and that
of the two seminal vesicles and its unpaired central body opens into the urethra.

(vi) Urethra:

The male urethra differs functionally from the female urethra because it transports seminal fluids as well as
urine. The urethra is divided into two portions— pelvic portion and spongy portion. The pelvic portion
extends from the neck of the urinary bladder to the penis and receives most of the ducts of accessory
glands.

The spongy portion remains embedded within the corpus spongiosum of the penis. It opens externally
through the urethral orifice located at the tip of the penis.

(vii) Penis:

Penis is the male copulatory organ. It is eversible but during sexual inactivity lies retracted within a sheath
of skin called preputial sheath. Penis is made up of two parts—body and glans. The body is composed of
two layers of corpora cavernosa on the dorsal surface and its ventral midline is made up of corpus
spongiosum which houses the spongy portion of the urethra.

The penis is enveloped by tunica albugenia. The glans are shorter than the body. It is cylindrical and ends
in a rounded tip. The tip bears the urethral orifice. The os penis or baculum is present on the dorsal surface
of the glans.

26 RAMAN TIKORIA
(B) Female Reproductive Organs:

The female reproductive organs consists of a pair of ovaries which produce ova or eggs; two oviducts
which carry the ova to the uterus; a uterus which supports the developing guinea-pigs, and a vagina which
is a passage between uterus and the external genitalia or the vulva. The mammary glands may be
considered under the system as they are functionally associated with these organs.

(i) Ovaries:

There are two ovaries. They are intra-peritoneal, oval and dorsoventrally flattened. The right ovary is
caudolateral to the right kidney and the left ovary is cranio-lateral to the left kidney. The long axis of the
ovary lies parallel to the axis of the animal. Each ovary has a medial and a lateral surface and a cranial
tubal and caudal uterine extremity. The straight medial border and the tubal extremity is invested by
mesovarium.

(ii) Oviducts:

The oviducts or Fallopian tubes are paired and lie along the lateral regions of the ovary. Each oviduct
consists of three parts— the infundibulum, the ostium and the tubal part. The infundibulum is the most
cranial part of the oviduct. It is triangular, flared and its border is provided with many papillary elevations
called fimbrae.

The ostium is the small opening present in the oviduct at the cranial apex of the infundibulum. The tubal
portion is a thin coiled tube; the terminal part of it joins with the uterine horn.

(iii) Uterus: Uterus is bicornuate and is the largest organ of the female reproductive tract. It is a ‘Y’-shaped
structure extending between the oviducts cranially and vagina caudally. It has two horns, a body and a
cervix. The cervix opens into the vagina.

27 RAMAN TIKORIA
(iv) Vagina:

It is a pink-red canal extending between cervix and vulva. The vagina is dorsoventrally flattened and bears
on its internal side a number of longitudinal ridges.

(v) Vulva:

It is the external female genitalia and includes clitoris, the vaginal orifice and labia. The clitoris is
homologous to the male penis. It consists of paired roots, body and glans. The vaginal orifice is ‘U’-shaped
and usually remains closed by a vaginal closure membrane. The labia are a pair of lateral thick folds of skin
bordering the vaginal orifice.

(vi) Mammary glands:

A single pair of mammary glands are located on either side of the midline of the caudal abdomen near
inguinal region. During pregnancy the glands become large and start producing milk following parturition.
The glands are apocrine in nature. In males they remain rudimentary and non-functional.

In rats, as in all vertebrates, sexes are separate. Male and female exhibit several differences in their external
features.

Fertilisation and development are internal.

Fertilisation takes place in the fallopian tube. The zygote undergoes an intitial development and then
reaches the limb (uterus). The attachment of the embryo to the uterine wall is called implantation. The
entire duration of development inside the uterus, is called gestation period. After completing development,
the young one is born. Hence rat is described as a viviparous animal

28 RAMAN TIKORIA