The Planning Process

(Part 1)

Prof. Ramon B. Torres, CESE

SLC Graduate School
 strategy for the community.

Figure 6.5
SIMPLIFIED PLANNING PROCESS

Elaboration Specification
of Ends of Means
Vision
C L U P
Physical Planning Goals Spatial Strategies

Element Location Principles

Descriptors Protection
(what it takes (what can be Production
to close the reasonably Settlement
gap) done in 3 yrs) Infrastructure
Success Vision
Indicators

Sectoral Development
Vision-Reality Sectoral Objectives/ Policies
Gap Goals Targets Strategies
Programs
Projects
Current Reality C D P Legislation

Ecological Profile
Statistical Compendium
Thematic Maps
PROBLEMS AND NEEDS IDENTIFICATION

Stakeholder Analysis

Stakeholders
• Anybody who can affect or is affected by an organization,
strategy or project
• Can be internal or external and they can be at junior or senior
levels
• “people or small groups with the power to respond to,
negotiate with, and change the strategic future of the
organization”
PROBLEMS AND NEEDS IDENTIFICATION

Stakeholder Analysis

• A systematic way to analyze stakeholders by their and interest

• The high power, high interest stakeholders are key players

STEPS IN STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS

Step 1: Identifying the Stakeholders

§ brainstorm who the stakeholders are

§ all the people who are affected by the project or program, who have
influence or power over it, or have an interest in its successful or
unsuccessful conclusion

§ different stakeholders:
§ Those affected – Important
§ Those who affect the project – Influential
§ Those affected and who affect the project – Important and Influential

5
STEPS IN STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS

Step 1: Identifying the Stakeholders

The boss Shareholders Government

Senior executives Alliance partners Trade associations
Co-workers Suppliers The press
Program/Project Team Lenders Interest groups
Customers Analysts The public
Prospective customers Future recruits The community
Team family members

6
 STEPS IN STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS

Step 2: Prioritizing the Stakeholders

Power/Interest Grid for Stakeholder Prioritization

Source: mindtools.com 7
8
Source: pmi.org 9
Source: iaea.org 10
Source: tools4dev.org 11
 Problems and Needs Identification
SWOT Analysis
 Problems and Needs Identification
SWOT Analysis
 Problems and Needs Identification
Problem Tree Analysis

§ Problem tree analysis (also called Situational analysis or just

Problem analysis) helps to find solutions by mapping out the
anatomy of cause and effect around an issue
 Why problem analysis?

u Helps determine real as opposed to apparent development needs

u Helps to bond program participants together (identify issues, roles of
deferent partners in resolving the issues, timescale and resources
needed to achieve a given solution/objective).
u Builds better understanding of underlying causes of development
issues
u Builds stakeholder consensus
u Identifies potential constraints
u Identifies real cause of the problem
u Helps establishment of meaningful relationship with other
implementers
u Helps establish the actual size of the problem and likely resources
needed
When and how it should be used?

o PA can be undertaken at any stage of the activity cycle, but

most useful at the stage of IDENTIFICATION and DESIGN

o The three main techniques used for PA are:

v Problem tree analysis workshop with key stakeholders*

v Focus group interviews with key stakeholders*
v Participatory Rural Appraisal

*(the first two techniques are complementary and ideally should be used
together)
 Problem and Situation Analysis
STEPS

ØStep 1: Formulate problems

ØStep 2: Develop the problem tree

ØStep 3: Developing the Objectives Tree

ØStep 4: Alternative Analysis

ØStep 5: Selecting the Activity Strategy

 Problem and Situation Analysis
STEPS

Step 1: Formulate problems

A. Stakeholders brainstorm suggestions to identify a focal

problem, that is, to describe what they consider to be the
central point of the overall problem.

B. Each identified problem is written down on a separate card or

Post-It.
 Step 1: Formulate problems

vWhat is a problem?
A problem is not the absence of a solution but an existing negative
state: 'Crops are infested with pests' is a problem; 'No pesticides
are available' is not.
 Step 1: Formulate problems

If agreement cannot be If no consensus can be

reached, then: achieved:
ü arrange the proposed ü try further brainstorming;
problems in a problem
tree according to the ü select the best decision,
causal relationships e.g. by awarding points;
between them; or
ü decide temporarily on
ü try again to agree on the one, continue your work
focal problem on the basis but return at a later stage
of the overview achieved to discuss the other
in this way. options.
 Step 2: Develop the problem tree

A. Identify immediate and direct causes of the focal (core)

problem.

B. Identify immediate and direct effects of the focal (core)

problem.

C. Construct a problem tree showing the cause and effect

relationships between the problems.

D. Review the problem tree, verify its validity and

completeness and make any necessary adjustments.
Structure of the problem tree showing causes
and effects
 Problem tree analysis
Define the focal problem, its immediate and direct causes and its effects
EFFECTS
National
impact » Slow reduction of national poverty

↑ ↑ ↑
Sector
Impact » Continuing low
production of ANR
Denudation of forest
cover and increasing
Intensifying social pressures
(CARP and other asset
and sub-regional risks to natural reform)
economic returns resources base (land,
water)
↑ ↑ ↑
↑
Constrained ability of ANR institutions, including LGUs to improve food

» FOCAL
Core
security/livelihood and to sustainably manage natural resources to promote
sector
increased agricultural and forest productivity
problem PROBLEM
↑

Poor governance Weak Lack of Low technology

Main
causes
» in support
services
enforcement
of policy &
program focus base & value-
adding
regul. laws activities

●Lack of ●Insufficient ●Lack of ● Low

accountability training livelihood and investments in
●Poor ●Prevalence income agriculture,
governance in of rent-seeking generation in forestry R&D
Deficient
sector » public spending
in agriculture
activities
●Conflicting
rural
communities
●Poor
extension CUASES
outputs ●High cost of land ●Less delivery by
doing business delineation resources LGUs
due to 'archaic' ●Underfunding given to poor & ●Insufficient
laws of most laws rural networking,
(e.g. AFMA) communities product and
●Inadequate market
land capability awareness by
natural project
resource data participants
●Lack of ●Inadequate
convergence, farm income
inter- and market
connectivity diversification
●Sub-optimal
ARC's

Example taken from Philippines NMTPF

 Workshop 1: SWOT Analysis

1) All groups will prepare a general SWOT analysis of the Municipality of

Sugpon.

2) Presentation of outputs will follow.

 Workshop 2: Problem Tree Analysis

1) Each group will be assigned a particular sector.

2) Develop a SECTORAL PROBLEM TREE ANALYSIS.

3) Presentation of output will follow.

 ECOLOGICAL SECTORAL
PROFILE DEVELOPMENT NGA PROGRAMS
ISSUES AND
CONCERNS

DETAILED SECTORAL
STUDIES

SECTORAL
DEVELOPMENT LGU MANDATES
CLUP POLICIES AND THRUSTS
OBJECTIVES AND
STRATEGIES

SECTORAL DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMS AND STRATEGIES AND
PROJECTS POLICIES

ZONING AND PROJECT IDEAS OR

OTHER PROJECT BRIEFS NEW LOCAL
LEGISLATION LEGISLATION

LOCAL
DEVELOPMENT LOCAL
INVESTMENT LEGISLATIVE
PROGRAM AGENDA

PROGRAMS AND
PROJECTS
IMPLEMENTATION

Sectoral Development Planning Process

Figure 6.3 SECTORAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING PROCESS
 Understanding the Sectors
Social Development Sector

vthe social characteristics of the area population

(demographic structure: population size, density, growth
rate, age-sex structure; ethno-linguistic characteristics:
population grouping according to race, tribe, clan or
language; inheritance systems, including land tenure;
religious beliefs and practices; other cultural practices:
customs, ceremonies, taboos, prejudices)

vthe overall quality of life: status of well-being; individual

and family income; poverty threshold/poverty line
 Understanding the Sectors
Social Development Sector
Chapter 6 The Comprehensive Development Planning Process

v availability of and access

The need for tocertain
social goodsservices: guarantee
and services does access
not occur uniformly to the
throughout
social services by thelifetime
target of individuals and certain groups of the population. At certain stages in
population either by providing adequate
their lives people require more of certain types of services than they do others.
social services or by removing
The graph below the different
illustrates types
this fact of barriers
and should to access
aid in formulating appropriate
sectoral policies and programs of intervention.
to these facilities and services
Figure 6.2
Time Relationship Between a Birth and Future Service Requirements
 Understanding the Sectors
Social Development Sector

vsocial justice: division of benefits and the allocation of

burdens arising out of the process of undertaking joint
labor associated with the activity of production and
distribution; requires that the distribution of income,
wealth, and command over society’s resources should
be such that: the needs of the population within the
territory are adequately met, inter-territorial multiplier
effects are maximized and extra resources are allocated
to overcome special difficulties stemming from the
physical and social environment
 Enhancement of economic prosperity is the principal concern of the economic
sector. But the other half of this goal is the promotion of social justice. This is to
ensure that the benefits of prosperity do not concentrate in the hands of the few

Understanding the Sectors

privileged sectors of society. Hence, the corollary goal of promoting full
employment as the principal redistributive mechanism. This is due to the absence
of mechanisms for direct transfer payments such as unemployment insurance or
substantial non-wage benefits like subsidized health, education, housing and
Economic Development Sector
other social services.

b. Full employment promotion

economic
vlocal The importance ofdevelopment: to employed
having everyone gainfully encourage is furtherand support
underscored
given the reality that the market is the main provider of almost everything that
the development of appropriate
individuals and households need. But to be and
able toself-reliant scientific
avail of market-provided
goods and services one must have the ability to pay for them. Therefore, the state
and technological capabilities,
of well-being of individuals enhance
and groups is defined economic
by their ability to procure from
prosperity, and promote full employment among the local
the market and consume the goods and services they need. Affordability is a
function of income levels which, in turn, are a function of employment or
residents
livelihood.

To be able to promote full employment among their residents, LGU officials must
make a more comprehensive search of possible sources and types of
vfull employment promotion
employment and livelihood and fashion their policies and programs accordingly.
The following matrix could facilitate the search.

SOURCES AND TYPES OF EMPLOYMENT

Types of Employment
Possible Sources
Farm Off-Farm Non-Farm
Private Sector A B C
Government D E F
Self G H I
Overseas J
 Understanding the Sectors
Chapter 6 The Comprehensive Development Planning Process
Economic Development Sector
economic sector planners shall decide on what level of sufficiency will be
targeted. This will in turn determine how much will be produced locally and how
vfood self-sufficiency: sufficient quantities the food
much will be procured from outside. The Food and Nutrition Research Institute
(FNRI) provides the per capita requirement per year of the following food
requirements of the local residents
commodities:

ANNUAL FOOD REQUIREMENT PER CAPITA

Per Capita / Year Requirement

Commodity
(metric tons)
1. Grains (rice + corn) 0.11434
2. Sugar 0.021
3. Assorted vegetables and legumes 0.01265
4. Root crops 0.0073
5. Fish 0.03065
6. Meat/eggs 0.03313

The concept of food security is broader than self-sufficiency, the latter being
vfood security: to ensure food security for the residents
indicated by levels of local production and productivity. Food security on the other
hand, involves a combination of local production and procurement from outside.
there should be assurance that at any time their food
To ensure food security for the residents there should be assurance that at any
time their food requirements are available on demand. The economic sector must
requirements are available on demand
see to it that a steady flow of food plus a comfortable amount of buffer stocks is
 Understanding the Sectors
Environment Sector

vbulk of functions regarding the environment and natural

resources devolved to LGUs have to do with
implementation and enforcement of national policies and
laws

vevery issue identified in each ecosystem as surfaced in

the environmental assessment in connection with the
preparation of the Ecological Profile or the Local
Development Indicators should be addressed through
existing policies or legislations
 Chapter 6 The Comprehensive Development Planning Process

Fishbone Analysis
and ordinances enacted by the Sanggunian or executive and administrative
orders issued by the local chief executive.

Box 15. Identifying Legislations

Not Enact Implemented Strengthen

existent Ordinance properly implementing
agency
Legislation Deficient
Needed Still sound implementation Increase sanctions
for violators
Replace
Not implemented
at all Strengthen
implementing
Existent Defective Repeal agency

Amend
Not
adequate
Replace

b. Programs and projects. The sectoral objectives and targets, when clearly
 Understanding the Sectors
Environment Sector

Mandates of LGUs:
a) Declare, prevent or abate any nuisance.
b) Require that buildings and the premises thereof and any land
within the LGU territory be kept and maintained in sanitary
condition.
c) Regulate the disposal of clinical and other wastes from
hospitals, clinics and other similar establishments.
d) Provide for the establishment, maintenance, protection and
conservation of communal forests and watersheds, tree parks,
greenbelts, mangroves and other forest development projects.
e) Regulate the consumption, use and wastage of water.
 Understanding the Sectors
Environment Sector

Mandates of LGUs:
f) Regulate the construction, repair, and maintenance of public drains,
sewers, cesspools, tunnels and similar structures; construction and
use of private water closets, privies, and other similar structures in
buildings and homes.
g) Provide for an efficient and effective system of solid waste and
garbage collection and disposal, and prohibit littering and the placing
or throwing of garbage, refuse and other filth and wastes. (Refer to
Sections 447, 458 and 468, RA 7160.)
 Understanding the Sectors
Land Use/Infrastructure Sector

v concerned primarily with providing adequate physical base for social

and economic development: enhancement of economic prosperity,
promotion of health and safety, preservation of comfort and
convenience among the residents

v considerations for infrastructure support: a) the preferred spatial

strategy or urban form; b) the projected levels of food self-sufficiency
and production targets; c) eliminating current backlogs in the provision
of social services; d) upgrading the quality of services and facilities to
desired standards; e) reducing vulnerability of the local population to
environmental risks and disasters; and f) maintaining the integrity of
the environment

v Section 17, LGC 1990

 Understanding the Sectors
Institutional Sector

v principal concern of the sector is to see that the local

government officialdom and bureaucracy are properly tooled up
and primed up to manage local growth and change

v focuses on finding ways to improve the effectiveness of the

LGU in performing its planning and management functions:
structure and functions; fiscal management; and public
participation in governance
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives

Vision

v a desired state or scenario of the LGU and its people

v it is the stakeholders’ shared image of the LGU’s future

v it describes what the LGU wants to become or where it wants to go; it

serves as an inspiration and a guide to action; it keeps the LGU in its
course despite changing demands of constituents and shifting political
and economic forces

v a vision should be as vivid as possible, so that it can serve as an

inspiration as well as a challenge for all stakeholders

It answers the question: How do you see your LGU in the future?
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives

Why the need for a Vision?

ü an end toward which all future actions specified in the plan are
directed

ü criteria for evaluating alternative strategies, approaches and policies

ü standard against which success of each action is measured

 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives

Two Components of a Vision

1. Desired role of the LGU or the best contribution it can make to the
development of the nation (“outward-looking” )
a) identifies the wider region to which the LGU relates or makes a
unique or substantial contribution
b) defines the desired LGU’s role or roles the LGU will play in that
region both at present and in the future

2. Desired state of the LGU as an environment for its inhabitants to live

in and where they can make a living (“inward-looking”)
a) Local population (social sector)
b) Local economy (economic sector)
c) Natural environment (environment sector)
d) Built form (infrastructure sector)
e) Local leadership/governance (institutional sector)
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Characteristics of a Vision
1) Achievable. Though a vision is ambitious, it certainly must be
achievable or well grounded on reality.
2) Inspiring. It should encourage commitment and inspire enthusiasm. It
should be powerful and compelling so that the people concerned can
relate to it and work hard to achieve it. It should be a driving force
even at trying times. It should capture the imagination, engage the
spirit and inspire performance.
3) Easily understood. It should be well articulated using simple
language.
4) Distinctive. It should build on the distinct character or unique role of
the LGU, i.e., Marikina City as a river city should highlight in its vision
its river resource.
5) Complementarity. Neighboring LGUs should have complementary not
competing visions, i.e., municipalities along the same zone do not all
have to serve as ports
 (Social Sector)
ii. What do you desire to be the state of your local economy? (Economic Sector)
iii. What do you dream to be the condition of your city’s/ municipality’s natural and

Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives

built environment? (Environment and Natural Resources and Infrastructure
Sectors)
iv. What do you desire from your local government? (Institutional Sector)

Box 3 – Example of a Vision Statement Crafted Based on the Vision Elements and Descriptors

“Outward – We envision Dagupan City as the premiere center

looking” of the north for education, information technology,
health, commerce and trade, aquaculture

with God-loving, well-informed, healthy, self-reliant, Qualities of the people as

empowered and vigilant citizenry individuals and as society

who live in a balanced, attractive and safe State of the natural &
“Inward – environment built environment
looking”
and a globally competitive, diversified and Nature of the local economy
environment-friendly economy

Capacity of local government

under a firm, decent and progressive leadership.”
leadership

e. Match the descriptors with the vision elements, as shown in the example below:

f. Assign success indicators corresponding to each descriptor of the vision elements.

The success indicators are the desired end-state scenarios about the development
of each sector and sub-sector.

Success indicators measure the extent of achievement of desired results. They are
Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
P a g e | 44

Table 5 – Sample Vision Elements and Descriptors

VISION ELEMENTS DESCRIPTORS

People as a Society and as Individuals o God – loving, well – informed, healthy, self-reliant,
empowered, vigilant

Local Economy o Competitive, diversified, environment - friendly

State of the Natural Environment o Clean, safe, restored

Condition of the Built Environment o Balanced, planned, attractive

Capacity and Quality of the Local Leadership/ o Firm, decent, progressive

Governance

g. Collate the outputs of the different workshop or brainstorming groups and

endorse to a style committee which will put the vision statement in its final draft
form. From the sectoral committee outputs, only the descriptors are collated to
be incorporated into the vision statement. To make the final vision statement
easier to read the style committee may reduce the number of descriptors further
to one or two or else select a word that encompasses the meaning of all the
descriptors generated by a particular sector. The success indicators are saved
for use in the vision-reality gap analysis
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Vision-Reality Gap Analysis
Chapter 6 The Comprehensive Development Planning Process

Box 14. Current Reality Rating Scale

Rating Interpretation

0 Absolutely nothing has yet been done about the goal.

1
2 Something is already being done to achieve the goal but the level of
3 attainment is still on the low side.
4

5 The goal is half accomplished.

6
7
Goal is more than half-fulfilled but still short of full attainment.
8
9

10 The goal is completely attained and no further effort is needed.

Example: Suppose we take the descriptor of local leadership “decent” and its
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Goals

v what the people want their city/municipality to become

v goals serve at least three purposes in the planning process: 1) as an end

toward which all future actions specified in the plan are directed; 2) as
a set of criteria for evaluating alternative strategies and approaches;
and 3) as a standard against which the success or failure of each action
is measured
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Goals

Hierarchy of Goals

v the things that motivate one’s action may come from two directions:
from within and from outside

vvalues motivate action from within while stimuli drive action from
outside of the individual or group
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Goals

Hierarchy of Goals

v Value is something prized as of great worth and desirability, which

motivates action. It is held and respected whether or not the completed
action is successful. Values held by a person or group are seldom
articulated but they nonetheless motivate behavior in a more general
way than do goals. There are two types of values:
a) Welfare values – those the possession of which is a necessary
condition for continued activity and striving of a person, e.g. well-
being, wealth, skill, knowledge.
b) Deference values – those that are taken into consideration in the
relationship of a person to others and to one’s self, e.g. respect,
affection, justice, righteousness.
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Goals

Hierarchy of Goals

v Goal is a more specific desirable state than value. It derives motivation

from both internal (value) and external (stimuli) sources. It is the end
toward which design or action tends. Goals are built on the foundation
of values
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Goals

Sources of Goals

1) Universal concept of public interest: health and safety, convenience

and economy, and environmental amenity

2) General welfare goals (Section 16, RA 7160): preservation and

enrichment of culture; promotion of health and safety; enhancement
of the right of the people to a balanced ecology; encouraging and
supporting the development of appropriate and self-reliant scientific
and technological capabilities; improvement of public morals;
enhancement of economic prosperity and social justice; promotion of
full employment; maintenance of peace and order; and preservation
of comfort and convenience.
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Goals

Sources of Goals

3) Regional Physical Framework Plans: to “achieve such a spatial

arrangement and location of land-use activities as would a) effect
rational distribution of the population, b) guarantee access by the
population to basic services, c) ensure optimum sustainable utilization
of resources, and d) protect the integrity of the environment

4) National policies: food security; environmental stability or ecological

integrity; rational urban development; spatial integration; equitable
access to physical and natural resources; public-private sector
partnership; people empowerment; recognition of the rights of
indigenous people; market orientation

5) Local communities
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Goals

Approaches to Goals Formulation

1) Goals Technically Derived

The planner’s or the technocrat’s goal technically derived proceeds
from a thorough analysis of the problems and issues using the
formula:

PROBLEM = GOAL + IMPEDIMENTS TO ACHIEVING THE GOAL

Therefore GOAL = PROBLEM – IMPEDIMENTS

Another form of technocrats’ goal follows the dictum that a “Goal is

the inverse of a problem”

1
GOAL = _________
PROBLEM
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Goals Chapter 4 Goal Formulation Process

Squatting Some settlements still Children/ High dependence Corruption Incidence

continues to exposed to youth play in on paid indoor prevalent of drug
exist environmental hazards the streets recreation abuse

Adhoc approach Indigent families No scholarships for Low-level Loss of

to housing not adequately ordinary indigent appreciation for local cultural
concerns served students culture and arts artifacts

Absence of Existence of Most preschools and Limited space Weak promotion Weak
permanent many private all colleges are for public of culture and moral
housing body hospitals privately owned recreation the arts values

Some social issues not

adequately addressed

Squatting Settlements located in Playgrounds Reduced Corruption Drug

stopped hazard-free areas provided for dependence on paid stopped or abuse
children/youth indoor recreation minimized eliminated

Housing concerns Indigent families Scholarships Heightened Cultural

addressed adequately offered for ordinary appreciation for local artifacts
regularly served indigent students culture and arts preserved

Permanent Existence of Public and private Ample space Sustained Strong

housing body public and preschools and for public promotion of moral
created private hospitals colleges established recreation culture and the arts values

Social issues
adequately addressed

Figure 4.1 SAMPLE PROBLEM TREE TRANSFORMED INTO POLICY TREE

 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives
Goals

Approaches to Goals Formulation

2) Participatory Goal Formulation

Ways of eliciting people participation in goal formulation: household
surveys, barangay consultations, and seminar- workshops
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives

Vision vs Goals

§ “vision” and “goal” carry no substantial difference as both

pertain to the future; they differ only in form

§ A vision describes an end-state scenario as though it were

already attained; it is often stated in the present tense or past
participle

§ a goal also specifies a desired future state but does not assume
that it is already attained; a goal is normally stated in the form of
an infinitive
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives

Vision vs Goals

General Goals of the Regional “A place where the population are

Physical Framework Plan distributed rationally and have access
a. To achieve a rational to economic opportunities and social
distribution of the region’s services, where the resources are
population optimally utilized, and where the
b. To ensure access to economic integrity of the environment is
opportunities and social preserved and maintained.”
services
c. To obtain optimum utilization
of natural resources
d. To preserve and maintain the
integrity of the environment
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives

Objectives

v more specific than goals

v an objective is definite about the point to be reached or target to be

achieved given the constraints of resources and time

v The S-M-A-R-T test is applied to objectives rather than to goals

S = Specific
M = Measurable
A = Achievable
R = Realistic
T = Time-bounded
E = Enticing/Exciting
R = Rewarding
 Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives

Objectives

v Objectives Analysis

§ Reformulate all the elements in the problem tree into positive

desirable conditions.

§ Review the resulting means-ends relationships to assure the validity

and completeness of the objective tree.

§ If required:

ü Revise statements;
ü Delete objectives that appear unrealistic or unnecessary;
ü Add new objectives where required.

§ Draw connecting lines to indicate the means-ends relationships.

 difficult. relatively simple.

7. Involves multi-disciplinary skills from 7. Involves one or a few closely-related skills

Developing Vision, Goals and Objectives

different departments or organizations
which may change from one life cycle to
and disciplines within one well-defined and
stable organization.
the next.

8. Rate and type of expenditures constantly 8. Relatively constant rate and type of
Objectives
changing. expenditure.

9. Basically dynamic in nature. 9. Basically steady-state in nature.

An Illustrative Example
Sample Objective Tree

Educational Malnutrition Access to safe HHs equipped with

attainment raised reduced water assured sanitary toilets

Adequate HH
income

Increased farm Better prices of Alternative livelihood

yield produce services available

Post-harvest Irrigation Competitive Higher educational Investors

facilities put system pricing of traders attainment of attracted
up installed parents

Rationalizing the Local Planning System (RPS), 1st Edition 2008 150