Caucasian Albania

Albanian ethnos. Christianity in Caucasian Albania. The Christian history of Albania

There is every reason to believe that both in ancient period and early Middle Ages the
territory of Albania was located within one and the same bounds. In the north, the territory of Albania
stretched out to Derbent, to Sulak, in the south — to Arax, from Iberia in the west to the Caspian Sea
in the east. According to synchronous sources of the 7-8 centuries, for instance, Albanian author
Movses Kalankatuyskiy and Armenian historian Movses Khorenatsi, the southern border of Albania
in the 1 century A.D. passed along the river of Arax (F.Mamedova). The Albanian historian points
out that the borders of Albania remained unaltered till 7-8 centuries
According to the Armenian tradition, the territory of Azerbaijan in the ancient times and early
Middle Ages was located to the north of Kura. The region of Artsakh (today’s Karabakh), Utik and
Paitakaran — was considered to be Armenian. Following the year of 387, the territory joined
Albania, though both ethnically and culturally it was regarded as an eastern region of Great Armenia.
There is no unanimity in the Armenian science as regards this concept. A group of Armenian
scientists is prone to link the right bank of Kura to the conquests of Armenian king Artashes I in the 2
century B.C.; another group — to the conquests of Armenian king Tigran II  in the 1 century B.C.
Research into ancient and early medieval sources, teaties entered into between the two Empires —
Rome-Byzantine and Persia, as well as study of numismatic material, analysis of the realities of
Albania and Armenia made us to conclude the following as regards the historical geography of
Armenia and Albania.
Note that the strategically position of Albania (Caucasian-Derbent passages), geographical
location of Albania, Georgia, Armenia, the then foreign and internal political realities in each of them
contributed to the reliable security of the Albanian borders. From the 3 century B.C. to the 8 century
A.D., i.e. for 1000 years (with few exceptions) the territory of Albania remained within one and the
same bounds. Changes occasionally occurred in the north-west of Albania, in the region of Kambiena
(5 century), as well as in the region of Kaspiana-Paitakaran (in the south-east) which was conquered
by Armenia in the 2-1 centuries B.C. Note that in the 1-3 centuries it was a part of Atropatena, and
since 3 century once and for all joined Albania. Noteworthy is the fact that Albania escaped the
conquests of Tigran II.
As for Albanians, written sources and material culture are indicative of the dominating ethnos
in Albania (since 1 century A.D.) — Albanians despite ethnic diversity. Contributing to the formation
of Albanian ethnic community were factors as follows:

1. territorial and state unity which is traced in Albania within the bounds of the entire country
from the 3 century B.C. to 8 century A.D., from 9 to 15 centuries in Artsah and Sunik,
political and administrative units and since 15 century — in the newly formed Karabakh
melikstvo;

2. Albanian self — consciousness fixed in the self — name ethnonym Aluank— Albanians is
traced approximately from the 1 century B.C. to the 8 century A.D. within the bounds of the entire
country, and after the downfall of Albanian kingdom as a residual event, so both the ethnonym and
Albanian self — consciousness are traced in the 9 — 19 centuries in one of the parts of the country
— Artsah.
Albanian author Kalankatuyskiy (7-8 centuries) distinguishes Albanians from Armenians and other
ethnosis. The Albanian self — consciousness is traced in:

 effort to revive in Artsakh (today`s Nagorno Karabakh) in the 9 — 13 centuries the Albanian
kingdom as witnessed in an epigraphics of Gandzasar cathedral of the 13 century which says
that the cathedral was built by Albanian king Hasan Jalal at urgent request of the Albanian
patriarch for Albanians
 in the emergence of «Albanian chronicle« by M.Gosh in the 12 — 13 centuries

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  in a letter of Udins, 18 century, addressed to Peter the Great which says as follows: «we are
Agvans and Utians by nation«
 when Armenian author of the 18 century calls Karabakh «the country of Albanians —
Agvans«
 when Albanian Catholicos Esai Hasan Jalal wrote in the 18 century his history of Christian
population of Karabakh, called it «A brief history of Albanians« and himself as Albanian.

3.the unity of culture, including the religion and language. Note that the Albanian
confessional unity existed from the 5 century A.D. to the 19 century with the Albanian
patriarch autocephal church and the Albanian patriarchate as organizing and consolidating
force. It was Strabo, Ippolyte, Movses Kalankatuyskiy, Korun, Sebeos, Khorenatsi, «Book of
letters«, Zakharius Ritor, Etum, Arab authors.

What happened to the Albanian ethnos? During the Arab conquests, greater part of Albanian, who
lived in the lower reaches of the rivers of Kura and Arax, having been Islamized and assimilated with
Turkic — speaking peoples who settled down here. A remaining part of the Armenian population,
living in the mountainous regions (Arabs did not go up mountains), in the north-west of Albania, as
well as in the south — west, adhered to Christianity or Monophisite trend which made them later
related to the Armenian church, or Diophisite trend which brought them later nearer to the Georgian
church.

On Grigorianization and Armenianization of Albanians.

The main changes in the history of Garabagh start with the invasions by the Arabian caliphate and in
the result of this occupation the collapse of the State of Albania. Until the Arabian occupation, the
territory of Garabagh was of one ethnic origin, that is the Azerbaijan–Alban origin. However, the
tragic policy administered in Azerbaijan by the Arabian caliphate at that time, which led to the
provision of religious dominance of Armenians in the mountainous part of the region, gradually
showed up as well in the ethnic field: the process of Grigorianization, and later Armenianization of
the population of Arsakh – the historical region of the State of Albania started.
The academician Ziya Bunyadov* has investigated particularly the reasons and the course of the
process of Grigorianization and Armenianization of this region of Azerbaijan, the essence of the
Armenian-Caliphate cooperation and other issues, as well as their reflection in the historical
literature. Certainly, the process of Armenianization was to take more time than that of
Grigorianization and in fact it did. Therefore, Z.Bunyadov protests against the following words of the
academician S.T.Yeremyan* – "The Alban church was considered as a part of the Armenian church
since the VII century (resolutely since the beginning of the VIII century) and at that time the districts
of Sunik, Arsakh, Uti and others in the Arran region were Armenianized" – and writes: "It is
noteworthy that two different notions – Armenianization and Grigorianization are mixed. Here one
can speak only about Grigorianization of the Arran population through the help of the Armenian
Church.
S.T.Yeremyan's point of view regarding this is not right. Since the districts of Sunik and most of
Arsakh in the Arran region were Armenianized only in the early XII century". This idea (as well as
S.T.Yeremyan's conclusion!) confirms once again that the people living in this part of Garabagh were
not originally Armenians; on the contrary, they were local Azerbaijan–Alban tribes which were later
Armenianized, or rather first Grigorianized and then Armenianized.
Odontologic research, which provides information about the ethnogeny of the population, as well as
its mutual relationships, and based on modern scientific achievements also proves this. Not
accidentally, following the destruction of the Arabian caliphate, the principalities of Sunik and
Arsakh–Khachin were established in part of Albania. "In the late XII century, the principality of
Sunik fell and its reigning dynasty ended with the death of prince Grigor and Smbat in 1166. The
Khachin principality created in the territory of Arsakh in the late XII, early XIII centuries was "a part
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of ancient Albania". Thus, not accidentally there was not a single Armenian state among the
surviving local states in the territory of the Arabian caliphate, when the latter collapsed. This proves
that unlike Azerbaijan and Georgia, Armenians do not have a history of statehood in the Southern
Caucasus at all.

Religion in Albania
Christianity was spread in Caucasian Albania  after catholic Saint Eliseus’s  propaganda in 54- 57
years. For that reason Albanian church is called catholic church. It is one of the most ancient
churches in Caucasus, also in Christian world. Albania is one of the countires established before IV
century when Christianity was not proclaimed as a state religion. In accordance with its traditions in
the beginning of first centuries first Christian missioners from Jerusalem and Suria, catholics and
their students came to Albania and established first Christian communities. According to Albanian
traditions there are 2 stages replacing each other in the dissemination of Christianity: the name of the
Apostolic stage is associated with apostles such as Thaddeus, Bartholomew, Thaddeus’ disciple 
Eliseus. Second stage is associated with  Gregory the Illuminator and  the Albanian king, Urnair.
Influence of Christianity on Albania and creation of Christian community here are associated
both  with catholic Bartholomew and Faddei.
 In  the first stage of spread of Christianity in Albania Bible sayings were proliferating not only in
Near East and middle east but also in the Arami language. This is associated to the activities of
catholics and their students as well as activities of missioners from Syria. Musa Kalankatli presented
information which allows us to reason first stage; activities of Syria monks in IV-V centuries in
Albania, and arami inscriptions on Christian monuments are examples of it.
The second - greek- inclined  stage of Christianity was common in all over South Caucasus,
but was different in terms of duration and its features and it can be explained with political grounds.
Investigations revealed that the relations of Albanian, Armenian, Iberian churches with empire
church should be explined by “political conditions, in other words dependence level of the country
from Eastern Rome empire should be considered relatively with dependence level of the church.” It is
known that there was more dependence in Armeni , relatively low in Iberia, and absolutely no
dependence in Albania. Therefore, after  Greek-inclined illuminator Grigori and his grandson
Grigoris  albanian church carried on its relation with Jerusalem church.  All this proves that
prevailing fact in science that first Christian propagandists were sent to Albania from Armenia  is
unjustified. It can be said also about the opinions that Christian propogandists working in rightshore
provinces of Albania came from Armenia and  propogandists acting in the leftshore northern-west
provinces of Albania came from Iberia.
As known Sasanis had no constant treatment towards Southern Caucasus Christian nations
which were under their ruling. Victory of christianity in Eastern Rome empire strained this relation.
Different Christian sects combating with state church were started to be protected in the area of
Sasani state. According to Musa Kalankatli, alban-arshaki leaders such as Urnair, II Vache, III
Vachagan were fighting againist different buddism religions to vanish them. 2 of the orders adopted
in Aguen meeting held in V century were devoted to prosecute remnants of religions before
Christianity.
Since VIII century northern part of Azerbaijan became under influence of Arabians and Islam.
But majority of Albania’s population practiced Christianity officially proclaimed together with
Mehranis, representatives of leading generation. As in other neighboring Christian countries there
were also other religious streams out of main religion and people in these sects which are enemies of
Grigorian stream were brutally prosecuted.
Armenian Grigorian church had exclusive role in the violation of the freedom and
independence rights of Albanian church. Armenian catholics were using assistance from Arabic
caliphate as they have done during  Sasani’s ruling, to reach their goal and to make Albanian church
be obedient to them. Amavilar, seeking back in South Caucasus taking advantage from the conflict
between Armenians and Albans they created opportunity for making Albanian church obey to the
Armenian church.
Fact: Armenian catholic wrote following letter to Ilia Abdu l- Malik : “Armenian church excluded
Albanian clergymen from their positions and began to change faith of Albans to Grigorianism living

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in mountainous parts which cannot be reached by Arabians. Armenian clerics caused to vanish credit
of Arran church among population and demolished all monuments of Albanian culture by the help of
Arabic leaders. And they left nothing to recall about Albans.  All these actions were implemented
initially by the help of caliphate and then other invaders. Religious figures of Grigorian church
destroyed Arran monuments but firstly they turned to slums. Armenian church was way to
armenianize country in Albania. And its role became noticeable beginning from VIII century. So
since that time  Armenian catholic  Yegi overthrew Albanian catholic   Nerses (Bakruv) with the
assistance of Arab leaders and movement of pravoslavic, greek-inclined , Georgian –inclined 
people,  indicating attempt of defending independence of Albanian church was created by Armenian
monophisits. Despite these difficulties and critical combat condition Albanian catholic church
managed to remain independent until 1836. However, in 1836 its functioning was stopped by Russia
and passed to under the control of Grigorian church. In spite of this in 2003 Alban catholic church
was registered in State Committee on Religious Institutions  and its activity was restored again.

Albanian Cross Stones

The architecture composition, constructive, and decorative plastic solution of Albanian cross
stones, which are memorial stones and Stellas spread in bulk and single forms in different regions of
the Azerbaijan and Armenian Republic, are inseparable from their content and symbolic identity. In
the memory plastic of early and mature middle ages of Caucasian Albania certain pre-Christianity
outlook and symbolic imaginations were depicted. The images of Albanian cross stones first
organically crossed with the characters of religious symbolic Stellas during many centuries, and then
were formed under the influence of two- three religions.  The whole identity, originality, and the
main difference from Armenian crossers lie in it. As it is shown, pre-Christianity stellas which bear
pagan symbolic drawings and notions about the world system played a certain role in the formation
of Albanian tombstone, memorial and border stellas, cross stones. The cross which symbolized the
sun, fertility, life tree before asserts their being related to the new Christian religion.
Albanian cross stones astonish with their boldness in the solution of the art of architecture
which emerged in the result of organic synthesis of architecture, art, and religious symbols based on
people’s beliefs and traditions formed during centuries. The researches show that long before
Christianity in the formation of crosses the role of ancient Turkish kings was great. People of those
periods created the description of the sun on the ground, then raising it high on the wood, stone with
the desire of bringing it together with the sky, and it caused the formation of present form of the
crosses.It is the reason that Albanian crosses were adjusted mostly to classical traditions, so Albanian
crosses are directly related to pre-Christian elements and religious rites. The image of a cross joins
different unrelated decorative arrangements with one-another on the Albanian cross stones. Albanian
cross is the only cross in the world which bears the signs of pre-Christianity beliefs and indications of
the comprehension of the world. All compositions of these stones are reflected like the symbols of
the link between the sky and the land, the sun, light, and fertility.

Albanian Architecture
The examples of Albanian architecture were discovered in the areas of the Azerbaijan,
Armenian Republics, and Daghestan and were investigated.  The most interesting models of Albanian
architecture preserved till our time are fortresses and fortifications for defense and churches, temples
of a religious character. The Turkish kings had an undeniable role in the management of Albanian
government and in the development of its culture and architecture. Therefore, some historians use the
phrase “Albanian Turkish architecture” while speaking about the Albanian architecture, and this
forms full conformity with that period.  Some of these tribes who live in the area of Albania became
Christians by adopting Christianity, the others adopted Islam later. Derbent fortress, Javanshir
fortress, Chiraggala and others are among the buildings distinguished today for their being grandiose
ones for defense which belong to Albanian cultural heritage.
Most of monuments of Caucasian Albanian period reached till our period by preserving their
initial forms. Khudavang temple complex in Kalbajar region, Aghoghlan temple in Lachin, Saint
Elysee  temples in Shaki and Aghdere regions, Gandzasar temple in Aghdere region and others are

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the brilliant samples of Albanian temple architecture which reached till our period among these
monuments.
All types of architecture which belong to Eastern Christianity developed in Albania. The
characteristic buildings of the first period of Albanian Christianity were churches. These churches
consisted of profitable temples with an oblong worship hall.  The top of these temples were covered
with double simple stones. The special architecture called round temples in the style of Christian
architecture were spread in Albania and this style belonged to only Albanians. It has its own specific
reason. Thus, the construction of round temples goes back to early Christian period, and these
temples were built in the periods when Christianity wasn’t completely adopted, and it was mixed
with the worship to celestial bodies according to investigators.

Quick facts on Albanian alphabet

Alphabet

 
The Caucasian Albanian language has been identified as the
ancestor of the language spoken by the Udi people, who
 
primarily live in present-day Azerbaijan. The alphabet dates
to the 5th century A.D., possibly earlier.
 

Discovered and Deciphered by

Where the Manuscript Was Found?
 
 
 
 
Alphabet Characteristics
 
When the Script Was First Seen
When the Script Was First Identified  not even sure that a written form of the Albanian language
as Albanian?
First Word Deciphered
Manuscript Content
Dr. Zaza Alexidze (1935- ), Historian and Director of the
Institute of Manuscripts in Tbilisi, Georgia
In St. Catherine's, an Orthodox Monastery on Mt. Sinai,
Egypt. The manuscripts due to a devastating fire in 1975 in
which hundreds of manuscripts were discovered that had been
stored in a forgotten basement cell. So far two
Georgian/Albanian palimpsests have been discovered, totaling
about 300 pages.
What is palimpsest? A palimpsest is a manuscript with one or
more scripts penned on top of the original text; in this case,
after the scribes had tried to scrub off the Albanian, they
wrote Georgian on top of it, leaving the Albanian barely
visible).
Albanian has 52, possibly 56, letters (graphemes). Exact
number can be determined when equipment will be available
to see clearly. All letters are written as capitals in a
continuous line of text. There are no separating spaces
between words and no punctuation at the end of sentences.
1990. But the Albanian letters were barely visible on the
lower layer of two manuscripts as scribes had attempted to
scrub off the parchments in order to reuse it for a new
Georgian text.
1996. Prior to that time, specialists in Caucasian Studies were
even existed in the form of an extended text. They least
expected to find such manuscripts in Egypt.
2001. The word, "Thesalonike", referencing the Biblical
teachings of Apostle Paul directed to the Christians who lived
in Thessaloniki, Greece, in the 1st century A.D.
On the lower layer is an Albanian Christian Lectionary,

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How the Caucasian Albanian Script  to various political influences in the region. First came the
Probably Disappeared?
possibly one of the earliest, if not the very earliest Lectionary,
that exists today, judging from the simplicity of its church
calendar. This Lectionary dates to the late 4th or early 5th
century A.D. The top layer contains a Georgian Patericon,
containing biographies and writings of some of the Church
Fathers. It may have been prepared around 10th century after
scribes tried to scrub off the Albanian text.
Historians suggest that the disappearance of the Albanian
state and its written script occurred over several centuries due
Arabian invasion and the process of Islamization (7-10th
centuries) followed by the invasion of Turk-Seljuks and
assimilation with them (11th century).

In addition, they believe that fundamental differences in

Christian doctrine between Armenians and Albanians dealt
the final blow to the Albanian written language. Armenians
are Monophysites, meaning that they believe that Christ had a
single nature - only God. Albanians were Diophysites,
insisting on the dual nature of Christ-both God and man. 

When Armenians gained religious power over the Orthodox

How the Albanian Manuscript Ended
Up  Perhaps after the Albanians were forced to become
at Mt. Sinai, Egypt
 
communities in the region, they forced Albanians to give up
their beliefs. Albanian sacred and liturgical documents were
burned or destroyed as heresy. Consequently, the Albanian
alphabet, so closely identified with the church, disappeared
from use.
Monophysites, some of them left for Palestine to the St. Saba
Monastery in Jerusalem. In the 10th century, Georgian monks
left St. Saba and went to Mt. Sinai. Perhaps among them was
an Albanian monk, who carried this manuscript with him.

The spread of Islam in Azerbaijan

The ethnic and religious picture of Azerbaijan in the pre-Islamic period could be described as a multi-
ethnic society with various religious faiths, such as paganism, Zoroastrianism andChristianity. The
diversity of religion and ethnic system of Azerbaijan prevented the processof integration of the
society in one unit. Conversion to Islam in the 7th century led to a significant turning point in
Azerbaijani historical destiny.
  Religion is one of the necessary elements for the formation of both an ethnic system and its
total ethno-psychological consciousness. Both Islamization and Turkification influenced the
Azerbaijani ethnic identity; and the formation of a new ethnic system was a result of this process.
Cultures, religions, and customs of ethnic groups interact in various and fascinating ways over
space and time. After acceptance of Islam in both parts of Azerbaijan the conditions for the formation

6
of the ethnos were complete. Islam stimulated the formation of unique ethnicity and language, had a
decisive influence on this process. Religious unity among Turkish and non-Turkish ethnic
communities caused formation of unit traditions, expansion of relationship ties, deepening of
integration process throughout Azerbaijan (L. Aliyeva).
 Historically religious belief played a role as a decisive factor in the emergence of the
different identities for the number of ethnic groups. For example, it could be observed in the history
of such Semitic nations as the Jews and Arabs. Judaism became a crucial element for the Jewish
ethno-national identity. Similarly, Islam was
a pivotal factor uniting Arab tribes under the umma. Being dispersed with the lack of unity between t
hem, preIslamic Arab tribes have had different religious beliefs. The variety ofrituals of idolatry led
to the disintegration of people with the same ethnic and linguistic origin. As Bernard Lewis indicates,
for Muslims basic division is that of faith, of membership of his religious community [Bernard Lewis
(1964), 70]. Nearly the same opinion is
approved by Karen Armstrong, who writes, that the political and social welfare of the ummah wouldh
ave sacramental value for Muslims. [Karen Armstrong (2002), 6].
As for Azerbaijan, the process has developed in a completely different way. Obviously, Islam
was an accelerating factor in the integration of various tribes with different origins in one ethnic
system. In religious point of view, Azerbaijani Muslims have defined themselves as a part of umma –
religious community, however, as an ethnicity; Azerbaijan people differentiated itself from other
Muslims. In the other words, religious and ethnic self- awareness differentiated from each other in
the case of Azerbaijan.
Islam stimulated the formation of unique ethnicityand language, had a decisive influence on
this process. Religious unity among Turkish andnon-Turkish ethnic communities caused formation of
unit traditions, expansion ofrelationship ties, deepening of integration process throughout Azerbaijan
During the rule of Caliph Abu Bakr the Islamic religion, with the caliphate’s army, moved beyond
the borders of the Arabian Peninsula. However, there are some indications that this movement had
begun even during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). After the battles of Muta in 7/629
and Tabuk in 8/630, the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) had prepared an army under Usama’s command
in 8-9/630-631 for dispatch to the city of Sham. Sometime later, the Arabian army went to Kadisiya,
located between Azerbaijan and Iran and, after a victory at Nahavend, the army invaded Azerbaijani
lands. 
Muslims first made contact with Azerbaijan during Caliph Omar’s rule. The caliph’s first
action after coming to power was to dispatch an army to Iraq. At that time disorder within the
Sassanid government and rule by the underage Yazdigird III increased the chances of a Muslim
victory. Caliph Omar ordered sahabas (people who had attended homilies of the prophet) to conquer
Azerbaijan. Arabs and Azerbaijani concluded an agreement in 639 in the following manner: 
“In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful! This is confirm the guarantee of peace to the
Azerbaijani population, to people living in the valleys, mountains and borders belonging to Utba b.
Farhad, the tax collector of emir el-Muminin Omar ibnKhattab. People, their properties and estates,
religions and rites are guaranteed peace in return for jizya (the head or poll tax that early Islamic
rulers demanded from their non-Muslim subjects). Children, women, the sick and the poor, who have
no property or income, and the clergy are exempted from the jizya. Every family is obliged to
accommodate a soldier of the Muslim army and help him. A person wishing to be a soldier in the
Muslim army will be exempted from tax for his year of service. People who decide to live in this
country have equal rights. Those who desire to leave the country will have this guarantee until they
find accommodation for themselves. This is written by Junadib and witnessed by Bukeyr b. Abdullah
el-leys and Simak b. Harashi el-Ensari. Year of 18/639” 
The exact dates of the first marches by the Muslim Arabian armies into Azerbaijan are not
known. They are known to have occurred between 639-642-643. Incursions before this period had
been sporadic and were for reconnaissance purposes. The Muslim Arabian armies launched sustained
attacks against Azerbaijan after the battle of Nuhavend in 643. Sources vary greatly when dealing
with this occupation of Azerbaijan. 
In this period the Caucasian Albanian ruler, Javanshir sent a messenger to the Byzantine
Emperor, Constanta II and asked him to take them under his patronage as a precaution against future

7
attacks by the Arabian army. The Emperor, who had dreamed of expansion, seized this opportunity.
However, the political situation within the country did not stabilise. Khazar tribes attacked Albania
from the north, plundered it and left it in ruins. The Byzantine Emperor gave no help in this situation,
leaving Javanshir to solve the problems by himself. 

Arabian invitation

Javanashir was frustrated with all these political games and his entrapment within the
Byzantine, Sassanid and Khazar triangle; he began to establish relations with the stronger Arabian
Caliphate for the long term. His people were also tired of the continuous battles and heavy taxes and
supported Javanshir’s policy. In taking this step, Javanshir also avoided further attack from the
Arabian armies. 
According to the sources Javanshir met twice with the Arabian caliph, Muaviya. The first meeting
was in 47/667 in Sham city and the second meeting took place in Damascus in 50/670. Caliph
Muaviya met Javanshir in grand style and asked him to rule Atropatena as well. Javanashir did not
agree because of the weight of taxes and asked the caliph to reduce them. The caliph implemented
Javanshir’s request. Thus, Albania was adjoined to the Arabian caliphate but retained independence
in its internal affairs. A conclusion from this is that, in giving his consent to Albanian independence,
Caliph Muaviya recognised the great authority of Javanshir in the region. This situation also reveals
that Arabian political control had not yet been completely established here, nor did Arabian armies
have full dominion over Albania. This agreement was valid until 60/680, until, that is, Javanshir was
assassinated. 
During the first conquests by the Arabian armies, Caliph Abu Bakr established the properties
and rules of behaviour for the armies of Islam. The Arabian armies which occupied Azerbaijan and
Muslim deputies signed agreements with local governors in this context. According to these
agreements, taxes were imposed on Muslims and non-Muslims as in any other part of the Muslim
world. People were not forced to adopt the Islam religion and had the right to continue their current
religion and customs. 
Gradually Arabian armies located in Azerbaijan began to use both Muslims and non- Muslims
as foot soldiers in the army. These forces did not receive salaries from the government. They only
took shares in the loot seized during fighting and were exempted from taxes for the year of service.
Local people familiar with the region played decisive roles during these struggles and were on the
frontlines. 

Settlement ....

Sources record no problems between Arabs and local population in the first years of the occupation
of Azerbaijan by Arabian armies. This situation continued until the end of the rule of the Amavi
Caliph Muaviya (Moauwiyeh). The problems occurred later, when the population was forced to adopt
the Islam religion and because of the settlement policy, unfair tax laws and tyranny of Arabian
governors who abused disorders at the centre. The Arab settlement policy was carried out in a more
regulated manner than the migration policies enacted by other countries on Azerbaijani territory.
Arab armies had to resettle Muslims into occupied territories. Actually, the spread of Islam and the
popularisation of its culture were not conducted only by the occupation of territory. The life style,
standards of behavior and forms of prayer of Muslims could only be explained by living among the
local people. In general, the adoption of the Islam religion by other nations occurred in this way.
Azerbaijan was one place where Arabs purposely settled a Muslim population. This settlement,
however, was not practiced with the aim of colonization. On the contrary, Azerbaijani and Arab
relations were so close that, as in the Ravvadis state, they were gradually considered to be inhabitants
of this country. However, not all historians assess events in this way and do not see a difference
between the settlement policy and one of colonisation. In the opinion of Bartold, the Islam religion,
in contrast to Christianity, was not spread by individual missionaries. Thus Islam was spread by
personal example and without the exertion of pressure on people of other religions. 

8
 Governor Ashas b. Gays, like the first governor of Azerbaijan, Huzeyfa b. el-Yeman, chose
the city of Ardabil to be the centre of his settlement policy. The first group conveyed to Azerbaijan,
mostly consisting of sahabas, was settled in Ardabil. Thus the city of Ardabil became the first
homeland for Arab families entrusted with the task of attracting people to Islam. The more important
and larger waves of resettlement took place during Ali’s rule (35-40/656-661) when Ashas b. Gays
was reassigned to Azerbaijan as a governor in 36/656-657. According to his words, by that time there
were in Azerbaijan many people who had already adopted the Muslim religion and started to read the
Koran. 
Most Arabian tribes came from Yemen and consisted mainly of the Azd and Kinda tribes
engaged in administration. For example, the first governor of Azerbaijan, Huzeyfa b. el-Yemen,
belonged to the Azd tribe and Ashas (Eshas) b. Gays, who governed longer than others, belonged to
the Kinda tribe. There is no precise information about the numbers of Arabians settled in Azerbaijan.
Arabian settlements continued along the routes of conquests, in other words, from the south to the
north. The Arabian armies particularly preferred central cities, regions of strategic significance and
locations exposed to military threat. So the cities of Ardabil, Tabriz, Bazz, Beylagan, Shamakhi,
Maragha, Barda and Derbend were cities with significant Muslim settlers. 
In consequence of the settlement and accommodation of tribes here after the occupation of
Azerbaijan by Arab armies, these lands underwent various changes. These changes were manifested
not only in architecture, reconstruction and development but also in beliefs, ways of thinking,
language and ethnology, due to people’s adoption of Islam. The human values carried with Islam in
the early days created close relations between local people and the Arabs. There are villages and
settlements in Azerbaijan today where many Arabic names and words are used. During the Arab
Caliphate, beside of conversion to Islam, the Caliphate authorities settled mass of the Arabic tribes in
the Azerbaijan territories, but Semitisation or Arabisation of Azerbaijan did not happen, as it has
happened in the other Near East countries, like Egypt, Syria and others. The Arabs were so absorbed
into the indigenous culture that hardly any traces of them remained. But the DNA project shows that
about 24% of the paternal line of Azerbaijanis overlaps with the Y-DNA haplogroup J1 and J2
[Giacomo F. 2004], which distributed in the Near East.

The main duty of the Muslims resettled here was to gain people’s confidence by their
exemplary conduct and behavior and mild administration as compared with the Byzantium and
Sassanid states. As life and property are highly valued by all, the security of life and property granted
to people during the first conquests had a great influence on them. Local people had suffered from the
battles between Byzantium and Persia and the destructive attacks of the Khazars and they were living
in want. The population viewed the Arab armies as saviors. Prior to the rule of the Amavi Caliphate,
the Arab administration had only collected taxes from the population; they had not interfered with
their internal affairs. During the first decade after occupation, the population of Azerbaijan led a
better and quieter life than in previous times.
There were several reasons why the Arab armies did not exert religious pressure from the
start. Firstly, because the Arabs in the Arab armies which invaded Azerbaijan did not know the Islam
religion well enough to propagate it. Secondly, most of the Azerbaijani population were possessors of
the Bible; they were Christians. Notwithstanding all this, the Azerbaijani aristocracy adopted Islam
earlier than the village populations. This is explained by the aristocracy’s strong desire to be closer to
the caliphate’s administration. 
The population located in Balasagun, in the Arran region, was the first to adopt Islam. Most
of them, prior to adopting Islam, belonged to the religion of Majusi. It may be that either the Muslims
worked harder on the followers of the Majusi religion (Zoroastrianism) or that the adherents to the
latter religion considered the religious basis of the Islam to be superior and relevant to human nature.
Thus, these people found spiritual comfort, not in the inherited religions, but in Islam. 
Due to the tolerance and brotherhood cultivated by Islam they (local people and settled Muslims)
were able to live together. Delivering freedom of religion, prayer, temples and life are the main terms
of the expression “There is no compulsion in a religion”. The presence of sahabas and people close to
the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) was also very important. We can see it in the love and respect shown

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to them. Thus, people who had not forgotten the oppression and pursuits of Byzantium and Sassanid
rulers adopted the religion of mercy and justice brought by the Muslims. 

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