Lesson 9.

1: Propositional Logic and Syllogism

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

1. illustrate propositions,
2. determine the standard-forms of categorical propositions,
3. describe the quantity and quality of categorical propositions, and
4. represent the standard-forms of categorical propositions using Venn diagrams.

Introduction
Logic, from the Greek work logike which originally means "the word" or "what is spoken, thought or reason", is a systematic study of the forms of
argument and the methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect arguments and reasoning.
Since the study of arguments and argumentation is essential to the reasoning to be valid and true, logic becomes a vital concept of rationality. Logic
helps us identify patterns of good and bad reasoning. Hence, studying logic can improve critical thinking.
Aristotle, a towering figure in ancient Greek philosophy and hailed the "Father of Logic", laid the foundations and systems of logic, responsible for
the introduction of hypothetical syllogism and propositions. His stunning achievements paved the way for more developments both in mathematics,
sciences and philosophy as instrumental for investigating the reality.
The importance of logic, its methods and principles ito mathematics cannot be overstated. NO conjectures or formulas in mathematics and sciences
are considered fact until it has been logically proven. Thus, one should be able to truly validate arguments through mathematical analysis coupled
with rigors of logic. However, this is NOT specific to mathematics and sciences alone. as the rigors of logic are also integral to majority of our daily
activities whether to a student, professional, or an enthusiast.
This unit will provide interesting insights to the concepts, methods and principles of logic that are useful for everyday real-life situations.

Propositions
Propositions are the building blocks of logic. To fully understand logic and its principles, there is a need to have a good grasp of the concept of
propositions and how it is being used for argumentations.
A simple proposition is a declarative statement that can either be True/True or False/False. It must be one OR the other, and it CANNOT be both.
A truth value, sometimes called logical value, is a value indicating the relation of a proposition to truth. If a proposition is true, then its truth value is
TRUE (T)(T). Otherwise, if a proposition is false, then its truth value is FALSE (F)(F)
The following statements illustrate propositions:

1. The sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180°.

2. The freezing point of pure water is 0° Celsius.
3. The Philippines is a sovereign country located in South Asia.
4. The phoneme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

The first two statements express true ideas or facts. Hence, these are TRUE propositions. The last two statements express false ideas. Thus, these are
FALSE propositions.
However, not all statements are propositions. The following illustrates non-propositional statements:

1. Is botany the study of plants?

2. Oh, great!
3. Everything will be alright so do not panic.
4. This statement is false.

Can you explain why?

1. The first statement is NOT a proposition because it is NOT a declarative but rather an interrogative (question) statement. The
truth value of a question cannot be ascertained.
2. The second statement is an exclamatory and does NOT suggest either a true or false idea.
3. The third statement is an imperative (command or request) statement and does not carry any truth value.
4. The last statement is a self-contradiction that makes the statement both true and false at the same time.

Categorical Propositions
A categorical propositions or categorical statement, is any proposition which relates two classes of objects and asserts or denies that all or some of
the members of one category (subject term) are included in another (predicate term). It is a kind of proposition wherein judgment is done in absolute
manner.
The categorical proposition expresses an unconditional judgment or direct assertion in which the subject term is affirmed or denied by the predicate
term. The truth or falsity of the proposition lies on the agreement and disagreement between subject and predicate.
The following are examples of categorical propositions:

1. No acids are bases.

 2. Some Filipinos are good singers.
3. Not all fruits are edible.
4. All men are rational beings.

Parts of Categorical Propositions

The basic parts of categorical propositions are as follows:

1. Subject Term. It is the first category or class that is the thought-content of a proposition. It designates the idea about which
the pronouncement is made.
2. Copula. It is the bonding verb or the structure of a proposition. It links the terms of a categorical proposition and expresses
the agreement and disagreement.
3. Predicate Term. It is the secondary term or class that is the thought-content of a proposition.

The subject and the predicate are called matter while the copula is the form of any proposition. The standard form of a categorical proposition
is: Subject(S)−Copula(C)−Predicate(P)Subject(S)−Copula(C)−Predicate(P)
A valid proposition is one which is true in its matter and correct in its form.
Examples:
1. Lions are members of the Felidae or cat family.
S C P
2. Square is a rectangle with congruent sides.
S C P
3. Batangas City is not part of Metro Manila.
S C P

But NOT all categorical propositions are written in the logical form or standard form.
The following categorical propositions are NOT is standard form.

Standard Form
1. Dogs have four feet. Dogs are creatures with four feet.
2. The acid rain possesses elevated levels of hydrogen The acid rain is any form of precipitation that possesses
ions. elevated levels of hydrogen ions.

3. A hero exemplifies courageous acts or nobility of A hero is a person who exemplifies courageous acts or
character. nobility of character.

4. The diameter of a circle passes through the center. The diameter of a circle is a chord that passes through the
center.
5. Sonnet employs several rhyme schemes written Sonnet is a poem which employs several rhyme schemes
using fourteen lines in iambic pentameter. written using fourteen lines in iambic pentameter.

Quality and Quantity of Categorical Propositions

The quality and quantity are attributes of categorical propositions.
1. The Quality of a categorical proposition specifies the nature of the relationship it affirms or denies between the subject and predicate terms.
The quality of a categorical proposition may be classified as affirmative or negative.
a.) A categorical proposition is affirmative if it connotes that all, or some of the members indicated by the subject are contained in the class indicated
by the predicate.
b.) A categorical proposition is negative if it connotes that all, or some of the members indicated by the subject are NOT contained in the class
indicated by the predicate.
Examples:

1. All squares are rectangles.

2. Love is a wonderful feeling.
3. Some Filipinos are good singers.
4. Some students are studious.
5. No vegetarians are carnivores.
6. Nothing is permanent in this world.
7. Not all snakes are venomous.
8. Some heroes are not recognized for their good deeds.

Can you classify each statement above whether affirmative or negative?

The first four propositions are affirmative, since the subject classes are included in their respective predicate classes.
The last four propositions are negative, since the subject classes are excluded in their respective predicate classes.

2. The Quantity or extension of a categorical proposition is an indicator of the degree to which the relationship between the subject and predicate
terms hold. The quantity of the proposition is equivalent to the quantity of its subject.
The quantity or extension of a categorical proposition may be classified into three;
a.) Universal Idea or Term. It is an idea or term that represents all and every member of a class which have a common essential attribute.
b.) Singular Idea or Term. It is an idea or term that represents and can be applied to one single object or subject only.
c.) Particular Idea or Term. It is an idea or term that represents a part or portion of all members in a class.
Examples:

1. A satellite is a heavenly body that revolves around a planet.

2. Mark Zuckerberg is the founder of a social networking website Facebook.
3. Some integers are abundant numbers.

Can you categorize the above statements according to quantity?

The first proposition is universal in quantity since the term "satellite" represents EVERY member of its class having the same characteristics.
The second proposition is singular in quantity because the subject, Mark Zuckerberg refers to a singular idea.
The third proposition is particular in quantity because not all integers are being referred to in the statement.

Four Types of Categorical Propositions

The combination of quantity and quality of propositions results to 4 standard forms of Categorical Propositions;

Type Description Examples

1. Universal/Singular
Affirmative (A−Proposition) The whole subject class is included in the predicate class a. All Filipinos are hospitable.
(A−Proposition) b. Man is a rational being.
 All S are P ∴ Every member of the S class is a member of the P class. All S c. Every line is geometric figure
are P ∴ Every member of the S class is a member of the P class. determined by two points.

2. Universal/Singular
Negative (E−Proposition)
(E−Proposition)
The whole subject is excluded in the predicate class. a. No atheists are believers of
God.
No S are P ∴ No member of the S class is a member of the P class. No S are
P ∴ No member of the S class is a member of the P class. b. No natural numbers are
irrational.
c. No Marxists are capitalists.

3. Particular
Affirmative (I−Proposition) A part of the subject class is included in the predicate class. a. Some politicians are females.
(I−Proposition) Some S are P ∴ At least one member of the S class is a member of the P b. Some parallelograms are
class. Some S are P ∴ At least one member of the S class is a member of the squares.
P class.
c. Some mammals are ocean-
dwellers.

4. Particular
Negative (O−Proposition) A part of the subject class is excluded in the predicate class. a. Some dogs are not pit bulls.
(O−Proposition) Some S are not P ∴ At least one member of the S class is not a member of b. Some prime numbers are not
the P class. Some S are not P ∴ At least one member of the S class is not a even.
member of the P class.
c. Not all countries are members
of United Nations.

Venn Diagrams for Standard Form Categorical Propositions

The most convenient and useful device in examining categorical propositions is by using the Venn Diagram.
Venn Diagram is a model for some universe of discourse consisting of circles to represent classes.
The four standard-form categorical propositions can be represented as follows:
1. All S are P.

2. No S are P.

3. Some S are P.

4. Some S are not P.

 Lesson 9.2: Simple and Compound Propositions
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

1.
1. distinguish between simple and compound propositions,
2. symbolize propositions,
3. perform different types of operations on propositions,
4. determine the truth values of propositions, and
5. illustrate the different forms of conditional propositions.

Introduction
Propositional Calculus, also called Sentential calculus, is a symbolic system of treating compound propositions and their logical relationships. Just
like Algebra, logic makes use of symbols to represent an idea or quantity.

Simple and Compound Propositions

Propositional logic studies propositions and the relationships among propositions. There are two types of
propositions: simple and compound propositions.
Definitions

1. A Simple Proposition (also called atomic proposition) is a proposition which cannot be divided into other component propositions.
2. A Compound Proposition contains simple propositions combined using logical connector (also called logical operator) or some
combination of logical connectors.

Examples:
a.) √3is an irrational number.
b.) Doctrina Christiana is the first book to be printed in the Philippines.
c.) If today is Wednesday, then it will rain in the afternoon.
d.) You will pass the examination if and only if you study regularly.
e.) My favorite fruits are mangoes and melon.
The propositions (a) and (b) are simple since they contain only one idea and cannot be broken down into other component propositions.
The propositions (c), (d), and (e) are compound propositions. Proposition (c) contains two simple propositions "Today is Wednesday." and "It will
rain in the afternoon." Proposition (d) may be broken down into two components propositions such as "You will pass the examination." and "You
study regularly." The last proposition (e) is composed of the statements "My favorite fruits are mangoes." and "My favorite fruits are melons."

Some of the logical operators involving propositions p and/or q may be expressed in the following manner:

Type Logical Operator Symbolic Form Read as

Negation not ~ p or ¬p Not p

Conjunction and p∧q (p and q)

Disjunction or p∨q (p or q)

(p implies q),
Conditional or Implies If p, then q
p⟶q
Implication If...then ,

is equivalent to . . . (p is equivalent to q)
Bi-conditional or
p⟷q
Equivalence If and only if... P if and only if q

To understand more about compound propositions and logical operators, it is a must that its truth value be studied.

Truth Values of Compound Propositions.

 OPERATION
NEGATION
This is a proposition denies the truth of a claim; negation is TRUE.
often denoted by the word "NOT".
CONJUNCTION
This is a proposition formed by combining two
propositions (called conjuncts) and with the
connective word AND.
DISJUNCTION
This is a proposition formed by combining two
propositions (called disjuncts) with the
connective word OR. Note that the word OR will pp or qq is true, then the compound proposition follows;
be considered with inclusive sense.
RULE TRUTH VALUE
If a proposition is TRUE, then its negation is
FALSE; and if a proposition is FALSE, then its
~pp or ¬p¬p (read as "not p")
The truth value of a proposition pp is as follows:
pp ~p
T F
Aside from the word not, negation may also be F T
indicated by the phrases is not and is not the
case.
The conjunction of two statements is TRUE
only if both conjuncts are TRUE.
p∧q (read as "p and q")
Let p and q be propositions. If both p and q are The truth value of a proposition, pp and qq is as
true, then the compound proposition p and q is follows:
true; otherwise, false. p q p∧q
T T T
Conjunctions do not always use the T F F
word and but also the words; but, even though, F T F
while, moreover, furthermore, however, still,
also and yet may be sued. F F F
Sometimes, comma and semicolon may also be
used to imply conjunctions.
The disjunction of two statements is FALSE
only if both conjuncts are FALSE. (Read as "p or q")
Let pp and qq be propositions. If at least The truth value of a proposition, p or q is as
pp or qq is true; otherwise, false.
p
q p∨q
T T T
 T F T

F T T
Although or has several meanings in ordinary
language, the inclusive meaning of or shall be F F F

used. The inclusive or, or means

that pp is true or is true or both. The

word unless can also be used to express a
disjunction.

IMPLICATION (also called Conditional The implication is TRUE in all cases, except
Proposition) when the ANTECEDENT is TRUE and the (Read as "if p, then q")
CONSEQUENT is FALSE.
This is a proposition that claims a given The truth value of a proposition, if p then q is as
proposition (antecedent/hypothesis) entails In other words, a true hypothesis CANNOT follows;
another proposition (consequent/conclusion) imply a false conclusion. p q p⟶q
The antecedent and consequent are joined by the
words IF and THEN. Let pp and qq be propositions. The conditional T T T
proposition if pp then qq is true except T F F
when pp is true and qq is false.
F T T
F F T

EQUIVALENCE (also called Biconditional The equivalence is TRUE if both propositions

Proposition) are TRUE or both are FALSE. (Read as "p if and only if q")
This proposition is a conjunction of two Let pp and qq be propositions. The biconditional The truth value of a proposition, pp if and only
implications. The antecedent and consequent are proposition pp if and only if qq is true whenever if qq is as follows;
joined by the words IF and ONLY IF. pp and qq have the same truth value. p q p⟷q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Example:
Determine whether the given proposition is true or false

Operation Given Proposition Answer

Negation Determine the negation and tell whether true or

false.
a. Manila is the capital city of the Philippines.
b. All policemen are honest.
a. The negation of the proposition "Manila is the capital city of the Philippines.", a
true statement, is "It is not true that Manila is the capital city of the Philippines." or
"Manila is not the capital city of the Philippines.", which are false statements.
b. The negation of the proposition "All policemen are honest." is "Not all
policemen are honest." or "Some policemen are honest."
If "All policemen are honest." is a true statement, then its negation is false.
Caution must be observed in using the negating statement "No policemen are
honest." This statement and "Not all policemen are honest." DO NOT mean the
same.

Conjunction
c. If p="3 is odd." which is a true statement, and q=" 3 is prime." which is also a
c. is odd and prime.
true statement, then the conjunction p∧qp∧q"3 is odd and prime." is definitely
a TRUE statement since both conjuncts are true statements.
d. and are roots of .
d. If p=p="3 is the root of x2+6x+9=0." which is a FALSE statement,
and q=q=" −3 is a root of x2+6x+9=0." which is a TRUE statement, then the
conjunction p∧qp∧q"3 and −3 are roots of x2+6x+9=0." is FALSE statement since
one of the conjuncts is a false statement.
Disjunction e. Tarsiers are nocturnal primates or arboreal e. If p=" Tarsiers are nocturnal primates." which is a true statement, and q=q="
mammals. Tarsiers are arboreal mammals." which is also a true statement, then the
f. Platypus is a fish or it lays eggs. disjunction p ∨ q "Tarsiers are nocturnal primates or arboreal mammals." is
a TRUE statement since both disjuncts are true statements.

f. If p= "Platypus is a fish." which is a FALSE statement, and q=q="Platypus lays

eggs." which is a TRUE statement, then the disjunction p ∨ q "Platypus is a fish or
it lays eggs." is TRUE statement since one of the disjuncts is a true statement.

Implication e.g., If the antecedent p= "2+5=7" which is a TRUE statement, and the
g. If then consequent q="2×5=10" which is also a TRUE statement, then the
implication p→q "If 2+5=7,,then 2×5=10." is TRUE statement since both
antecedent and consequent are true statements.
h. If then
This is not to say that 2 times 5 is equal to 10 because 2 plus 5 is equal to 7. This is
simply an illustration of two true statements combined logically to form true
implication.
h. If the antecedent p="2+5=7" which is a TRUE statement, and the
consequent q="2−5=7" which is a FALSE statement, then the implication p→q
"If 2+5=7, then 2−5=7" is FALSE statement since by rule, a true hypothesis
CANNOT imply a false conclusion.

Equivalence i. A square is a polygon if and only if the square is i. If p= "A square is a polygon." which is a true statement, and q= "The square is a
a rectangle. rectangle." which is also a true statement, then the equivalence p⟷q "A square is a
polygon if and only if the square is a rectangle." is a TRUE statement since both
j. The diagonals of a square are parallel if and propositions are true statements.
only if the square is a quadrilateral.
j. If p= "The diagonals of a square are parallel." which is a false statement, and q=
"The square is a quadrilateral." which is a true statement, then the
equivalence p⟷q "The diagonals of a square are parallel if and only if the square
is a quadrilateral." is a FALSE statement.
Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive
Definitions

1. The converse of a conditional proposition is formed by interchanging the position of its antecedent and consequent.
2. The inverse of a conditional proposition is formed by negating its antecedent and consequent.
3. The contrapositive of a conditional proposition is formed by interchanging the position of its antecedent and consequent. and negating
them both.

Let be the conditional proposition.

Its converse is: q→p

Its inverse is: ¬p→¬q
Its contrapositive is: ¬q→¬p
Example:
Determine the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following propositions:
a. If the Philippine is a member of ASEAN, then it is located in Southeast Asia.
b. If fifteen is a multiple of 5, then it is a composite number.
c. If you study your lessons, then you will pass the examination.
Solutions:

Converse Inverse Contrapositive

a. If the Philippines is located in Southeast Asia,
then it is a member of ASEAN.
b. If fifteen is a composite number, then it is a
multiple of 5.
c. If you pass the examination, then you study
your lessons.
If the Philippine is not a member of ASEAN, then
it is not located in Southeast Asia.
If fifteen is not a multiple of 5, then it is not a
composite number.
If you did not study your lessons, then you will not
pass the examination.
If the Philippines is not located in Southeast
Asia, then it is not a member of ASEAN
If fifteen is not a composite number, then it is
not a multiple of 5
If you did not pass the examination, then you
did not study your lessons.
 Lesson 9.3: Symbolizing Propositions and Truth Tables
Symbolizing Propositions
Propositions are easier to understand if they are symbolized, since English sentences may sometimes cause confusion.
The following are some helpful tips in converting English statements to symbols and vice-versa.
1. To remove ambiguity, use of parentheses, brackets and braces for punctuating expressions in logic.
Examples:
a. r∧s∨t
It is ambiguous because it may have two different meaning. It may be written as r∧(s∨t) or (r∧s)∨t
b. ¬p∧¬q and ¬(p∧q)
These propositions are not equivalent. Hence, they convey different meanings.
2. An inclusive OR may be made explicit by using the phrase and/or.
Example: James is a drummer or a guitarist.
The alternative form of this statement is "James is a drummer and/or a guitarist." This signifies that James is a drummer or James is a guitarist, or
James is both a drummer and a guitarist are true.
3. An exclusive (strong) or may be made explicit by adding the phrase but not both.
Example: Cora will be spending her vacation in Hongkong or Singapore but not both.
This suggests that if Cora is in Hongkong for vacation, she cannot be in Singapore and vice-versa.
4. The negation of a disjunction is often expressed by using the phrase NEITHER...NOR. Thus, the negation of a disjunction, say, p∨q is expressed
as ¬(p∨q) or as ¬p∧¬q¬.

5. The negation of a conjunction, say, p∧q is symbolized as ¬(p∧q) or as ¬p∨¬q

Example: Carl and May will not both finish the race.
Carl and May will both not finish the race.
These propositions have different meanings. The first proposition may be symbolized as ¬(p∧q) while the second proposition may be expressed
as ¬p∨¬q
Consider the following examples.
Example: Convert the following statements to symbols.
Let p: John learns logic.
q: John finds a good job.
r: John will be an asset.
Solution

a. It is not the case that John finds a good job. ¬q

b. John finds a good job and will be an asset. q∧r

c. Either John learns logic or finds a good job. p∨q

d. It is not the case that John learns logic and finds a good job. ¬(p∧q) or ¬p∧q

e. John did not find a good job but he will be an asset. ¬q∧r

f. If John learns logic, then he will find a good job. p→q

g. If John did not find a good job, then he did not learn logic. ¬q→¬p

It is not the case that if John learns logic, then he will find a
h. ¬(p→q)
good job.

i. John will not find a good job, but he will be an asset. ¬p∧r

j. John will be an asset if and only if he learns logic. r⟷p

Notice that the proposition (d) have two propositions. Thus, it is ambiguous. To resolve the problem, the proposition may be expressed as follows,
depending on the thought being conveyed.
¬(p∧q): Neither John learns logic nor finds a good job.
¬p∧q: John did not learn logic but finds a good job.
Truth Table of Compound Proposition
With the use of logical connectors, complicated compound propositions involving one or more propositions may be constructed. Then by using the
truth table, its truth value may be determined.

In general, a truth table involving propositions has rows

Example 1: Construct a truth table of the compound proposition.

a. (p∨q)∧(¬p∧¬q)(p∨q)∧(¬p∧¬q)
b. (p∧q)∧(¬p∨¬q)(p∧q)∧(¬p∨¬q)
c. [(p→q)∧p]→q[(p→q)∧p]→q
d. (p→q)⟷(¬p∨q)
Solutions:
a. (p∨q)∧(¬p∧¬q)

p q ¬p ¬q p∨q ¬p∧¬q (p∨q)∧(¬p∧¬q)

T T F F T F F

T F F T T F F

F T T F T F F

F F T T F T F

The truth table suggests that in any case, the truth value of the compound proposition (p∨q)∧(¬p∧¬q) is FALSE.
b. (p∧q)∧(¬p∨¬q)

p q ¬p ¬q p∨q ¬p∧¬q (p∨q)∧(¬p∧¬q)

T T F F T F F
 T F F T F T F

F T T F F T F

F F T T F T F

Base on its truth table, the truth value of the compound proposition (p∧q)∧(¬p∨¬q)(p∧q)∧(¬p∨¬q) is always FALSE.
c. [(p→q)∧p]→q

p q p→q (p→q)∧p [(p→q)∧p]→q

T T T T T

T F F F T

F T T F T

F F T F T

The compound proposition [(p→q)∧p]→q is always TRUE for all cases as shown by the truth table.
d. (p→q)⟷(¬p∨q)

p q ¬p p→q ¬p∨q (p→q)⟷(¬p∨q)

T T F T T T

T F F F F T

F T T T T T

F F T T T T

The truth table for the compound proposition (p→q)⟷(¬p∨q) suggests that in any case is always TRUE.
Example 2: Express the given proposition in symbolic form, and find its truth value.
"It is not the case that if the crown prince died or he will marry a commoner, his younger sister would inherit the throne."
Solution:
Let d: The crown prince died.
m: The crown prince married a commoner.
i: The younger sister would inherit the throne.

Propositions Symbolic form

The crown prince died or he will marry a commoner. d∨m

If the crown prince died or he will marry a commoner, then his younger
(d∨m)⟶i
sister would inherit the throne.

It is not the case that if the crown prince died or he will marry a ~
commoner, then his younger sister would inherit the throne. [(d∨m)⟶i]

Note that there are three (3) propositions involved represented by three letters d, m, and i. It is interesting to note that, since there are three
propositions (n=3), with two (2) possible truth values for each (T or F), according to the Fundamental Principle of Counting, there
are 2n=23=2×2×2=8 possible ways for the truth value of d, m, and i.

No. of Rows
23=8 ~
d m i (d∨m) (d∨m)⟶i
[(d∨m)⟶i]

1 T T T T T F

2 T T F T F T

3 T F T T T F
4 T F F T F T

5 F T T T T F

6 F T F T F T

7 F F T F T F

8 F F F F T F