1

S OLVED EXAMPLES
When solving a problem, you need to provide arguments explaining/justifying
some key points used in the resolution. You also need to state clearly the rea-
soning used to reach to your final answer. Do not expect that the reader (in
this case, me) would guess your thoughts. Also make sure to write them in a
concise way (it is not necessary to write pages and pages)! Here are few ex-
amples of how your resolution should look like (but as you know very well
already, each problem is a different beast!)

Q UANTUM MECHANICS A LA D IRAC

P ROBLEM 4

a) We have a beam of spin 1/2 particles which is sent through a series of

three Stern-Gerlach (SG) apparatus. The first one filters out particles
with S z = ħ/2. This means that the particles exiting the first SG device
are in the state |S z ; +〉. We also know that the last SG device filters out
particles with S z = −ħ/2. Thus, the particles exiting the last SG appa-
ratus are in the state |S z ; −〉. In between the first and third SG devices,
we have the second SG device, which accepts particles with S n = ħ/2
and rejects those with S n = −ħ/2. That is, the second device acts as the
projection operator

P(n; +) = |S n ; +〉〈S n ; +|. (1)

In this way, the fraction of particles transmitted by the first SG device

which will survive the third measurement or, in other words, the prob-
ability of measuring −ħ/2 for S z after the series of three SG apparatus is
given by

P = |〈S z ; −|P(n; +)|S z ; +〉|2 = |〈S z ; −|S n ; +〉〈S n ; +|S z ; +〉|2 . (2)

As stated in the problem, we know that

θ θ
µ ¶ µ ¶
|S n ; +〉 = cos |S z ; +〉 + sin |S z ; −〉, (3)
2 2
so
θ θ
µ ¶ µ ¶
〈S n ; +| = cos 〈S z ; +| + sin 〈S z ; −|. (4)
2 2
 2

Since the states |S z ; ±〉 are orthonormal, we have that

θ θ
µ ¶ µ ¶
〈S z ; −|S n ; +〉 = sin , 〈S n ; +|S z ; +〉 = cos . (5)
2 2
Substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (2), we get
µ ¶ ¯2
θ θ ¯¯ 2 θ 2 θ
¯ µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
¯
P = ¯sin
¯ cos = cos sin . (6)
2 2 ¯ 2 2
Using the relation sin(2α) = 2sin(α)cos(α) for a certain angle α, we can
write Eq. (6) as
1
P (θ) = sin2 (θ), (7)
4
where we have changed P → P (θ) to indicate the explicit dependence
with θ.

b) From Eq. (7), we see that P (θ) is maximum when sin(θ) is maximum,
i.e., when θ = π2 . In this case,
³ π´ 1
P θ= = , (8)
2 4
thus, the fraction of particles surviving the third measurement in this
case is 25%.

c) If we remove the second device, we have that the first SG device trans-
mits particles in the state |S z ; +〉 while the last one transmits particles in
the state |S z ; −〉. In such a situation, the probability of measuring −ħ/2
immediately after the second device is given by |〈S z ; +|S z ; −〉|2 , which is
0, since the states |S z ; ±〉 are orthogonal. Thus, no particles will survive
the last measurement if we remove the second SG device.

P ROBLEM 21

As stated in the problem, at t = 0 the state describing the system is given by

1 1
|α, t = 0〉 = p |0〉 + p |1〉, (9)
2 2
where |n〉, n = 0, 1, indicates the eigenvector of the nth state of a simple har-
monic oscillator in one dimension. In the Schrödinger picture, the time evo-
lution of the preceding state after some time t > 0 is given by

|α, t 〉 = e −i H t /ħ |α, t = 0〉, (10)

 3

with H being the Hamiltonian of the system, in this case, a simple harmonic
oscillator. Using that
µ ¶
1
H |n〉 = E n |n〉, E n = n + ħω, n = 0, 1, . . . (11)
2

where ω represents the angular frequency of the oscillator, we have, from

Eqs. (10) and (11)
· ¸
1 −i H t /ħ −i H t /ħ
|α, t 〉 = p e |0〉 + e |1〉
2
· ¸
1 −i ωt /(2ħ) −3i ωt /(2ħ)
=p e |0〉 + e |1〉
2
· ¸
1 −i ωt /(2ħ) −i ωt
=p e |0〉 + e |1〉 . (12)
2

The expectation value of x when the system is in the state |α, t 〉 is then given
by
· ¸ · ¸
1 i ωt −i ωt
〈x〉 = 〈α, t |x|α, t 〉 = 〈0| + e 〈1| x |0〉 + e |1〉
2
· ¸
1 −i ωt i ωt
= 〈0|x|0〉 + 〈1|x|1〉 + e 〈0|x|1〉 + e 〈1|x|0〉 . (13)
2

In this way, the whole problem reduces to the calculation of the matrix ele-
ments 〈n|x|n 0 〉, n, n 0 = 0, 1. Using the relation between x and the ladder oper-
ators a, a † for the harmonic oscillator, i.e.,
s
ħ
x= [a + a † ], (14)
2mω

we can write
s
ħ
〈n|x|n 0 〉 = 〈n|(a + a † )|n 0 〉
2mω
s · ¸
ħ 0 † 0
= 〈n|a|n 〉 + 〈n|a |n 〉 . (15)
2mω

Using now that

p p
a|n〉 = n|n − 1〉, a † |n〉 = n + 1|n + 1〉, 〈n|n 0 〉 = δnn 0 , (16)
 4

we can write Eq. (15) as

s
ħ p 0 p
· ¸
0
〈n|x|n 〉 = n δn,n 0 −1 + n + 1δn,n 0 +1 .
0 (17)
2mω

In this way,
s
ħ
〈0|x|0〉 = 〈1|x|1〉 = 0, 〈0|x|1〉 = 〈1|x|0〉 = . (18)
2mω

Substituting Eq. (18) into (13), we get

s · ¸ s
1 ħ ħ
〈x〉 = e −i ωt + e i ωt = cos(ωt ), (19)
2 2mω 2mω

where we have used that, for a certain α, e ±i α = cos(α) ± i sin(α).

Q UANTUM M ECHANICS A LA F EYNMAN

P ROBLEM 2

In the Feynman description of quantum mechanics, in the coordinate rep-

resentation, knowing the transition amplitude 〈x 0 , t |x 00 , t 0 〉, the evolution of a
state |α, t 0 〉 can be expressed as

Z∞
0
〈x |α, t 〉 = d x 00 〈x 0 , t |x 00 , t 0 〉〈x 00 |α, t 0 〉. (20)
−∞

As stated in the problem,

r
m 0 0 2
〈x 0
, t |x 00 , t 0 〉 = e i m(x −x0 ) /(2ħ∆t ) , ∆t = t − t 0 ,
2πħi ∆t
1 02 2
〈x 00 |α, t 0 〉 = pp e −x0 /(2a ) . (21)
πa

Substituting the preceding equations into Eq. (20), and using that (x 0 − x 00 )2 =
 5

x 0 2 + x 00 2 − 2x 0 x 00 , we get

r Z∞
m 1 i mx 0 2 /(2ħ∆t ) 0 0 02 02 2
0
〈x |α, t 〉 = pp e d x 00 e i m(−2x x0 +x0 )/(2ħ∆t ) e −x0 /(2a )
2πħi ∆t πa −∞
r Z∞
m 1 i mx 0 2 /(2ħ∆t ) 2 02 0 0
= pp e d x 00 e [i m/(2ħ∆t )−1/(2a )]x0 e −i mx x0 /(ħ∆t )
2πħi ∆t πa −∞
r Z∞
m 1 02 02 0
= pp e i mx /(2ħ∆t ) d x 00 e −Ax0 +B x0 , (22)
2πħi ∆t πa −∞

where in the last step we have introduced

ħ∆t − i ma 2 i mx 0
A= , B =− . (23)
2ħa 2 ∆t ħ∆t

We have then the integral of a Gaussian function in the x 00 variable, integral

which is tabulated in Mathematical books. Using integration tables,

Z∞
π B 2 /(4A)
r
02 0
d x 00 e −Ax0 +B x0 = e . (24)
A
−∞

Substituting Eq. (24) into Eq. (22), we get

s
2πħa 2 ∆t −m 2 a 2 x 0 2 /[2ħ∆t (ħ∆t −i ma 2 )]
r
m 1 02
〈x 0 |α, t 〉 = pp e i mx /(2ħ∆t )
e
2πħi ∆t πa ħ∆t − i ma 2
s
ma 02 2 2
= p e x [i −ma /(ħ∆t −i ma )]/(2ħ∆t )
π(i ħ∆t + ma )
2
s
ma i mx 0 2 /[2(ħ∆t −i ma 2 )]
= p e
π(i ħ∆t + ma 2 )
s
ma 02 2
= p e x /[2(ħ∆t /(i m)−a )]
π(i ħ∆t + ma )
2
s
ma 02 2
= p e −x /[2(i ħ∆t /m+a )] (25)
π(i ħ∆t + ma )
2
 6

Q UANTUM M ECHANICS A LA S CHWINGER

P ROBLEM 7

Let’s consider a particle of mass m moving in one-dimension, with linear mo-

mentum p = pii , and under the influence of a constant force F = Fii . In this
case, the Hamiltonian of the system, in the Heisenberg picture is given by

p2
H= − F x, (26)
2m
The Heisenberg equations of motion establish that
d H ∂H dx i dp i
= , = − [x, H ], = − [p, H ]. (27)
dt ∂t dt ħ dt ħ
Since the Hamiltonian does not depend explicitly on time,
d H ∂H
= = 0, (28)
dt ∂t
so considering the instants t and t 0 = 0, t > 0, we have that

H (t ) = H (0). (29)

Next, using that

[A, BC ] = [A, B ]C + B [A,C ],

[x, p x ] = [x, p] = −[p, x] = i ħ (30)

we have
p2 iħ
· ¸
1 1
[x, H ] = x, −Fx = [x, p 2 ] = ([x, p]p + p[x, p]) = p,
2m 2m 2m m
2
p
· ¸
[p, H ] = p, − F x = −F [p, x] = i ħF. (31)
2m
Substituting the preceding equations in Eq. (27), we get
d x p(t ) dp
= , = F, (32)
dt m dt
which are of course the equations of motion of a particle under the influence
of a constant force. Integrating Eq. (32) and using that at t = 0, x(t ) = x(0) and
p(t ) = p(0), we find
p(0) F 2
p(t ) = p(0) + F t , x(t ) = x(0) + t+ t , (33)
m 2m
 7

therefore,
p(0) F 2 t i ħt
· ¸
[x(0), x(t )] = x(0), x(0) + t+ t = [x(0), p(0)] = . (34)
m 2m m m
According to the Schwinger action principle,
i 00
δ〈x 00 , t |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉 = 〈x , t |G(t ) −G(0)|x 0 , t 0 = 0〉, (35)
ħ
where G(t ) = p(t )δx(t ) − H (t )δt (t ). Using that δx(t ) = δx 00 , δx(0) = δx 0 , δt 0 =
0, and Eq. (29), we get
i 00
δ〈x 00 , t |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉 =〈x , t |p(t )δx 00 − p(0)δx 0 − H (0)δt |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉
ħ
µ 2
i 00 p (0)
¶
00 0
= 〈x , t |p(t )δx − p(0)δx − − F x(0) δt |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉,
ħ 2m
(36)
The next step to evaluate Eq. (36) consists in using Eq. (33) to express p(t ) and
p(0) in terms of x(t ) and x(0), since |x 00 , t 〉 and |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉 are eigenstates of
these latter operators. From Eq. (33) (second equation),
m F
p(0) = [x(t ) − x(0)] − t (37)
t 2
then, from Eq. (33) (first equation)
m F
p(t ) = p(0) + F t = [x(t ) − x(0)] + t . (38)
t 2
Using Eq. (37),
p 2 (0) m
− F x(0) = 2 [x 2 (t ) + x 2 (0) − x(t )x(0) − x(0)x(t )]
2m 2t
F F 2t 2
− [x(t ) − x(0)] + − F x(0)
2 8m
m
= 2 [x 2 (t ) + x 2 (0) − x(t )x(0) − x(0)x(t )]
2t
F F 2t 2
− [x(t ) + x(0)] + (39)
2 8m
Considering now Eq. (34), we can write x(0)x(t ) = x(t )x(0)+ im
ħt
and substitut-
ing this in the above equation, we find
p 2 (0) m iħ
− F x(0) = 2 [x 2 (t ) + x 2 (0) − 2x(t )x(0)] −
2m 2t 2t
2 2
F F t
− [x(t ) + x(0)] + . (40)
2 8m
 8

Next, substituting Eqs. (37), (38) and (40) in Eq. (36) and using the fact that
x(t )|x 00 , t 〉 = x 00 |x 00 , t 〉 and x(0)|x 0 , t 0 = 0〉 = x 0 |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉, we get

δ〈x 00 , t |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉 i m 00 F m 00 F
½µ ¶ µ ¶
0 00
= [x − x ] + t δx − [x − x ] − t δx 0
0
〈x 00 , t |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉 ħ t 2 t 2
2 2¶
m 00 i ħ F 00 F t
µ ¾
0 2 0
− [x − x ] − − [x + x ] + δt
2t 2 2t 2 8m
i m 00 m
·½ ¾
0 00 0 00 0 2
= (x − x )(δx − δx ) − 2 (x − x ) δt
ħ t 2t
Ft F 00 iħ F 2t 2
½ ¾ ¸
00 0 0
+ (δx + δx ) + (x + x )δt + δt − δt
2 2 2t 8m
i m 00 F 00 C F 2t 3
· µ ¶ ¸
0 2 0
= δ (x − x ) + (x + x )t − i ħln p − , (41)
ħ 2t 2 t 24m

where C is a constant whose value follows from the initial condition

〈x 00 , t |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉 −→ δ(x 00 − x 0 ) for t → 0. (42)

The left hand side of Eq. (41) can be written as

δ〈x 00 , t |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉
= δ[ln(〈x 00 , t |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉)], (43)
〈x 00 , t |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉

thus, from Eqs. (43) and (41), we have that

i m 00 F 00 C F 2t 3
· µ ¶ ¸
00 0 0 2 0
ln(〈x , t |x , t 0 = 0〉) = (x − x ) + (x + x )t − i ħln p − (44)
ħ 2t 2 t 24m
so,

i m 00 F 00 C F 2t 3
½ · µ ¶ ¸¾
00 0 0 2 0
〈x , t |x , t 0 = 0〉 = exp (x − x ) + (x + x )t − i ħln p −
ħ 2t 2 t 24m
2 3 ¸¾
C i m 00 F F t
½ ·
= p exp (x − x 0 )2 + (x 00 + x 0 )t − . (45)
t ħ 2t 2 24m

We can determine now the constant C :

Z∞ Z∞
C
d (x 00 − x 0 )〈x 00 , t |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉 = p d (x 00 − x 0 )
t
−∞ −∞
i m 00 F F 2t 3
½ · ¸
0 2 00 0
× exp (x − x ) + (x + x )t − . (46)
ħ 2t 2 24m
 9

Using that (see integration tables for Gaussian functions)

Z∞
π b 2 /(4a)+c
r
−au 2 +bx+c
d ue = e , (47)
a
−∞

and comparing with Eq. (46), we can identify a, b and c:

im m iFt i F 2t 3
a =− = , b= , c =− . (48)
2ħt 2i ħt 2ħ 24mħ
In this way,
Z∞
s s
C 2i πħt g (t ) 2i πħ g (t )
d (x 00 − x 0 )〈x 00 , t |x 0 , t 0 = 0〉 = p e =C e , (49)
t m m
−∞

where
b2 i F 2t 3 F 2t 3
g (t ) = +c = − − . (50)
4a 8ħm 24m
In the limit t → 0, using Eqs. (42) and (49),
Z∞ Z∞
s
00 0 00 0 2i πħ
lim d (x − x )〈x , t |x , t 0 = 0〉 = C = d (x 00 − x 0 )δ(x 00 − x 00 ) = 1.
t →0 m
−∞ −∞
(51)

In this way,
r
m
C= . (52)
2i πħ
Substituting this value in Eq. (45), we find

F 2t 3
r
m i m 00 F 00
½ · ¸¾
00 0 0 2 0
〈x , t |x , t 0 = 0〉 = exp (x − x ) + (x + x )t − (53)
2i πħt ħ 2t 2 24m

B ASIC APPLICATIONS

P ROBLEM 2

Let’s consider the state | j , j 〉. After applying a rotation by angle ² about the
y-axis, we get the state

D(²jj )| j , j 〉 = e −i J y ²/ħ | j , j 〉. (54)

 10

Since the angle ² is infinitesimal, we can expand e −i J y ² and retain terms of

order ²2 . In this way
i ²2 2
· ¸
D(²jj )| j , j 〉 = 1 − ²J y − 2 J y | j , j 〉
ħ 2ħ
i ²2 2
= | j , j 〉 − ²J y | j , j 〉 − 2 J y | j , j 〉. (55)
ħ 2ħ
We see then that the problem reduces to calculate J y | j , j 〉 and J y2 | j , j 〉. To do
this, it is convenient to express J y in terms of J ± :
1
Jy = (J + − J − ) (56)
2i
with
p
J + | j , m〉 = j ( j + 1) − m(m + 1)ħ| j , m + 1〉,
p
J − | j , m〉 = j ( j + 1) − m(m − 1)ħ| j , m − 1〉. (57)
Using Eqs. (56) and (57),
1 1 1p
Jy|j, j 〉 = (J + − J − )| j , j 〉 = − J − | j , j 〉 = − j ( j + 1) − j ( j − 1)ħ| j , j − 1〉,
2i 2i 2i
1p
J y2 | j , j 〉 = J y [J y | j , j 〉] = − j ( j + 1) − j ( j − 1)ħJ y | j , j − 1〉
2i
1p
= j ( j + 1) − j ( j − 1)ħ[J + − J − ]| j , j − 1〉
4 · ¸
1p p p
= 2jħ j ( j + 1) − ( j − 1) j ħ| j , j 〉 − j ( j + 1) − ( j − 1)( j − 2)ħ| j , j − 2〉
4
ħ2 2 j p
p · ¸
p
= 2 j | j , j 〉 − j ( j + 1) − ( j − 1)( j − 2)| j , j − 2〉 . (58)
4
The probability P for the new rotated state to be found in the original state,
i.e., | j , j 〉 is given by
P = |〈 j , j |D(²jj )| j , j 〉|2 . (59)
Using Eqs. (55), (58) and the fact that the states | j , m〉 are orthonormal, i.e.,
〈 j 0 , m 0 | j , m〉 = δ j 0 j δm 0 m , we get

i ²2
〈 j , j |D(²jj )| j , j 〉 = 1 − ²〈 j , j |J y | j , j 〉 − 2 〈 j , j |J y2 | j , j 〉
ħ ħ
²2 ħ2 2 j p
p
= 1− 2 2j
2ħ 4
²2 j
= 1− . (60)
4
 11

Substituting the preceding equation in Eq. (59), and using that (1+x)n ' 1+nx
if x is infinitesimal,
¶2
²2 j ²2 j
µ
P = 1− ' 1− (61)
4 2