Principles of Navigation 2018 by Ranjeet Singh

2018
Principle of navigation
PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH

PRINCIPLE OF NAVIGATION
CONTENTS
S.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1 Measurement of Distance and Direction 02
2 Chart Projections & Chart Datum 09
3 The Celestial Sphere 17
4 The Equinoctial system of co-ordinates 19
5 Geographical Position of a Celestial Body 22
6 Daily Motion and Horizontal System of Co-ordinated 23
7 PZX triangle 27
8 Circumpolar Bodies 29
9 Earth – Moon System 32
10 Solar System 39
11 Time 52
12 The Nautical Almanac 61
13 Rising & Setting of Celestial bodies 64
14 Twilight 67
15 Sextant & Altitude Correction 72
16 Practical Navigation Calculations Procedures 79
17 The Sailings (Plane, Mercator, Great Circle & Composite Sailing) 89
PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 1

Measurement of Distance and Direction
Geographical Poles
Two points on the surface of the earth through which the axis of rotation of the earth passes.
Great Circle
Any circle drawn on the surface of a sphere, of which the plane of the circle passes through the centre of the
sphere. It is the largest circle that can be drawn on a sphere passing two given points.
Small Circle
Any circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which does not pass through the centre of the sphere.
The Equator
A great circle on the surface of the earth, the plane of which is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the earth.
Meridian
A semi-great circle on the surface of the earth that connects the two geographical poles.
Prime Meridian
The meridian that passes through an arbitrary point which is Greenwich, UK.

Parallel of Latitude
Small circle on the surface of the earth parallel to the equator.
Latitude
The latitude of any particular position is the arc of any meridian contained between the equator and the parallel
of latitude through that particular position.
Difference of Latitude (D. Lat.)
The difference of latitude between any two positions is the arc of a meridian contained between the parallels of
latitude through the positions.
Longitude
The longitude of any particular position is the arc of the equator contained between the prime meridian and the
meridian passing through that particular position.
Difference of Longitude (D. Long.)
The difference of longitude between any two positions is the lesser arc of the equator contained between the two
meridians that pass through the positions.
Departure
The departure between two positions is the distance in nautical miles between meridians passing through the
two positions, measured along parallel latitude.
Rhumb Line or Loxodrome
The rhumb line is the line that cuts every meridian at the same angle. If the rhumb line cuts the meridians at an
angle of 90°, then it is a part of a parallel of latitude. If the rhumb line cuts the meridians at an angle other than
90°, the line is a spiral that converges on the pole. The rhumb line course is used for steering from one position
to another because it is convenient, but it is not the shortest distance between two positions. The shortest
distance between two positions is along the arc of a great circle.

Measurement of Distance
The nautical mile is the unit used to measure distance at sea. It is the unit of angle of the great circle of a
meridian. The length of one nautical mile is defined as the length of a meridian which subtends an angle of one
minute at the centre of the curvature of that part. The earth is not a true sphere, but is an oblate spheroid,
flattened at the poles and bulged at the equator. Therefore, the radius of the curvature at the poles is greater than
the radius at the equator, so the linear distance of one nautical mile at the pole is greater than the linear distance
of one nautical mile at the equator. Thus, the exact length of a mile varies along the meridian.
In the figure: APB = CED = θ° AP > CE ∴ AB > CD
One nautical mile at the equator is approximately 1842.9 metres (6046.4 feet) and one nautical mile at the poles
is approximately 1861.7 metres (6107.8 feet). For practical navigation, the value of 1852 metres (6080 feet) is
adopted as the International Nautical Mile.
Measurement of Direction
Measurement of direction is used to express the course, which is the direction of a movement or the direction of
a bearing. This expression uses the direction of the north as the reference. There are two directions of north: true
north, and magnetic north. True north is the geographical North Pole, through which all the chart’s meridians
pass, and magnetic north is the earth’s magnetic north pole.
Variation is the difference between True North and Magnetic North
The magnetic north does not coincide with true north, but slowly rotates around true north. The angle between
the magnetic meridian and the true meridian is called Variation. The variation changes with position, e.g., as
shown in the next figure at position A, the variation is θ; at position B, the variation is β.

If the variation is west, then the magnetic north is greater than the true north, and if the variation is east, then the
magnetic north is less than the true north.
Variation WEST Magnetic BEST

Variation EAST Magnetic LEAST

Magnetic Compass
The magnetic compass basically consists of a magnetic needle suspended at a point. As per the effect of the
earth’s magnetic field, this needle is rotated until its length is parallel with the magnetic meridian if there is no
other force in the vicinity to affect the needle. The magnetic needle is usually attached to a compa ss card, which
is marked with directions; when the magnetic field effect on the needle causes rotation of the needle, then the
card rotates also; when the needle settles down, with its length parallel to the magnetic meridian, the observer
can read the direction on the compass card. The ship’s magnetic compass usually consists of four or eight
needles under the compass card, and is designed so as to be free from friction and working under conditions of
the rolling of the ship. The magnetic needle is also affected by the local magnetic field, especially on today’s
steel ships. Magnetic bars are placed in the compass to correct the effect of the local magnetic field. The effect
of the local magnetic field can never be eliminated completely, and whatever remains is called Deviation.
Deviation is the difference between Magnetic North and Compass North
Deviation is therefore the angle between the direction of the needle and the magnetic meridian. Deviation
changes its value when the ship’s head changes direction. Deviation is named WEST if the compass needle
points left of magnetic meridian, and named EAST if the compass needle points to the right of the magnetic
meridian.
If the deviation is west, then the compass north is greater than the magnetic north, and if the deviation is east,
then the compass north is less than the magnetic north.
Deviation WEST Compass BEST
Deviation EAST Compass LEAST

Compass Error
Compass error is the difference between the True North and Compass North
Compass error is the angle between the true north and the direction in which the compass card is pointing. It is
the combination of the variation and deviation. If the variation and deviation have the same name; then the
compass error is the sum of variation and deviation. If they have a different name, then the compass error is the
difference between variation and deviation, and will be named as the greater one. If the compass error is west,
then the compass north is greater than the true north, and if the compass error is east, then the compass north is
less than the true north.
Compass error WEST Compass BEST
Compass error EAST Compass LEAST

Gyro Compass
Compass error HIGH is NEGATIVE
Compass error LOW is POSITIVE
The gyroscopic compass is designed to indicate the true heading of the ship so that no correction will be
required for variation and deviation. The gyro compass also bears small errors, which should never exceed 1°
or 2°. This small error is said to be a HIGH or LOW reading. The error is said to be HIGH when the north point
of the gyro compass card is pointing to the left of the true north. The correction is negative, because all the
direction taken from the compass card will be greater than the true value. Therefore, all the readings on the
compass must be subtracted from the error to obtain the true value.
The error is said to be LOW when the north point of the gyro compass card is pointing to the right of true north.
The correction is positive, because all direction taken from the compass card will be less than the true value.
Therefore, the error must be added to the compass reading in order to get the true value.
Relative Bearing
Relative bearing is the angle at the observer, measured clockwise from the direction of ship’s heading to the
direction of the observing target.
True bearing = Ship’s true heading + Relative bearing

Chart Projections & Chart Datums
A chart projection is a way to project the earth’s surface, which is spherical, onto paper, which is flat. So there
will always be distortion. The navigator must know the different types of chart projections and the principles of
their constructions, so that the chart projection that will have the least possible distortion for a particular area
can be chosen.
Types of Projections
 Gnomonic
 Lambert Conformal
 Mercator
 Polar Stereographic
 Polyconic.
Each projection has its own advantages and disadvantages. The most popular for navigational charts are the
Gnomonic and Mercator projections. Gnomonic charts are usually used for the Polar Regions, while Mercator
charts are usually used for the remaining areas on earth.
Gnomonic Chart
A Gnomonic chart, sometimes called a “Great Circle Chart”, is constructed on the gnomonic projection. It is a
geometrical projection in which surface features and the reference lines of the sphere are projected outward
from the center of the earth onto a tangent plane. A Gnomonic chart is often used to transfer a great circle to a
Mercator chart.
Advantages
 A great circle is drawn as a straight line;
 Distortion is tolerable within 1,000 miles of the point of tangency;
 The polar region can be shown.
Disadvantages
 It is not conformal (orthomorphic), so the true shapes are presented only near the region of tangency;
 Rhumb lines cannot be drawn as straight lines;
 Distance and direction cannot be measured directly.

Mercator Chart
The Mercator is the projection most widely used in marine navigation, except for the areas of the poles. It is a
cylindrical projection. Imagine a cylinder rolled around the earth, tangent at the equator, and parallel to the
earth’s axis. Meridians appear as straight vertical lines when projected outward onto the cylinder from within
the earth. The amount of lateral distortion steadily increases with distance from the equator. Consequently, the
latitude scale must be expanded to maintain true shape. The latitude scale is expanded mathematically on all
Mercator charts.
Advantages
 It is orthomorphic; therefore, the navigator can see the shape of the land correctly on the chart.
 Position, distance, and direction can all be easily determined. The distance can be measured from
latitude scale.
 The meridians and parallels are always at right angles; therefore, the rhumb line can be drawn as a
straight line on the chart.

Disadvantages
 Great circles cannot be drawn as straight lines.

 The higher latitudes are stretched, so that the shape of the land further north is stretched vertically.
 The areas near the poles cannot be shown on the chart.

TYPES OF GEODETIC SURVEY

Triangulation
 The most common type of geodetic survey is known as triangulation. Triangulation consists of the
measurement of the angles of a series of triangles. The principle of triangulation is based on plane
trigonometry. If the distance along one side of the triangle and the angles at each end are accurately
measured, the other two sides and the remaining angle can be computed. In practice, all of the angles of
every triangle are measured to provide precise measurements. Also, the latitude and longitude of one
end of the measured side along with the length and direction (azimuth) of the side provide sufficient data
to compute the latitude and longitude of the other end of the side.
 The measured side of the base triangle is called a baseline. Measurements are made as carefully and
accurately as possible with specially calibrated tapes or wires of Invar, an alloy highly resistant to
changes in length resulting from changes in temperature. The tape or wires are checked periodically
against standard measures of length.
 To establish an arc of triangulation between two widely separated locations, the baseline may be
measured and longitude and latitude determined for the initial points at each location. The lines are then
connected by a series of adjoining triangles forming quadrilaterals extending from each end. All angles
of the triangles are measured repeatedly to reduce errors. With the longitude, latitude, and azimuth of the
initial points, similar data is computed for each vertex of the triangles, thereby establishing triangulation
stations, or geodetic control stations. The coordinates of each of the stations are defined as geodetic
coordinates.
 Triangulation is extended over large areas by connecting and extending series of arcs to form a network
or triangulation system. The network is adjusted in a manner which reduces the effect of observational
errors to a minimum. A denser distribution of geodetic control is achieved in a system by subdividing or
filling in with other surveys.
 There are four general classes or orders of triangulation. First-order (primary) triangulation is the most
precise and exact type. The most accurate instruments and rigorous computation methods are used. It is
costly and time-consuming, and is usually used to provide the basic framework of control data for an
area, and the determination of the figure of the earth. The most accurate first-order surveys furnish
control points which can be interrelated with an accuracy ranging from 1 part in 25,000 over short
distances to approximately 1 part in 100,000 for long distances.
 Second-order triangulation furnishes points closer together than in the primary network. While second-
order surveys may cover quite extensive areas, they are usually tied to a primary system where possible.
The procedures are less exacting and the proportional error is 1 part in 10,000.
 Third-order triangulation is run between points in a secondary survey. It is used to densify local control
nets and position the topographic and hydrographic detail of the area. Triangle error can amount to 1
part in 5,000.
 The sole accuracy requirement for fourth-order triangulation is that the positions be located without any
appreciable error on maps compiled on the basis of the control. Fourth-order control is done primarily as
mapping control.

Trilateration, Traverse, And Vertical Surveying

 Trilateration involves measuring the sides of a chain of triangles or other polygons. From them, the
distance and direction from A to B can be computed. Figure 206 shows this process.
 Traverse involves measuring distances and the angles between them without triangles for the purpose of
computing the distance and direction from A to B. See Figure 206.
 Vertical surveying is the process of determining elevations above mean sea-level. In geodetic surveys
executed primarily for mapping, geodetic positions are referred to an ellipsoid, and the elevations of the
positions are referred to the geoid. However, for satellite geodesy the geoidal heights must be considered
to establish the correct height above the geoid.
 Precise geodetic leveling is used to establish a basic network of vertical control points. From these, the
height of other positions in the survey can be determined by supplementary methods. The mean sea -
level surface used as a reference (vertical datum) is determined by averaging the hourly water heights
for a specified period of time at specified tide gauges.
 There are three leveling techniques: differential, trigonometric, and barometric. Differential leveling is
the most accurate of the three methods. With the instrument locked in position, readings are made on
two calibrated staffs held in an upright position ahead of and behind the instrument. The difference
between readings is the difference in elevation between the points.
 Trigonometric leveling involves measuring a vertical angle from a known distance with a theodolite and
computing the elevation of the point. With this method, vertical measurement can be made at the same
time horizontal angles are measured for triangulation. It is, therefore, a somewhat more economical
method but less accurate than differential leveling. It is often the only practical method of establishing
accurate elevation control in mountainous areas.
 In barometric leveling, differences in height are determined by measuring the differences in atmospheric
pressure at various elevations. Air pressure is measured by mercurial or aneroid barometer, or a boiling
point thermometer. Although the accuracy of this method is not as great as either of the other two, it
obtains relative heights very rapidly at points which are fairly far apart. It is used in reconnaissance and
exploratory surveys where more accurate measurements will be made later or where a high degree of
accuracy is not required.
DATUM CONNECTIONS
Definitions
 A datum is defined as any numerical or geometrical quantity or set of such quantities which serves
as a reference point to measure other quantities.
 In geodesy, as well as in cartography and navigation, two types of datums must be considered: a
horizontal datum and a vertical datum. The horizontal datum forms the basis for computations of
horizontal position. The vertical datum provides the reference to measure heights. A horizontal
datum may be defined at an origin point on the ellipsoid (localdatum) such that the center of the
ellipsoid coincides with the Earth’s center of mass (geocentric datum). The coordinates for points in

specific geodetic surveys and triangulation networks are computed from certain initial quantities, or
datums.
Preferred Datums
 In areas of overlapping geodetic triangulation networks, each computed on a different datum, the
coordinates of the points given with respect to one datum will differ from those given with respect to
the other. The differences can be used to derive transformation formulas. Datums are connected by
developing transformation formulas at common points, either between overlapping control networks
or by satellite connections.
 Many countries have developed national datums which differ from those of their neighbors.
Accordingly, national maps and charts often do not agree along national borders.
 The North American Datum, 1927 (NAD 27) has been used in the United States for about 50 years,
but it is being replaced by datums based on the World Geodetic System. NAD 27 coordinates are
based on the latitude and longitude of a triangulation station (the reference point) at Mead’s Ranch in
Kansas, the azimuth to a nearby triangulation station called Waldo, and the mathematical parameters
of the Clarke Ellipsoid of 1866. Other datums throughout the world use different assumptions as to
origin points and ellipsoids.
 The origin of the European Datum is at Potsdam, Germany. Numerous national systems have been
joined into a large datum based upon the International Ellipsoid of 1924 which was oriented by a
modified astro geodetic method. European, African, and Asian triangulation chains were connected,
and African measurements from Cairo to Cape Town were completed. Thus, all of Europe, Africa,
and Asia are molded into one great system. Through common survey stations, it was also possible to
convert data from the Russian Pulkova, 1932 system to the European Datum, and as a result, the
European Datum includes triangulation as far east as the 84th meridian. Additional ties across the
Middle East have permitted connection of the Indian and European Datums.
 The Ordnance Survey of Great Britain 1936 Datum has no point of origin. The data was derived as a
best fit between retriangulation and original values of 11 points of the earlier Principal Triangulation
of Great Britain (1783-1853).
 Tokyo Datum has its origin in Tokyo. It is defined in terms of the Bessel Ellipsoid and oriented by a
single astronomic station. Triangulation ties through Korea connect the Japanese datum with the
Manchurian datum. Unfortunately, Tokyo is situated on a steep slope on the geoid, and the
singlestationorientationhasresultedinlargesystematicgeoidalseparations as the system is extended
from its initial point.
 The Indian Datum is the preferred datum for India and several adjacent countries in Southeast Asia.
It is computed on the Everest Ellipsoid with its origin at Kalianpur, in central India. It is largely the
result of the untiring work of Sir George Everest (1790-1866), Surveyor General in India from 1830
to 1843. He is best known by the mountain named after him, but by far his most important legacy
was the survey of the Indian subcontinent.

MODERN GEODETIC SYSTEMS (WGS 84)

Development Of The World Geodetic System
 By the late 1950’s the increasing range and sophistication of weapons systems had rendered local or
national datums inadequate for military purposes; these new weapons required datums at least
continental in scope. In response to these requirements, the U.S. Department of Defense generated a
geocentric reference system to which different geodetic networks could be referred and established
compatibility between the coordinates of sites of interest. Efforts of the Army, Navy, and Air Force were
combined leading to the development of the DoD World Geodetic System of 1960 (WGS 60).
 In January 1966, a World Geodetic System Committee was charged with the responsibility for
developing an improved WGS needed to satisfy mapping, charting, and geodetic requirements.
Additional surface gravity observations, results from the extension of triangulation and trilateration
networks, and large amounts of Doppler and optical satellite data had become available since the
development of WGS 60. Using the additional data and improved techniques, the Committee produced
WGS 66 which served DoD needs following its implementation in 1967.
 The same World Geodetic System Committee began work in 1970 to develop a replacement for WGS
66. Since the development of WGS 66, large quantities of additional data had become available from
both Doppler and optical satellites, surface gravity surveys, triangulation and trilateration surveys, high
precision traverses, and astronomic surveys.
 In addition, improved capabilities had been developed in both computers and computer software.
Continued research in computational procedures and error analyses had produced better methods and an
improved facility for handling and combining data. After an extensive effort extending over a period of
approximately three years, the Committee completed the development of the Department of Defense
World Geodetic System 1972 (WGS 72).
 Further refinement of WGS 72 resulted in the new World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84). As of
1990, WGS 84 is being used for chart making by DMA. For surface navigation, WGS60,66,72 and the
new WGS84 are essentially the same, so that positions computed on any WGS coordinates can be
plotted directly on the others without correction.
 The WGS system is not based on a single point, but many points, fixed with extreme precision by
satellite fixes and statistical methods. The result is an ellipsoid which fits the real surface of the earth, or
geoid, far more accurately than any other. The WGS system is applicable worldwide. All regional
datums can be referenced to WGS once a survey tie has been made.

IMPACTS ON NAVIGATION
Datum Shifts
 One impact of different datums on navigation appears when a navigation system provides a fix based on
a datum different from that used for the nautical chart. The resulting plotted position may be different
from the actual location on that chart. This difference is known as a datum shift.
 Another effect on navigation occurs when shifting between charts that have been made using different
datums. If any position is replotted on a chart of another datum using only latitude and longitude for
locating that position, the newly plotted position will not match with respect to other charted features.
This datum shift may be avoided by replotting using bearings and ranges to common points. If datum
shift conversion notes for the applicable datums are given on the charts, positions defined by latitude
and longitude may be replotted after applying the noted correction.
 The positions given for chart corrections in the Notice to Mariners reflect the proper datum for each
specific chart and edition number. Due to conversion of charts based on old datums to more modern
ones, and the use of many different datums throughout the world, chart corrections intended for one
edition of a chart may not be safely plotted on any other.
 These datum shifts are not constant throughout a given area, but vary according to how the differing
datums fit together. For example, the NAD 27 to NAD 83 conversion results in changes in latitude of 40
meters in Miami, 11 meters in New York, and 20 meters in Seattle. Longitude changes for this
conversion are about 22 meters in Miami, 35 meters in New York, and 93 meters in Seattle.
 Most charts produced by DMA and NOS show a “datum note.” This note is usually found in the title
block or in the upper left margin of the chart. According to the year of the chart edition, the scale, and
policy at the time of production, the note may say “World Geodetic System 1972 (WGS-72)”, “World
Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84)”, or “World Geodetic System (WGS).” A datum note for a chart for
which satellite positions can be plotted without correction will read: “Positions obtained from satellite
navigation systems referred to (REFERENCE DATUM) can be plotted directly on this chart.”
 DMA reproductions of foreign chart‘s will usually be in the datum or reference system of the producing
country. In these cases a conversion factor is given in the following format: “Positions obtained from
satellite navigation systems referred to the (Reference Datum) must be moved X.XX minutes
(Northward/Southward) and X.XX minutes (Eastward/ Westward) to agree with this chart.”
 Some charts cannot be tied in to WGS because of lack of recent surveys. Currently issued charts of some
areas are based on surveys or use data obtained in the age of sailing ships. The lack of surveyed control
points means that they cannot be properly referenced to modern geodetic systems. In this case there may
be a note that says: “Adjustments to WGS cannot be determined for this chart.”
 A few charts may have no datum note at all, but may carry a note which says: “From various sources to
(year).” In these cases there is no way for the navigator to determine the mathematical difference
between the local datum and WGS positions. However, if a radar or visual fix can be very accurately
determined, the difference between this fix and a satellite fix can determine an approximate correction
factor which will be reasonably consistent for that local area.

Minimizing Errors Caused By Differing Datums
To minimize problems caused by differing datums:

• Plot chart corrections only on the specific charts and editions for which they are intended. Each chart
correction is specific to only one edition of a chart. When the same correction is made on two charts based on
different datums, the positions for the same feature may differ slightly. This difference is equal to the datum
shift between the two datums for that area.
• Try to determine the source and datum of positions of temporary features, such as drill rigs. In general they are
given in the datum used in the area in question. Since these are usually positioned using satellites, WGS is the
normal datum. A datum correction, if needed, might be found on a chart of the area.
• Remember that if the datum of a plotted feature is not known, position inaccuracies may result. It is wise to
allow a margin of error if there is any doubt about the datum.
• Know how the datum of the positioning system you are using (Loran, GPS, etc.) relates to your chart. GPS
and other modern positioning systems use the WGS datum. If your chart is on any other datum, you must apply
a datum correction when plotting the GPS position of the chart.
Modern geodesy can support the goal of producing all the world’s charts on the same datum. Coupling an
electronic chart with satellite positioning will eliminate the problem of differing datums because electronically
derived positions and the video charts on which they are displayed are derived from one of the new worldwide
datums.

The Celestial Sphere

For the purposes of navigation, we have to assume that the earth is the centre of the universe and that the sun,
the moon, the planets and all the stars are situated around the earth equidistantly, making up a large sphere
surrounding the earth and known as the celestial sphere.
 Celestial Sphere
Celestial Sphere is a sphere of infinite radius with the centre of the Earth as its centre.
 Celestial Poles
Celestial Poles are the two points on the celestial sphere where the axis of the Earth produced meet it.
 Celestial Equator (Equinoctial)

 Celestial Equator (Equinoctial) is a great circle on the celestial sphere in the same plane as the
plane of the Earth’s Equator.
 Thus the Equinoctial is a projection of the Equator on the celestial poles.
 Every point on the Equinoctial is 90º from the poles.
 Parallel of declinations
 Parallel of declinations are small circles on the celestial sphere, the planes of which are parallel
to the Equinoctial.
 These correspond to parallels of latitudes on the Earth’s surface.
 Declination
 Declination are small circles on the celestial sphere, the planes of which are parallel to the
Equinoctial.
 Declinations are measured from 0º to 90º N or S of the Equinoctial.
 Celestial meridians
 Celestial meridians are great circles on the celestial sphere, the planes of which pass through the
celestial poles.
 These correspond to meridians (Longitudes) on the Earth’s Surface.
 Ecliptic
 Ecliptic is a great circle on the celestial sphere in the same plane as the plane of the Earth’s orbit
around the Sun.
 Thus the Sun’s apparent annual path on the celestial sphere is the Ecliptic.
 It is so called because the Sun, Moon and Earth must be on this plane for a solar or lunar eclipse
to occur.
 Obliquity of the Ecliptic

Obliquity of the Ecliptic is the angle between the plane of the Equinoctial and that of the Ecliptic. Its
value is approximately 23 ½ º.
If no value is given in examination question than assume 23º 26.7’.
 First point of Aries (γ) and First point of Libra (Ω)

 The two points on the celestial sphere, where the Ecliptic intersects the Equinoctial are called the
Equinoctial points.
 On 21st March , at vernal Equinox, the Sun appears to cross the Equinoctial from S to N. This
point is known as the First point of Aries.
 On 23rd September, at Autumnal Equinox, the Sun appears to cross the equinoctial from N to S.
This point is known as the first point of Libra.

The Equinoctial system of co-ordinates
In Celestial sphere and Equinoctial system of co-ordinates the reference great circles are;
 The Equinoctial and
 The Celestial meridian
Through the First point of Aries or the celestial meridian of Greenwich or the celestial meridian of the observer.
The co-ordinates used are Declination and the Hour Angle
 SHA when measured from the First point of Aries
 GHA measured from that of Greenwich
 LHA when measured from that of the observer
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)
GHA of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained between the
celestial meridian of Greenwich and celestial meridian passing through that celestial body, measured westward
from Greenwich.
Local Hour Angle (LHA)

 LHA of a celestial body is the arc of the Equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained between
the observer’s celestial meridian and meridian passing through that body, measured westward from the
observer.
 If the angle or arc is measured eastward from observer, it is known as the Easterly Hour Angle (EHA).
 Therefore LHA of a body = 360º - its EHA

Sidereal hour Angle (SHA)
SHA of a celestial body is the arc of equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained between the
celestial meridian of the First point of Aries and that through the body, measured westward from Aries.
Right Ascension (RA)
 RA of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained between
the celestial meridian of the First point of Aries and that through the body, measured eastward from
Aries.
 SHA or RA may also be expressed in hours, minutes and seconds instead of, in arc.
 SHA + RA = 360º

Rate of Change GHA – Sun and Aries
 As the period of sidereal day is 23 h 56 m 04.1 s of mean solar time and
 Mean solar day is 24 hrs.
 Rate of change of GHA of Sun is 15º 00’ and Aries is 15º 02.46’.
‘v’ Correction
 The assumed hourly increase of GHA of Sun and planets stated in the nautical almanac is 15º 00’, that
of Aries is 15º 02.46’ and that of the moon 14º 19’.
 The values of ‘v’ tabulated in the daily pages of the almanac are the actual hourly increase in the GHA
of these bodies in excess of the assumed values stated above.
 ‘v’ is generally +ve, except sometimes in the case of Venus, When its hourly increase in GHA is less
than 15º.
 This happens in the case of Venus alone, due to its proximity to the earth causing the apparent direct
motion of Venus to be more rapid than those of the other planets.
 Though the Moon is closer than Venus, its ‘v’ is never negative, because the assumed value of 14º 19’ is
lesser than the least actual hourly increase in the Moon’s GHA.
 ‘v’ is not tabulated for Aries, as its actual hourly increase in GHA never increases from the value of
15º 02.46’ used for the increment table.
 ‘v’ is not tabulated for the Sun either because its rate of increase of GHA per hour is always very nearly
equal to the assumed value of 15º 00’.
 Any small difference is made up for in the next tabulated hourly value of the Sun’s GHA.
‘d’ Correction
 ‘d’ is the hourly change in the declination of the various bodies.
 Weather it is an increase or a decrease can be found by inspection of the almanac around the time.
 ‘d’ is not tabulated for Aries as it is always on the equinoctial, with a constant nil declination.
 For the Sun and Planets, The ‘d’ listed is the mean value of their hourly change of declination for 3 days
on the page.
 For Moon it is tabulated hourly due to the rapid change in its rate of change of declination.

Geographical Position of a Celestial Body

Daily Motion and Horizontal System of Co-ordinated
Horizon System of Co-ordinates
In Horizon System of co-ordinates the reference great circle is the
 Observer’s Rational Horizon or Celestial Horizon and

 Observer’s Celestial meridian.
The co-ordinates used are
 Altitude or zenith distance and
 Azimuth
Celestial or Rational Horizon

The observer’s rational horizon is a great circle on the celestial sphere, every point on which 90° away from his
zenith.
The Observer’s Zenith and Nadir

 The observer’s Zenith is the point on the celestial sphere vertically above the observer i.e. the point at
which a straight line from the Centre of the Earth through the observer meets the celestial sphere.
 The observer’s Nadir is the point on the celestial sphere vertically opposite his zenith.

Vertical Circles
Vertical circles are great circles on the celestial sphere passing through the observer’s zenith and nadir.
Prime Vertical
 The observer’s Prime vertical is the vertical circle passing through the East and west points of the
rational horizon.
 Condition for a body to pass / cross the observer’s prime vertical
 Latitude and Declination should be of same name
 Declination is should be less than Latitude
 It is advantageous to take a sight when a body is on the prime vertical because;
 The Azimuth of the body is E or W and so the Position line will be N – S.
 Thus, there will be no longitude correction.
Elevated pole
The pole above the observer’s rational horizon.
Depressed pole
The pole below the observer’s rational horizon.
True Altitude
True Altitude of a body is the arc of the vertical circle through the body contained between the rational horizon
and the Centre of the body.
True Zenith Distance

 True Zenith distance of a body is the arc of the vertical circle through the body contained between the
observer’s zenith and the Centre of the body.
 Zenith distance = 90º - Altitude
Polar Distance
 Polar distance is the arc of the celestial meridian of the body arc the angle at the Centre of the earth
contained between the parallel of declination of the body and the celestial pole of the same name as the
declination.
 Polar distance = 90º - Declination

Azimuth & Amplitude
 Azimuth of a celestial body is the arc of the observer’s rational horizon or the angle at his zenith
contained between the observer’s celestial meridian and the vertical circle through that body.
 When the body is on the observer’s meridian or inferior meridian, its LHA is 360º or 180º and its
azimuth 000º or 180º.
 And when the body is on the observer’s prime vertical, its azimuth will be 090º or 270º.
 Since LHA is measured westwards from the observer’s meridian, the azimuth of the body whose LHA is
between 000º and 180º will be westerly and that of a body whose LHA is between 180º and 360º will be
easterly.
Maximum Azimuth
 When the latitude and declination of body are opposite name, maximum azimuth will be when the
body is on the rational horizon.
 When the latitude and declination of body are same name and declination value is more than
latitude, its azimuth will increase initially, reach a maximum value and thereafter decrease.

 At maximum azimuth (Angle NZX’), the vertical circle through the body is at a tangent to the
declination circle and (PX’) the radius of the declination circle meets (ZX’) the vertical and tangent at
90º.
 When the body is at maximum azimuth, the angle at the body therefore is 90º and we can solve the PZX
triangle using Napier’s rules for right angle spherical triangles.
Amplitude
 Amplitude of a celestial body is the arc of the observer’s rational horizon or the angle at his Zenith,
contained between the observer’s prime vertical and the vertical circle through the body.
 When the body is on the observer’s rational horizon i.e. at theoretical rising and setting. Amplitude is
therefore measured N or S from the observer’s East point when the body is rising, and from his west
point when setting e.g. E20°S or W15°N etc.

PZX TRIANGLE
PZX Triangle
 PZX triangle is a spherical triangle on the celestial sphere which is formed by intersection of 3 great
circles.
 Celestial meridian through the body (PX)
 Celestial meridian of the observer (PZ)
 Vertical circle through the body (ZX)
 There are three types of PZX triangles

 Spherical triangle
 Right angled triangle
 Quadrant triangle
PZX Spherical Triangle
 Cos ZX = Cos P . Cos Lat +/- Sin lat . Sin dec

(+ If Lat & dec same name, - if different name)
PZX Spherical Triangle
 Cos P = Sin T.Alt -/+ Sin Lat . Sin dec / (Cos Lat . Cos dec)
(- if lat & dec same name, + if different name)
PZX Right angled triangle
 PZX Right Angled triangle , Angle Z = 90º

 Sin mid part = Tan adjacent part X Tan adjacent part
 Sin mid part = Cos opp part X Cos opp part
PZX Quadrant triangle
 PZX Quadrant triangle , Side ZX = 90º

 Sin mid part = Tan adjacent part X Tan adjacent part
 Sin mid part = Cos opp part X Cos opp part

Circumpolar Bodies
For a body to be circumpolar, the body should always be above the rational horizon i.e. the body should not set.
Therefore a circumpolar body will have upper transit (Upper meridian passage) which is above the elevated
pole and lower transit (lower meridian passage) which is below the elevated pole.
Condition required for a body to be circumpolar

 Lat + Dec ≥ 90º (For the body not to set)
 Latitude and declination should be same name

Upper And Lower transit of circumpolar bodies
Upper transit (NX) or (SX) of a circumpolar body is above the elevated pole
 For North Latitude
Upper transit (NX) bearing is north, when Lat < dec
= Altitude of pole + Polar distance (NP + PX)
= Latitude + Polar distance (Lat + PX)
= Declination circle + lower transit (XX’ + NX’)
= 90º - Zenith distance (ZX)
Upper transit (SX) bearing is south, when Lat >dec
= 180º - (Altitude of pole + Polar distance) = 180º - (NP + PX)
= 180º - (Latitude + Polar distance) = 180º - (Lat + PX)
= 180º - (Declination circle + lower transit) = 180º - (XX’ + NX’)
 For South Latitudes

Upper transit (SX) bearing is South, When Lat<dec
= Altitude of pole + Polar distance (SP + PX)
= Latitude + Polar distance (Lat + PX)
= Declination circle + lower transit (XX’ + SX’)
= 90º - Zenith distance (ZX)
Upper transit (NX) bearing is south, when Lat >dec
= 180º - (Altitude of pole + Polar distance) = 180º - (SP + PX)
= 180º - (Latitude + Polar distance) = 180º - (Lat + PX)
= 180º - (Declination circle + lower transit) = 180º - (XX’ + SX’)

Lower Transit (NX’ or SX’) is below the elevated pole

 For North Latitudes
Lower Transit (NX’) bearing is north, same as elevated pole or Latitude or declination
= Altitude of Pole – Polar Distance (NP – PX’)
= Latitude – Polar Distance (Lat – PX’)
= 90º - (PX’ + PZ)
 For South Latitudes

Lower transit (SX’) bearing south, same as elevated pole or latitude or declination
= Altitude of Pole – Polar Distance (SP – PX’)
= Latitude – Polar Distance (Lat – PX’)
= 90º - (PX’ + PZ)
 If the altitudes of a circumpolar body at upper and lower meridian passage are observed
- Then the observer’s Latitude and
- Body’s declination can be calculated.
 Draw the rational horizon, place the body at the upper transit (X) and lower transit (X’)
 Place elevated pole midway between the two positions and draw declination circle, with the pole as the
Centre and the circle passing through X and X’.
 Draw equinoctial, WQE where PQ is 90º.
Diameter of declination circle (XX’)

 = Upper altitude (NX) – Lower altitude (NX’)
(When lower & upper mer pass, bearings is same)
 = 180º - (Upper altitude (SX) + Lower altitude (NX’)
(When lower & upper mer pass, bearings are opposite)
 The diameter, divided by 2 gives the polar distance PX and PX’
 (PX or PX’) = XX’ / 2
 Polar distance (PX) = Altitude of the pole (NP) – Lower meridian altitude (NX’)
 Polar distance (PX) = 90º - Declination
 90º - Polar distance (PX) = Declination, Named same as elevated pole.
 Polar distance (PX) + Lower meridian altitude (NX’)
 = Altitude of the pole (NP)
 = Latitude of observer , named same as elevated pole.

EARTH – MOON SYSTEM
 The Moon revolves about the Earth, in the same direction as the Earth revolves about the Sun.
 The Earth and moon revolve about each other around the common COG of the Earth – Moon system.
This point is known as the barycenter lies about thousands miles within the Earth.
 The orbit of the Moon around the Earth is elliptical with the earth situated at one of the foci of the
ellipse. At apogee the Moon is about 253,000 miles from Earth, and at perigee it is about 221,000 miles.
The average distance of the moon from the earth may be taken as 240,000 miles.
Sidereal period of the Moon
 Sidereal period of the moon is the period of time taken by the moon to complete one revolution of 360º
around the Earth.
 The sidereal period is the constant duration equal to 27 days 07 hrs 43 min 12 secs. i.e. approximately
27.33 days.
Synodic period of the Moon
 Synodic period of the moon is the period of time between two consecutive new moons or two
consecutive full moons.
 Synodic period has an average length of about 29 days 12 hrs 44 mins.
 It is called a “Lunar Month” a “Lunation” or a “Synodic Month”.
 It is not of constant duration with maximum variation of about 13 hours from mean value, due to the
eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit and that of the Earth’s orbit and other disturbances.
Why is the duration of Synodic period of the Moon not of contant duration?


Phases of the Moon





SOLAR SYSTEM
 The planets are divided into two groups.

 The 4 small planets of the inner group (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) and
 The 4 large planets of the outer group (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune).
 Inferior Planets: Mercury and Venus which are closer to the Sun than the Earth.
 Superior Planets: The 6 planets which are further away from the Sun than the Earth.
 All planets rotate on their own axis and revolve around the Sun in a anti-clockwise direction (Eastward)
in elliptical orbits.
 In general the moons revolve about the parent planet in the same direction (anti-clockwise) as the
Planets revolve about the Sun.
 Like our Moon, satellites are not self-luminous. We see them due to the sunlight they reflect.
Planetary Motion

Kepler’s Second Law:
 States that the radius vector of a planet (a line joining Centre of the Sun to the Centre of the planet)
sweeps out equal areas in equal periods.
 For equal areas to be swept out in equal periods, the planets moves faster in its orbit when it is closer to
the Sun and slower when further away.
 A planet is said to be at Aphelion, when in its orbit it is further away from the Sun.
 A planet is said to be at Perihelion, when in its orbit it is nearest to the Sun.
 Because of the Sun is eccentric (not at the Centre) within the Earth’s orbit, at Aphelion, the Earth is
94.45 million miles and at the Perihelion 91.35 million miles from the Sun. Average distance is 93
million miles.
 The eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit is about 1/60.
 In the terms aphelion and perihelion we use suffix ‘helion’ (from the Sun) as the distances are expressed
from the Earth, we use the suffix ‘gee’ (for geographic).
 Thus, when the Sun is in its apparent orbit or the Moon in its orbit around the Earth, is nearest the Earth,
they are said to be at perigee, and
 When farthest the Earth, they are said to be in apogee.
 Similarly when distance are expressed from the Moon, we use the suffix ‘cynthion’ or ‘lune’ leading to
the terms apocynthion or apolune and pericynthion or perilune.

The Planets used for Celestial Navigation

 Are Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.
 Apart from the Sun and Moon, Venus is the brightest celestial body, visible in the mornings before
Sunrise or evenings after Sunset.
 Some of the planets have satellites or moons, Mercury, and Venus have no Moons.
Day and Night seasons of the Earth

 The Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
 At the same time, the Earth is rotating about its axis from West to East, completing a rotation in about
24 hrs.
 Since the Earth is nearly spherical, 50% of the Earth’s surface is illuminated by the Sun’s rays at any
time.
 The other 50% of the Earth is in darkness.
 The circle bounding the illuminated hemisphere is known as the circle of illumination.
 As the earth rotates, places on the Earth’s surface successively pass through the illuminated zone and the
one of darkness, causing day and night respectively.

 Refer to the above figure.

 The axis of the Earth is inclined to the plane of its orbit at about 66 ½ º.
 While the axis maintains its direction in space, its direction wrt the Sun, changes according to the
position of the Earth in its orbit.
 Let us consider the Earth in its orbit at four different positions
- Summer Solstice , 21 st June
- Autumnal Equinox, 23 September
- Winter Solstice, 22nd December
- Vernal Equinox, 21 st March
Summer Solstice
 On 21st June, when the North end of the Earth’s axis

Vernal Equinox
 On 21st March, the tilt of the North end of the Earth’s axis is in the direction at right angles to the
direction from the earth to Sun.
 The Sun’s rays then fall vertically over the Equator and Sun’s declination is 0º.
 The circle of illumination passes through the pole.
 All places on the Earth have equal day and night of 12 hours duration each. i.e. the Sun would rise at 6
am and set at 6 pm throughout the world.
 The Sun is said to be at the “Vernal Equinox”.
 From vernal Equinox to Autumnal Equinox, the North Pole is tipped towards the Sun.
 Places in the N-Hemisphere, would therefore remain in the illuminated hemisphere for longer periods
and in the zone of darkness for shorter periods.
 Therefore they would have longer periods of day light and shorter periods of night.
 In the Southern hemisphere the case is reverse.

Seasons of the Earth

 From Vernal Equinox to Summer Solstice,
 i.e. the period when the declination of the Sun increases from 0º to its maximum value of 23 ½ º N, the
Northern hemisphere is said to have Spring season.
 From Summer Solstice to Autumnal Equinox,

 i.e. the period when the declination of the Sun decreases from maximum value of 23 ½ º N to 0º, the
northern hemisphere is said to have Summer season.
 From Autumnal Equinox to winter solstice,

 i.e. the period when the declination of the Sun increases from 0º to its maximum value 23 ½ º S, the
Northern hemisphere is said to have Autumn season.
 From winter Solstice to vernal equinox,

 i.e. the period when the declination of the Sun decreases from a maximum value of 23 ½ º S to 0º, the
Northern hemisphere is said to have winter season.
 The earth is a perihelion on 1 st January and at aphelion on the 4 th July.

 The Earth moves faster in its orbit, when it is closer to the Sun and slower when it is further away.
 The varying speed of the Earth in its orbit causes the seasons to be unequal lengths, approximately as
follows;
 Spring: 93 days, Summer: 94 days, Autumn: 90 days, Winter: 89 days.

Apparent diurnal Motion of celestial bodies
 Earth rotates on its axis anti-clockwise i.e. west to east completing one rotation in 23h 56m 04.1s of
Mean Solar time.
 Thus the entire celestial sphere appears to rotate in the opposite direction i.e. east to west completing an
apparent rotation of 360º in in about 24 hrs.
 GHA’s of celestial bodies increases by about 15º per hr,
 This apparent rotation of the celestial sphere causes all celestial sphere to rise over the eastern horizon.
 Thereafter they appear to sweep across the sky, increasing in altitude, till they reach the observer’s
meridian bearing N or S of the observer.
 When the body is on the observer’s meridian, it is said to culminate. Also referred to as the ‘Meridian
Passage’ or the ‘Meridian Transit’ of the body.
 At culmination, a body attains its max altitude for a stationary observer, and therefore, it attains its min
zenith distance.


Apparent motion of the Superior planets

Apparent motion of inferior planets

ELONGATION
 Elongation is the angle at the Centre Earth contained between the Centre of the Sun and the
Centre of the planet or the Moon, measured along the plane of the ecliptic.
 It can be seen that inferior planets can never have a large elongation.
 The max elongation of Venus is about 47º and that of Mercury is about 26º.
 Inferior planets can never be in opposition or in quadrature.

 Superior planets like Jupiter can only be in superior conjunction with the Sun.
 They can never be in inferior conjunction. They can however be in opposition and in quadrature.

Why Venus is called morning and evening Star?
 Having risen before the Sun, Venus would also set before the Sun and will therefore not be visible
in the evening after sunset.
 At such times, therefore Venus is said to be a morning star as it is visible only in the mornings
before sunrise.
 When Venus has an easterly elongation, as at point V3, a person on the Earth would experience
sunset, when he is at position Z3.
 Venus would still be above the horizon and will set only when the Earth rotates further, and the
observer is brought round to position Z4.
 Thus, Venus would be visible, for a few hours over the western horizon, after Sunset.

 Having set after the Sun, it will also rise the next morning, after Sunrise and therefore will not be
visible during the day due to the Sun’s brilliance.
 At such times, Venus is said to be evening star, as it is visible only in the evening after sunset.
 At position V2, Venus has a westerly elongation and would set before the Sun and is therefore
obviously to the westward of the Sun.
 At position V3, Venus rises and sets after the Sun, It is therefore to the eastward of the Sun, and is
said to have an easterly elongation.

TIME









The Nautical Almanac
The Nautical Almanac contains the astronomical information specifically needed by marine navigators.
Information is tabulated to the nearest 0.1' of arc and 1 second of time. GHA and declination are available for
the sun, moon, planets, and173 stars, as well as corrections necessary to reduce the observed values to true.
FORMAT OF THE NAUTICAL ALMANACS
 The major portion of the Nautical Almanac is devoted to hourly tabulations of Greenwich Hour Angle
(GHA) and declination, to the nearest 0.1' of arc. On each set of facing pages, information is listed for
three consecutive days. On the left-hand page, successive columns list GHA of Aries ( ), and both GHA
and declination of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, followed by the Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) and
declination of 57 stars. The GHA and declination of the sun and moon, and the horizontal parallax of the
moon, are listed on the right-hand page. Where applicable, the quantities and are given to assist in
interpolation. The quantity is the difference between the actual change of GHA in 1 hour and a constant
value used in the interpolation tables, while d is the change in declination in 1 hour. Both v and d are
listed to the nearest 0.1'.
 To the right of the moon data is listed the Local Mean Time (LMT) of sunrise, sunset, and beginning
and ending of nautical and civil twilight for latitudes from 72°N to 60 °S. The LMT of moonrise and
moonset at the same latitudes is listed for each of the three days for which other information is given,
and for the following day. Magnitude of each planet at UT 1200 of the middle day is listed at the top of
the column. The UT of transit across the celestial meridian of Greenwich is listed as “Mer. Pass.”. The
value for the first point of Aries for the middle of the three days is listed to the nearest 0.1' at the bottom
of the Aries column. The time of transit of the planets for the middle day is given to the nearest whole
minute, with SHA (at UT 0000 of the middle day) to the nearest 0.1', below the list of stars. For the sun
and moon, the time of transit to the nearest whole minute is given for each day. For the moon, both
upper and lower transits are given. This information is tabulated below the rising, setting, and twilight
information. Also listed, are the equation of time for 0h and 12h, and the age and phase of the moon.
Equation of time is listed, without sign, to the nearest whole second. Age is given to the nearest whole
day. Phase is given by symbol.
 The main tabulation is preceded by a list of religious and civil holidays, phases of the Moon, a calendar,
information on eclipses occurring during the year, and notes and a diagram giving information on the
planets.

 The main tabulation is followed by explanations and examples. Next are four pages of standard times
(zone descriptions). Star charts are next, followed by a list of 173 stars in order of increasing SHA. This
list includes the stars given on the daily pages. It gives the SHA and declination each month, and the
magnitude. Stars are listed by Bayer’s name and also by popular name where applicable. Following the
star list are the Polaris tables. These tables give the azimuth and the corrections to be applied to the
observed altitude to find the latitude.
 Following the Polaris table is a section that gives formulas and examples for the entry of almanac data,
the calculations that reduce a sight, and a method of solution for position, all for use with a calculator or
microcomputer. This is followed by concise sight reduction tables, with instructions and examples, for
use when a calculator or traditional sight reduction tables are not available. Tabular precision of the
concise tables is one minute of arc.
 Next is a table for converting arc to time units. This is followed by a 30-page table called “Increments
and Corrections,” used for interpolation of GHA and declination. This table is printed on tinted paper,
for quick location. Then come tables for interpolating for times of rise, set, and twilight; followed by
two indices of the 57 stars listed on the daily pages, one index in alphabetical order, and the other in
order of decreasing SHA.
 Sextant altitude corrections are given at the front and back of the almanac. Tables for the sun, stars, and
planets, and a dip table, are given on the inside front cover and facing page, with an additional
correction for nonstandard temperature and atmospheric pressure on the following page. Tables for the
moon, and an abbreviated dip table, are given on the inside back cover and facing page. Corrections for
the sun, stars, and planets for altitudes greater than 10°, and the dip table, are repeated on one side of a
loose bookmark. The star indices are repeated on the other side.
USING THE ALMANAC

Entering Arguments
 The time used as an entering argument in the almanacs is 12h + GHA of the mean sun and is denoted by
UT. This scale may differ from the broadcast time signals by an amount which, if ignored, will introduce
an error of up to 0.2' in longitude determined from astronomical observations. The difference arises
because the time argument depends on the variable rate of rotation of the earth while the broadcast time
signals are now based on atomic time. Step adjustments of exactly one second are made to the time
signals as required (primarily at 24h on December 31 and June 30) so that the difference between the
time signals and UT, as used in the almanacs, may not exceed 0.9s. If observations to a precision of
better than 1s are required, corrections must be obtained from coding in the signal, or from other

sources. The correction may be applied to each of the times of observation. Alternatively, the longitude,
when determined from observations, may be corrected by the corresponding amount.
 The main contents of the almanacs consist of data from which the GHA and the declination of all the
bodies used for navigation can be obtained for any instant of UT. The LHA can then be obtained with
the formula:
LHA = GHA + east longitude.
LHA = GHA - west longitude.
 For the sun, moon, and the four navigational planets, the GHA and declination are tabulated directly in
the Nautical Almanac for each hour of GMT throughout the year; in the Air Almanac, the values are
tabulated for each whole 10 m of GMT. For the stars, the SHA is given, and the GHA is obtained from:
GHA Star = GHA + SHA Star.
 The SHA and declination of the stars change slowly and may be regarded as constant over periods of
several days or even months if lesser accuracy is required. GHA, or the GHA of the first point of Aries
(the vernal equinox), is tabulated for each hour in the Nautical Almanac. Permanent tables list the
appropriate increments to the tabulated values of GHA and declination for the minutes and seconds of
time.
 In the Nautical Almanac, the permanent table for increments also includes corrections for v, the
difference between the actual change of GHA in one hour and a constant value used in the interpolation
tables; and d, the change in declination in one hour.
 In the Nautical Almanac, v is always positive unless a negative sign (-) is shown. This occurs only in the
case of Venus. For the sun, the tabulated values of GHA have been adjusted to reduce to a minimum the
error caused by treating v as negligible; there is no v tabulated for the sun.
 No sign is given for tabulated values of d, which is positive if declination is increasing, and negative if
decreasing. The sign of a v or d value is also given to the related correction.

RISING & SETTING OF CELESTIAL BODIES
 When the observer is at the pole, his Zenith coincides with the celestial north pole, and his rational
horizon would coincide with that of equinoctial.

 When the observer is on the equator, the rational horizon would be in the plane of the Earth’s
axis, passing through the celestial poles.
 The equinoctial and all declination circles will bisect at right angles, by his rational horizon.
 All celestial bodies whether having N’ly, S’ly or 0º declination will therefore remain above the
horizon for exactly half the day and below the horizon for remaining half.
 All bodies will rise and set perpendicular to the horizon.
 When the body is on observer’s celestial meridian, its declination is equal to (90º - True Alt) and
named same as the bearing of the body.

 They would rise and set bearing northward of his east and west points respectively.
 If the N’ly declination of the body is large enough, its declination circle would lie entirely above
the horizon. Such bodies would not therefore rise or set, but would remain above the horizon
throughout the day. They are then said to be circumpolar.
 Declination circles of bodies with a S’ly declination (of the opposite name to the observer’s
latitude) will lie with a major arc of the circle below the horizon and a minor arc above. They
would appear to rise and set bearing southwards of the observer’s east and west points
respectively. If the S’ly declination was large enough, the declination circle would lie entirely
below the horizon and the body would then not visible during any part of the day.

TWILIGHT
 Twilight is the light received from the sun, when the Sun is below the horizon, i.e. before
the Sunrise and after the Sunset.
 Twilight completely ceases in the evening, when the Sun is 18° vertically below the
horizon.
 After that there is total darkness.
 In the morning, twilight commences when the Sun 18° vertically below the horizon and
ceases at sunrise.
 The entire period of twilight has 3 stages, Civil, Nautical and Astronomical.
- Astronomical commences when Sun is 18° below the horizon.
- Nautical - 12° below the horizon.
- Civil - 6° below the horizon.
 Each twilight lasts until visible sunrise.

Reason for twilight to last longer in higher latitudes as compared to lower Latitudes
 As is evident from the below fig. when the observer is in low latitudes, the Sun rises and
sets almost perpendicular to the horizon covering the 18° twilight belt in a rather short arc
and therefore in a rather short period of time.
 When the observer is higher latitude however the Sun rises and sets at a more oblique
angle to the horizon, thus covering 18° twilight belt over a much larger arc and therefore
over a much larger period of time.
LOWER LATITUDE
HIGHER LATITUDE

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR TWILIGHT ALL NIGHT
ii. Lat + Dec + 12°>/= 90° (So that the Sun will not go below the nautical twilight belt
And will have nautical twilight throughout the night).
iii. Lat + Dec + 6° >/= 90° (So that the Sun will not go below the civil twilight belt and
will have civil twilight throughout the night.
CONDITION NECESSARY FOR CONTINOUS DAYLIGHT (MIDNIGHT SUN)

 For continuous DAYLIGHT (Midnight SUN), the observer’s Latitude and Sun’s
declination should be of the same name and the limiting latitudes are obtained as:
 Lat + Dec >/= 90° (So that the Sun will NOT set)
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONTINOUS NIGHT

 For continuous Night, the observer’s Latitude and Sun’s declination should be of the
different name and limiting latitudes are obtained as:
 Lat + Dec >/= 90° (So that the Sun will Not Rise)

- Because of this visible sunrise occurs before theoretical sunrise and visible Sunset
after theoretical Sunset.
- The nautical twilight lists the times for visible Sunrise and Sunset for various latitudes
interpolation is required for intermediate latitudes.
IDENTIFY A STAR WHICH SIGHTED DURING EVENING TWILIGHT
 By referring to the Nautical Almanac

 Take an bearing and altitude of the star
 The correct GMT to be calculated
 Then the LHA Aries is calculated
 Using the PZX spherical triangle, Lat, Azimuth, Altitude we first calculate the
declination of the star and then LHA star by calculating the angle P.
 LHA* - LHAϒ = SHA*
 Therefore using the declination and SHA of the star we can find the star by referring to
the day page of the nautical almanac.
OR
 By referring to the sight reduction tables
 First we have to calculate the correct GMT
 Then find out the LHA Aries
 Take visual bearing of the star and also take the approx altitude of the star.
 Using the LHA Aries bearing and altitude of the star enter the Sight reduction tables for
the present Latitude of the vessel.
 We can then identify the star having the closest values of LHA Aries, Azimuth and
Altitude.

Conditions required for a body to Rise bearing East

 Irrespective of the observer’s latitude, the body will rise bearing east and set bearing
west, when the body’s declination is 0°. Under this condition the body will rise in the
east, appear to move along the equinoctial and will set bearing west, refer to below fig.
 Also when the observer is at the equator, a body will 0° declination will rise bearing east
and continue to bear east till the body at the observer’s zenith and thereafter will be
bearing west till is sets. Refer to below fig.

SEXTANT & ALTITUDE CORRECTION




SEMI-DIAMETER



PRACTICAL NAVOGATION CALCULATION










The Sailings
 Rhumb Lines
The principal advantage of a rhumb line is that it maintains constant true direction. A ship following the rhumb
line between two places does not change true course. A rhumb line makes the same angle with all meridians it
crosses and appears as a straight line on a Mercator chart. For any other case, the difference between the rhumb
line and the great circle connecting two points increases
(1) as the latitude increases,
(2) as the difference of latitude between the two points decreases, and
(3) as the difference of longitude increases.
 Great Circles
A great circle is the intersection of the surface of a sphere and a plane passing through the center of the sphere.
It is the largest circle that can be drawn on the surface of the sphere, and is the shortest distance along the
surface between any two points. Any two points are connected by only one great circle unless the points are
antipodal
great circle bisects every other great circle. Thus, except for the equator, every great circle lies exactly half in
the Northern Hemisphere and half in the S
latitude is called the vertex. For each great circle, there is a vertex in each h
longitude. At these points the great circle is tangent to a parallel of latitude, and its direction is due east -west.
On each side of these vertices the direction changes progressively until the intersection with the equator is
rea
the vertex.
On a Mercator chart a great circle appears as a sine curve extending equal distances each side of the equator.
The rhumb line connecting any two points of the great circle on the same side of the equator is a chord of the
curve. Along any intersecting meridian the great circle crosses at a higher latitude than the rhumb line. If the
two points are on opposite sides of the equator, the direction of curvature of the great circle relative to the
rhumb line changes at the equator. The rhumb line and great circle may intersect each other, and if the points
are equal distances on each side of the equator, the intersection takes place at the equator.
Great circle sailing takes advantage of the shorter distance along the great circle between two points, rather than
the longer rhumb line. The arc of the great circle between the points is called the great circle track. If it could
be followed exactly, the destination would be dead ahead throughout the voyage (assuming course and heading
were the same). The rhumb line appears the more direct route on a Mercator chart because of chart distortion.
The great circle crosses meridians at higher latitudes, where the distance between them is less. This is why the
great circle route is shorter than the rhumb line.

The decision as to whether or not to use great-circle sailing depends upon the conditions. The saving in distance
should be worth the additional effort, and of course the great circle route cannot cross land, nor should it carry
the vessel into dangerous waters. Composite sailing may, save time and distance over the rhumb line track
without leading the vessel into danger.
Since great circles other than a meridian or the equator are curved lines whose true direction changes
continually, the navigator does not attempt to follow it exactly. Rather, he selects a number of points along the
great circle, constructs rhumb lines between the points, and follows these rhumb lines from point to point.
 Kinds Of Sailings
There are seven types of sailings:
1. Plane sailing solves problems involving a single course and distance, difference of latitude, and departure, in
which the earth is regarded as a plane surface. This method, therefore, provides solution for latitude of the point
of arrival, but not for longitude. To calculate the longitude, the spherical sailings are necessary. Do not use this
method for distances of more than a few hundred miles.
2. Traverse sailing combines the plane sailing solutions when there are two or more courses and determines the
equivalent course and distance made good by a vessel steaming along a series of rhumb lines.
3. Parallel sailing is the inter conversion of departure and difference of longitude when a vessel is proceeding
due east or due west.
4. Middle- (or mid-) latitude sailing uses the mean latitude for converting departure to difference of longitude
when the course is not due east or due west.
5. Mercator sailing provides a mathematical solution of the plot as made on a Mercator chart. It is similar to
plane sailing, but uses meridional difference and difference of longitude in place of difference of latitude and
departure.
6. Great circle sailing involves the solution of courses, distances, and points along a great circle between two
points.
7. Composite sailing is a modification of great-circle sailing to limit the maximum latitude, generally to avoid
ice or severe weather near the poles.

Parallel Sailing
The Parallel Sailing method is used to find the distance between two positions on the same latitude. The
distance measured along a parallel of latitude between any two meridians is called the Departure (Dep.)
Dep = D’Long X Cos (Lat.)
Plane Sailing
Procedure to find the course and distance

 Calculate d’Lat , d’Long and mean Latitude
 Calculate departure by using formula:
Departure = d’long X Cos mean Lat
 Calculate course and distance by using formula :
Tan Course = Departure / d’Lat Distance = d’lat / Cos course
Also, Distance = Departure / Sin course

Mercator Sailing
Procedure to find the course and distance

 From Norie’s Nautical Tables, extract meridional part values for each latitude.
 Calculate d’Lat, D.M.P and d’Long
 Calculate the course (C) by using formula
Tan course (C) = d’Long / D.M.P
 Calculate the distance (D) by using formula
Distance = d’lat / Cos course

Great Circle Sailing
Great Circle Sailing is used for long ocean passages. For this purpose, the earth is considered a perfect spherical
shape; therefore, the shortest distance between two points on its surface is the arc of the great circle containing
two points. As the track is the circle, so the course is constantly changing, and the track must be broken down
into a series of short rhumb lines at frequent intervals that can be used to sail on the Mercator chart. Doing this,
the navigator would use the Gnomonic charts combined with the Mercator charts to draw the sailing track.
Procedure to use Gnomonic and Mercator Charts for Great Circle Sailing
 Plot departure and destination positions on the gnomonic chart; join two positions, since the great circle
appears as a straight line on the gnomonic chart.
 Choose the specific interval meridian along the track where the course will be changed. Then plot the
positions of intersection of the track and the meridian chosen on the Mercator chart.
 Join all the plotted positions on the Mercator chart by a series of rhumb lines; the course and distance
between each position can be solved by the plane sailing method.
As the great circle track line is plotted on the gnomonic chart, the vertex and the chosen intermediate positions
can be read off directly from the chart. However, this is not as accurate as the calculation which will be shown
later in this section.
 Spherical Triangle Δ PAB can be solved by using cosine formula:
Cos P = (Cos AB – Cos PA . Cos PB) / (Sin PA . Sin PB)

Initial Course Cos α = (Cos PB – Cos PA . Cos AB) / (Sin PA . Sin PB)
Final Course Cos β = (Cos PA – Cos PB . Cos AB) / (Sin PB . Sin AB)
Hence
Great Circle Distance, Cos AB = Cos PA . Cos PB + Cos P . Sin PA . Sin PB

Vertex :
The position of the vertex, and the distance from departure point to vertex, can be calculated by using Napier’s
Rules in the right angle triangle PVA.
For all formulas used for great circle vertex calculations, if the name of the latitude of any position, including
the departure and destination, is contrary to the latitude of the vertex, then the latitude of those having a
contrary name to the latitude of vertex is treated as a negative quantity
Practical Method for Great Circle Sailing

She has to change course constantly in order to follow it. Therefore, the great circle is divided into equal
segments by longitudes, and is then made up of a series of rhumb lines. The rhumb lines can be plotted on the
Mercator chart and followed by the ship. The rule of thumb for selecting the equal interval D. Long. from the
vertex is:
“Short legs in lower latitudes,
long legs in higher latitudes”
By using Napier’s rules for the spherical right-angle triangle.
Composite Great Circle Sailing

The great circle track is always curved toward the nearest pole, where its vertex is the point nearest to the pole.
In very high latitudes, the track of a great circle cannot go beyond a certain latitude due to navigational
restrictions, e.g., ice, fog, severe weather, etc. In such cases, the sailing track of a great circle has to be
modified. The track then consists of the combined parts of great circles and the parallel of limiting latitude,
which is called Composite Great Circle Sailing. So, composite great circle sailing is a combination of great
circle sailing and parallel sailing.

Napier’s Rules
Right spherical triangles can be solved with the aid of Napier’s Rules of Circular Parts. If the right angle is
omitted, the triangle has five parts: two angles and three sides, Since the right angle is already known, the
triangle can be solved if any two other parts are known. If the two sides forming the right angle, and the
complements of the other three parts are used, these elements (called “parts” in the rules) can be arranged in
five sectors of a circle in the same order in which they occur in the triangle, Considering any part as the middle
part, the two parts nearest it in the diagram are considered the adjacent parts, and the two farthest from it the
opposite parts.
Napier’s Rules state: The sine of a middle part equals the product of
(1) the tangents of the adjacent parts or
(2) the cosines of the opposite parts.
In Δ PVA , V = 90º
Than Sin mid part = Cos opp . Cos opp

Sin mid part = Tan adj . Tan adj

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2018

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH

S.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 1

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 2

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 3

In the figure: APB = CED = θ° AP > CE ∴ AB > CD

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 4

Variation WEST Magnetic BEST

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 5

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 6

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 7

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 8

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 Great circles cannot be drawn as straight lines.

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 10

TYPES OF GEODETIC SURVEY

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 11

Trilateration, Traverse, And Vertical Surveying

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 12

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MODERN GEODETIC SYSTEMS (WGS 84)

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 14

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 15

Minimizing Errors Caused By Differing Datums

To minimize problems caused by differing datums:

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 16

The Celestial Sphere

 Celestial Equator (Equinoctial)

 Obliquity of the Ecliptic

If no value is given in examination question than assume 23º 26.7’.

 First point of Aries (γ) and First point of Libra (Ω)

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 18

Local Hour Angle (LHA)

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 19

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 20

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 21

Geographical Position of a Celestial Body

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 22

Daily Motion and Horizontal System of Co-ordinated

Horizon System of Co-ordinates

In Horizon System of co-ordinates the reference great circle is the

 Observer’s Rational Horizon or Celestial Horizon and

Celestial or Rational Horizon

The Observer’s Zenith and Nadir

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 23

True Zenith Distance

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 24

Azimuth & Amplitude

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 25

PREPARED BY – RANJEET SINGH 26

 There are three types of PZX triangles

PZX Spherical Triangle

 Cos ZX = Cos P . Cos Lat +/- Sin lat . Sin dec

PZX Spherical Triangle

PZX Right angled triangle

 PZX Right Angled triangle , Angle Z = 90º

PZX Quadrant triangle

 PZX Quadrant triangle , Side ZX = 90º