Tafila Technical University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Manufacturing processes (2) / Metal forming processes
Dr. Ahmad Mostafa
1st semester 2021/2022

REVIEW OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Tensile test: It is a fundamental materials science and engineering test in which a sample is
subjected to a controlled tension until failure.

Figure 2.1: (a) Tensile test specimen and (b) Engineering stress-strain curve

• Engineering stress = Load/initial area → σe = P/Ao

• Engineering strain = Change in length/initial length→ εe = (l- lo) / lo
Yield strength: The ability of a material to resist plastic deformation and represents the stress
below which the deformation is entirely elastic in nature.

Tensile strength or Ultimate tensile strength: It is the ratio of maximum stress that a material
can withstand without being fractured to the original area of cross section of the material. Ultimate
tensile strength or tensile strength is the highest point in a stress-strain curve.
Elasticity: The tendency of a material to regain its original dimensions (size and shape) upon the
removal of load or force. The ratio between tensile stress and tensile strain or Compressive stress
and compressive strain is called young’s modulus of Elasticity.
• Modulus of elasticity → E = σ/ε
Plasticity: The tendency of a material to permanently deform when subjected to external load
beyond the elastic limit.

Ductility: The ability of a material to be drawn into wire is known as ductility. It is a tensile
property and it is the capacity of a material to undergo deformation without being fractured. It
can be measured as the percent (%) elongation or percent area reduction.

• % elongation = ((lf – lo) / lo) × 100

• % area reduction = ((Ao – Af) / Ao) × 100

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (2) 1|CHAPTER 2

True stress (σt): is the load over current area
(𝐴𝑜 × 𝐿𝑜)
𝐴𝑜 × 𝐿𝑜 = 𝐴𝑐 × 𝐿𝑐 → 𝜎𝑡 = 𝑃⁄𝐴𝑐 , now compensate 𝐴𝑐 = ⁄𝐿𝑓 in the previous term
to get 𝜎𝑡 = (𝑃⁄𝐴𝑜) × (𝐿⁄𝐿𝑜), then 𝝈𝒕 = 𝝈𝒆 (𝟏 + 𝝐𝒆 )
True strain (εt): is the change in length over current length
𝐿𝑓 𝑑𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝑜+∆𝐿
𝜖𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝜖 = ∫𝐿𝑜 = 𝑙𝑛 𝐿𝑜 = 𝑙𝑛 , then 𝝐𝒕 = 𝒍𝒏(𝟏 + 𝝐𝒆 )
𝐿 𝐿𝑜
Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve
(d)

(a) Load-elongation curve in tension testing of a stainless steel specimen.

(b) Engineering stress-engineering strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. a.
(c) True stress-true strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. b.
(d) True stress- strain curve plotted on log-log scale and based on the corrected curve in Fig. c.

σt = K εn
K: strength coefficient
n: strain-hardening exponent
Flow stress: The instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming the material. The
sharper the slope the stronger when material is strained

Table 1.2: Typical values of strength coefficient K and strain hardening exponent n for selected
metals

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Elastic recovery during plastic deformation
Upon release of the load during the course of a stress–strain test,
some fraction of the total deformation is recovered as elastic strain.
During the unloading cycle, the curve traces a near straight-line path
from the point of unloading (point D), and its slope is virtually
identical to the modulus of elasticity.

Categories of stress-strain relationships

(a) Perfectly elastic: behavior is completely defined by modulus of
elasticity (brittle materials)
(b) Rigid perfectly plastic: no elastic deformation and perfect plastic deformation (no elastic
recovery)
(c) Elastic and perfectly plastic: When material reached σy, a plastic deformation occur without
work hardening → K = σy and n = 0 (heating metals above recrystallization temp)
(d) Elastic and strain hardening: obeys Hook’s law in the elastic region and begins to flow at
σy →K > σy and n > 0 (most ductile materials when cold worked)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Resilience: Ability of material to absorb energy during elastic deformation and then to give it
back when unloaded
• Measured with Modulus of Resilience, Ur
• Ur is area under σ - ε curve up to yielding

• Assuming a linear elastic region:

• Units are J/m3

Toughness: is the material’s ability to absorb energy before fracture
• Toughness is the area under σ - ε curve up to fracture.
- Similar to Resilience (same units J/m3).
- Larger area → tougher material.
• So tough materials have a combination of strength and
stiffness
• Can be measured by an impact test

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Compression Test: By convention, stress and strain are negative
- Used for measuring strength of brittle materials and for calculating forces required
in manufacturing processing which involve compressive deformation

Figure 2.2: (a) Compression test specimen and (b) Engineering stress-strain curve in
compression
• Shape of plastic region is different from tensile test because cross-section increases
• Calculated value of engineering stress is inaccurate
• Although differences exist between engineering σ-ε curves in tension and compression,
the true σ-ε curves are nearly identical
• Since tensile test results are more common, flow curve values (K and n) from tensile test
data, however, can be applied to compression operations

Shear Test: A shear test is designed to apply stress to a test sample so

that it experiences a sliding failure along a plane that is parallel to the
forces applied.
• Shear stress is τ = F/Ao and γ (shear strain) is tangent of
shear angle, θ
• τ = G γ, G is shear modulus
• Shear tests are often used to measure adhesive bonding,
riveted joints etc.

Torsion test: tests twist a material or test component to a specified degree, with a specified force,
or until the material fails in torsion.

Figure 2.3: (a) Torsion test and (b) Typical shear stress-strain curve from a torsion test

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA MANUFACTURING PROCESSES (2) 4|CHAPTER 2

 • Shear stress at fracture = shear strength
• Shear strength can be estimated from tensile strength: S ≅ 0.7(TS)
• Since cross-sectional area of test specimen in torsion test does not change as in tensile
and compression, engineering stress-strain curve for shear ≅ true stress-strain curve
• For most materials, G ≅ 0.4E

Poisson’s Ratio: When pulled in tension (Z), a sample gets longer

and thinner, i.e., a contraction in the width (X) and breadth (Y) if
compressed gets fatter
• Poisson’s ratio defines how much strain occurs in the
lateral directions (x & y) when strained in the (z) direction:

• Typical values = 0.2 to 0.5

Testing of Brittle Materials:

• Hard brittle materials (e.g., ceramics) possess elasticity but little or no plasticity.
• Ceramics are not normally tested in tension because:
- it is difficult to machine to the required geometry
- it is difficult to grip brittle materials without inducing fracture
- ceramics typically fail after only ~ 0.1% strain
For these reasons, the mechanical properties are determined using a different approach, the three
point bending test.

• During the test, the top surface is under compression while the bottom surface is under
tension
• Maximum tensile stress occurs on the bottom surface, just below the top loading point

Hardness: is a measure of the material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g. dent or
scratch)
• Moh’s scale, determined by the ability of a material to scratch another material:
From 1 (softest = talc) to 10 (hardest = diamond)
• Different types of quantitative hardness test has been designed:

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 - Rockwell
- Brinell
- Knoop
- Vickers

Where,
P (the applied load) is in kg,
D is the indenter's diameter
d is the diameter of the resulted indentation

Correlation between Hardness and Tensile Strength

• TS (MPa) = 3.45 × HB
• TS (psi) = 500 × HB

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