HOMEWORK 6

GOVERNING EQUATIONS; LINEAR WAVES

Exercise 1. Solve the linearized governing equations (Laplace and bottom boundary condition, equa‐
tions with the linearized free surface conditions or the combined form), but this time using cos and
sin functions instead of instead of complex exponentials. Hint: verify that cos kx and sin kx are inde‐
pendent solutions of the oscillator equation for φ; assume also that the time dependence is also of the
form cos ωt and sin ωt.
Solution. Following equations 6.3 to 6.4: the method of separation of variables produced two equa‐
tions, one in x and the other in z
d2 φ d2 Z
+ k 2
φ = 0 and − k 2 Z = 0.
dx2 dz 2
The solution of the x equation is
φ(x, t) = B(t) cos kx + C(t) sin kx; Z(z) = Dekz + Ee−kz .
As before the time structure is not speci ied. To obtain sin (kx − ωt) = sin kx cos ωt − cos kx sin ωt,
choose B(t) = −A sin ωt and C(t) = A cos ωt. The rest of the derivation proceeds as discusses in the
notes.
Exercise 2. General form of solution for 2 horizontal directions. Following the derivation for one
horizontal dimension, show that a progressive wave in 2 horizontal dimensions (x, y) has the form

(1a) η(x, y, t) = a cos(k · r − ωt + θ0 ),

g cosh k(z + h)
(1b) ϕ(x, y, z, t) = − a sin(k · r − ωt + θ0 ),
ω cosh kh
ω2
(1c) = k tanh kh; with
g
(1d) k = kx i + ky j; k 2 = kx2 + ky2 ;
Solution. The governing system of equations
∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ
+ 2 + 2 =0 in − h < z < η,
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
∂ϕ
=0 on z = −h,
∂z
1 ∂ 2 ϕ ∂ϕ
+ =0 on z = 0
g ∂t2 ∂z
Note that the only formal difference is an additional term in y in the Laplace equation (red). Applying
the separation of variables as before
ϕ(x, y, z, t) = φ(x, y, t)Z(z)
where we left the time dependency aside for now, and substituting into the Laplace equation obtains
 
1 d2 φ d2 φ 1 d2 Z
+ + = 0.
φ dx2 dy 2 Z dz 2
As before, we note that each of the terms depends on different independent variables, so the equation
is valid only if each of the term is a constant and the sum of the constants is zero. Because we want
oscillatory behavior in x and y, we choose
 
1 d2 φ d2 φ 2 1 d Z
2
+ = −k ; = k2 ,
φ dx2 dx2 Z dz 2
1
 2

where k 2 > 0. The horizontal function now satis ies the equation
d2 φ d2 φ
+ 2 = −k 2 φ,
dx2 dx
See king solutions as before in the form φ = e eβx obtains α2 + β 2 = −k 2 , therefore α = ±ikx and
αx

β = ±iky so the general solution is

φ(x, y) = e±ikx x e±iky x = e±i(kx x±ky x) , with kx2 + ky2 = k 2 ,
in total, four combinations of signs. Choosing
φ(x, y, t) = B(t)ei(kx x+ky x) − C(t)e−i(kx x+ky x)
G −iωt ∗
and setting, as before, B(t) = 2i e and D(t) = − G2i eiωt , where G = Aeiθ0 ∈ C is complex constant,
with A ∈ R+ , and the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate, obtains, as before
A A
φ(x, y, t) = ei(kx+ky x−ωt+θ0 ) − e−i(kx+ky x−ωt+θ0 ) = A sin(kx + ky x − ωt + θ0 ),
2i 2i
or
φ(x, y, t) = A sin(k · r − ωt + θ0 ).
Exercise 3. Show that the both kinematic boundary conditions on the bottom and the free surface of
the waves are equivalent to the “barrier” condition that the velocity component normal to the surface
is zero ( low is not crossing the surface). Hint: recall that the gradient of a function is normal to the
iso‐surfaces of that function (surfaces on which the function is constant).
Solution. Note that the unit vector normal to the surface de ined by F (x, y, z, t) = 0 is n = ∇F / ∥∇F ∥.
In general, if the surface F changes in time, n = n(t).
(a) If the F does not depend on time,
∂F
+ v · ∇F = v · n ∥∇F ∥ = 0, i.e. v · n = 0;
∂t
the condition that the low does not cross the barrier is simply v · n, i.e., v · ∇F = 0. This is the form
of the bottom kinematic boundary condition.
(b) What happens if the surface F varies in time? Assume now that F moves in time, such that the
interval of time dt, a point of the surface moves by dR = Udt, where U(x, y, z, t) is the velocity of
surface F at point R = (x, y, z) on the surface. Because R stays on the surface, the variation of F at R
cancels, i.e.,
∂F ∂F
+ U · ∇F = + U · n ∥∇F ∥ = 0.
∂t ∂t
From this equation, the component of the velocity of the surface normal to the surface is
− ∂F
U⊥ = U · n = ∂t
.
∥∇F ∥
The condition that the surface F be a barrier for the low then means that the velocity of the low normal
to the surface must match the velocity of the surface U⊥ ,
− ∂F
v⊥ = U⊥ , i.e., v · n =∂t
.
∥∇F ∥
The last equation is the kinematic boundary condition at the surface.
Exercise 4. Verify that the method of separation of variables requires a lat bottom (use the settings
in igure ). a) Write the kinematic bottom boundary condition for a sloping segment AB of the bottom.
Ignore the complications at the transition points A and B. b) Try to solve the Laplace Equation using
the method of separation of variables (as above), and impose the boundary condition derived at a).
Discuss the problem.
 3

Solution. We need a new bottom boundary condition.If the

bottom boundary has the form h(x) = h0 −x tan α, then the
bottom BC ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ dh ∂ϕ
∂x ∂x + ∂z = 0 on z = −h becomes ∂x dx + ∂z =
∂h
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
0, − ∂x tan α+ ∂z = 0, or ∂x sin α− ∂z cos α = 0 (check that
this means that the velocity vector at the bottom is parallel
to the bottom).
We obtained the vertical structure of the solution of the FIGURE 1. The method of separation


kz
Laplace equation in the form ϕ = A sin θ De + Ee −kz , of variables work only with separable
where θ(x, t) = kx − ωt + θ0 . Substitute into the bottom bounndary conditions. It does not work,
boundary condition to obtain for example, over a sloping bed.
   
kA cos θ Dekz + Ee−kz sin α − Ak sin θ Dekz − Ee−kz cos α = 0
and by grouping the terms
sin θ cos α − cos θ sin α
E = De2kz = De2kz F (x)
sin θ cos α + cos θ sin α
sin θ cos α−cos θ sin α
where F (x) = sin θ cos α+cos θ sin α . If F (x) is not a constant, then E = E(x), and consequently the
function Z = Z(x, z) is in fact a function also of x. The method of separation of variables was not
successful.
But the function F (x) cannot be a constant. Indeed, if
sin θ cos α − cos θ sin α
F (x) = =c
sin θ cos α + cos θ sin α
where c is a constant, implies that cos α (1 − c) sin θ − sin α (1 + c) cos θ = 0, where cos α (1 − c) and
− sin α (1 + c) are two different constants. This contradicts the fact that sin θ and cos θ are linearly
independent (i.e, a sin θ + b cos θ = 0 if and only if a = b = 0).
Exercise 5. Waves are produced in a 2‐dimensional tank of constant depth h and length L (Figure ??).
(1) Write the lateral boundary conditions this low has to satisfy.
(2) Solve the linearized equations (using the method of separation of variables). Can this problem
have progressive wave solutions? Discuss your result.

Solution: The wave has to satisfy the linearized system

∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ
+ 2 =0 in − h < z < η,
∂x2 ∂z
∂ϕ
=0 on z = −h,
∂z
1 ∂ 2 ϕ ∂ϕ
+ =0 on z = 0
g ∂t2 ∂z
with the addition of two lateral boundary conditions.
a) The lateral boundary conditions express the constaint that the low is contained in the tank , i.e.,
does not cross the vertical boundaries at x = 0 and x = L, i.e., the horizontal velocity cancells on the
vertical walls of he tank: 
∂ϕ 
vx |x=0,L = −  = 0.
∂x x=0,L
b) It should be obvious that the progressive wave solution we found in class
ωa cosh k(z + h)
ϕ = sin (kx − ωt + θ) ,
g cosh kh
 4

FIGURE 2. Standing waves in a tank. Left: the problem; right: three modes, fundamental (mode 1) and
a two harmonics. Note that the number of the mode is given by tits number of zero‐crossings.

does not satisfy the lateral BC at point (a), e.g.


∂ϕ  gka cosh k(z + h)
vx |x=0 = −  =− cos (ωt − θ) ̸= 0.
∂x x=0 ω cosh kh
The problem is that the horizontal structure includes the time dependency. We solve again the system
using the method of separations of variables, but keeping this time the variables x and t separated:

ϕ(x, z, t) = X(x) Z(z) T (t).

Since the Laplace equation and the bottom BC do not involve time dependency, the solution found
previously still works:

ϕ(x, z, t) = [B cos(kx) + C sin(kx)] cosh k(z + h) T (t),

with the difference that B and C are now true constants and not functions of time. The time depen‐
dency is represented by the separated function T . The horizontal structure may be written as
p  
B C
X(x) = B cos kx + C sin kx = B + C 2 2 √ cos kx + √ sin kx ;
B2 + C 2 B2 + C 2
√
denote by A = B 2 + C 2 and cos θ = √B 2B+C 2 , − sin θ = √B 2C+C 2 ; obviously sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 and
−1 ≤ sin θ, cos θ ≤ 1; the peculiar choice of sign is just convenient, any other choice would also do!
Then without loss of generality, we can write

ϕ(x, z, t) = A cos (kx + θ0 ) cosh k(z + h) T (t) = A cos k (x − x0 ) cosh k(z + h) T (t),

where x0 = −θ0 /k. Choosing a harmonic oscillation in time for T = cos ω (t − t0 ), which completes
the Laplace + bottom BC solution

ϕ(x, z, t) = A cos k (x − x0 ) cosh k(z + h) sin ω (t − t0 ) .

2
As before, the surface boundary condition yields the known linear dispersion relation ωg = k tanh kh
(check!). So far we have just solved again the linearized system but completely separating all variables.
We can impose now the lateral boundary conditions. At x = 0

∂ϕ 
vx |x=0 = −  = −A sin kx0 cosh k(z + h) sin ω (t − t0 ) = 0,
∂x x=0
yields kx0 = mπ (simplest is to make x0 = 0); the one at x = L

∂ϕ 
vx |x=L = −  = −kA sin (kL − nπ) cosh k(z + h) sin ω (t − t0 ) = 0,
∂x x=L
 5

yields kL = nπ. The full solution is then

nπ
ϕ(x, z, t) = A cos x cosh k(z + h) sin ω (t − t0 ) ,
L
nπ
η = a cos x cosh k(z + h) cos ω (t − t0 ) ,
L
ω2
= k tanh kh.
g
This solution represents a standing wave (see Figure (2)). Note that, as a result of imposing the lateral
boundary conditions, not all wave lengths (or numbers) are admissible: those that are must “ it” in the
tank, i.e., insure that the low velocity is vertical at the lateral walls (no low trough the walls). This is
a discrete family of waves called “modes” with
2π 2L
λn = = .
k n
For example, for n = 1, the wave length λ1 = 2L; this wave is called the “fundamental”. The wave
numbers of all other modes are integer multiples of the fundamental, i.e., kn = nk1 , or λn = λn1 ;
these are called “harmonics of the fundamental” or simply “harmonics” (e.g., the second harmonic has
λ2 = λ1 /2).