Structure of Complex System

The American Mathematician Warren Weaver

In 1948 defines three types of problems:

◦ Problems of Simplicity: a few variables

◦ Problems of Disorganized Complexity: billions or
trillions of variables.
◦ Problems of organized complexity: Moderate
numbers of variables

2

System Engineer raises the question of how deep
that understanding of a broad knowledge needs to
be in the development of a complex system

System Engineer must recognize such factors as

program risks, technological performance limits,
and interfacing requirements, and make trade-off
analyses among design alternatives.

System building block provide an important insight

by examining the structural hierarchy of modern
systems.
System Complexity

What Makes a System Complex?

How does Complexity evolve?

What are the ways of dealing with Complexity?

Are we gaining or losing?

What Characterizes Complexity?
• Complex: composed of interconnected or interwoven parts.
– Does not stipulate the number of interconnected parts. A
complex system may consist of a small number of parts
connected in complicated ways.

– A large number of disconnected parts is not complex

system, for example a large collection of books.

– The items that distinguish a complex system from a

collection of parts are the connections.
What Makes a System Complex?
1. Impossible for an individual to comprehend all of the
design; exceeds human intellectual capacity
2. Complexity is Inherent, not Accidental
– Complex problem domains
• Needs and requirements change and evolve
• Difficulty expressing needs and requirements
• Expansion of previous system
– Difficulty managing development
• Systems are becoming increasingly large & complex
• Coordination of large team efforts very costly

Simplification Approaches
◦ Decomposition:

Algorithmic imperative: by progressive steps in a
hierarchical process

Object-oriented: by tangible entities which exhibit
well-defined behaviors

◦ Abstraction:

Extraction of essential elements

Inherent in models and modeling
Are We Gaining or Losing?

• Arguably, hardware capabilities are increasing at an

exponential rate.

• Software is becoming a larger part of modern systems than

it has been in the past and software is more complex
and more “opaque.”

• Technology is compounding with complex systems being

embedded in other complex systems.

• Systems engineering practices and procedures and products

appear to be evolving at a much slower rate.

Hierarchic systems are common in both
natural and man-made systems
◦ Physics: atom
nucleus
neutron, proton,
electron

◦ Organization: director
manager
general staff

◦ Book: chapter
section
paragraph

10

Definition of System Level:
System → Subsystems → Components → Subcomponents →
Parts

System – serves as parts of more complex aggregates or super-

systems and perform a significant useful service with only the
aid of human operators and standard infrastructure ( e.g.
highways, fueling stations, communication lines, etc)

Subsystem- performs a closely related subset of the overall

system functions

Component- refer to a range of mostly lower level, middle of

system level. Perform elementary functions.

Parts- perform in combination with other parts

Systems Communication Information Material Aerospace
systems systems processing system
system

Sub-systems Signal networks Databases Material Engines

preparation
Components Signal receivers Data displays Power Thrust
transfer generators

Sub- Signal amplifiers Cathode ray Gear trains Rocket

components tubes nozzles
Parts Transformer LED Gears Seals
• System Engineer’
Engineer’s Domain:
- Extends down through the component level
- Is as detailed as a system engineer usually needs to
go
- Extends across several system categories

• Design Specialist’
Specialist’s Domain
- Extends from the part level up through the
component level
- Overlaps the domain of the systems engineers
- Is usually limited to a single technology/discipline
 System Decomposition

Enterprise External Systems

System/
Functional Options
Domain of the
Subsystem
Systems Engineering

Component/
Building Blocks

Subcomponents
Domain of the
Technical Specialist
Parts
Building Blocks –The Concept

• A library of commonly occurring system elements

• A means for classifying system constituents according to:

– functional characteristics
– physical characteristics

• A useful tool for modeling system architecture and its

synthesis

• Useful for visualizing potential architectures of system

concepts

Functional elements
◦ Signal elements: sense and communicate
information
◦ Data elements: interpret, organize, and manipulate
information
◦ Material elements: provide structure and
transformation of materials
◦ Energy elements: provide energy and motive power

Physical elements
◦ Electronic, electro-optical, electro-mechanical,
mechanical, thermo-mechanical, software
Signal Functional Elements

Functional Element Physical Examples

Input signal TV camera
Transmit signal Radio transmitter
Transduce signal Antenna
Receive signal Radio receiver
Process signal Image processor
Output signal TV display, speaker
Data Functional Elements

Functional element Physical Examples

Input data Keyboard
Process data CPU
Control system Windows, UNIX
Control Processing Word Processor, analysis program
Store data Magnetic disk
Output data Printer, display
Material Functional Elements

Functional element Physical Examples

Support material Airframe, auto body

Store material Container, enclosure

React material Autoclave, smelter

Form material Milling machine, foundry

Join material Welding, riveting

Control position Auto tool feed, power steering

Energy Functional Elements

Functional element Physical Examples

Generate thrust Rocket, turbojet
Generate torque Gas turbine
Generate electricity Power plant, solar cells
Control temperature Furnace, refrigerator
Control motion Transmission, power brakes
Functional Element: Signal, Data, Material, Energy
Physical Building Blocks

Category Component Examples

Electronic Receiver, transmitter
Electro-optic Optical sensing, fiber optics
Electro-mechanical Electric generator, data storage,
transducer
Mechanical Container, material processor,
material reactor
Thermo-mechanical Jet & rotary engine, Heating & AC
Software Operating system, applications
firmware
Physical Elements: Electronics, EO, EM, Mechanics, TM, Software
- Identifying actions capable of achieving operational
outcomes

- Facilitating functional partitioning and definition

- Identifying subsystem and component interfaces

- Visualizing the physical architecture of the system

- Suggesting types of component implementation

technology

- Helping software engineers acquire hardware

domain knowledge
 Summary of Building Blocks

• Provides a structured view of the necessary knowledge base

for systems engineers
• Provides a mechanism for deductive decomposition of
functional architectures to components
• Provides a structured view of a wide variety of systems
• Provides ingredients for modeling system architecture
• Provides a strong link to the concept of object-oriented design
• Building Blocks are fundamental to the concept of
modularization, which in turn, is fundamental to successful
system design.

Not easy to identify what is part of the system
and what is part of the environment

Determining criteria
◦ Developmental control: do we have control over the
entity’s development?
◦ Operational control: will the tasks and missions
performed by the entity be directed by the owner of the
system?
◦ Functional allocation: are we “allowed” to allocate
functions to the entity in the functional definition?
◦ Unity of purpose: is the entity dedicated to the system’s
success

Key concept: control

27

Human users and operators are often treated
as external entities & constitute elements of
the system environment
◦ SE focus on the operator interface
◦ In a functional aspect operators are considered to
be integral parts of system

Complex systems can be considered as part

of larger systems
◦ Example

Network of roads and service stations
automobile

28

Display the external entities and their
interactions with the system

External entities: sources for inputs into the
system and destinations of outputs from the
system

Interactions: represented by arrows, the direction
or flow of a particular interaction
◦ Application or company-specific labels can be used
◦ Five categories: data, signals, materials, energy and
activities

The system: represented by an oval in the center

29
31

Inputs and outputs
◦ The primary purpose of most systems is to operate on external
stimuli and/or materials in such a manner as to process these
inputs in a useful way

System operators
◦ Emphasize human-machine interface
◦ Complex to define and test

Operational maintenance
◦ Affect system readiness and operational reliability
◦ Provide access for monitoring, testing and repair requirements

Threats
◦ Either natural (e.g., salt water) or man-made (e.g., thief)

Support systems
◦ Part of the infra-structure on which the system depends for
carrying out its mission

System housing: provide protection

Shipping and handling environment
◦ Transport from the manufacturing site to the operating site

32
Instrument landing
system (ILS)

33

Interfaces
◦ External and internal

Managing interfaces by SE involves:
◦ Identification and description of interfaces as part
of system concept definition
◦ Coordination and control of interfaces to maintain
system integrity
◦ Three types: connectors, isolators and converters

Interactions
◦ Take place via interfaces

34
Type Electrical Mechanical Hydraulic Human-
Human-
machine
Interaction Current Force Fluid Information
medium
Connectors Cable Joint Pipe valve Display
switch coupling control
panel
Isolators RF shield Shock mount Seal Cover
insulator bearing window

Converter Antenna Gear train Reducing Keyboard

A/D piston valve
converter pump

Though interface elements are relatively simple,

a large fraction of system failures occurs at
interfaces.
35

A set or arrangement of systems that results
when independent and useful systems are
integrated into a larger system that delivers
unique capabilities.

Characteristics
◦ Operational independence of the individual system
◦ Managerial independence of the individual system
◦ Geographic distribution
◦ Emergent behavior (not necessarily related to
component system)
◦ Evolutionary development
◦ Self-organization and adaptations

36

An airport

support trucks

baggage-handling equipment

Air traffic control

Satellites,

Radars

aircraft

Car

Taxi

Shuttle bus
37

Consists of Multiple SoSs

Enterprise
“anything that consists of

people, processes, technology, systems, and
other resources across organizations and
locations interacting with each other and their
environment to achieve a common mission or
goal

Example

Government agencies and departments

Cities and countries

38

Draw a context diagram for a Restaurant.
Make sure to identify all the external entities
and label all of the interactions.

39

Draw a context diagram for a Resort Hotel.
Make sure to identify all the external entities
and label all of the interactions.

40

Systems Engineering: Principles and Practice,
2nd edition, 2011. A. Kossiakoff et al., Wiley.

Chapter 3

41