Motor Start Theory

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MOTOR STARTING
THEORY
ENGINEERED MOTOR CONTROL

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ELECTRONIC SOFT STARTERS AND A.C.SPEED DRIVES
INTRODUCTION
REDUCED VOLTAGE STARTING OF

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
Introduction Reduced voltage starting of A.C. induction motors is commonly used for motors
connected to the three phase electrical supply to reduce the starting current drawn
by the motor. Further, some reduced voltage starting systems also provide
mechanical advantages through reduced mechanical stress.
To maximise the benefits available through the application of reduced voltage

starting systems it is necessary to have a good understanding of the all
components which effect starting performance. This includes the motor as well as
the selected reduced voltage starting method chosen.
This publication examines motor theory as it effects starting performance, and

then goes on to detail the more common types of electromechanical reduced
voltage systems. The remainder of the book is devoted to an analysis of the most
recent and exciting advance in reduced voltage starting, Electronic Soft Starters.
AuCom Electronics 1 Motor Starting Theory

MOTOR DESIGN
MOTOR DESIGN
The induction motor has two prime functions to perform in industry
1. To convert electrical energy into mechanical energy in order to accelerate

the motor and load to the operating speed. This is the Starting Function.
2. To convert electrical energy into productive work output from the machine.
This is the Operating or Work Function.
Full voltage starting (Direct-On-Line) of induction motors results in a starting

current surge equal to the locked rotor current of the motor which is typically five
to ten times the full load current of the motor. The locked rotor current (LRC) of a
motor is dependent on the design of the motor and a value of six times the full
load current is common.
Reduction in motor starting current is often a requirement of the electrical supply

authority to reduce current and the resulting voltage fluctuations on the electrical
supply system.
Reduced voltage starting of induction motors reduces the available starting torque
of the motor and in some installations cannot be used b ecause of the starting
torque requirements of the load.
Motor Designs Both the starting characteristics and the full load characteristics are very important
in the selection and specification of motors. The starting function of the motor is
the least understood and many motors are misapplied and exhibit very poor
starting characteristics. Full load characteristics are easy to specify with motor
speed, torque and efficiency being the major selection criteria.
Motors consist of two major sections; the Stator and the Rotor.
1. The Stator consists of magnetic poles and stator windings within the frame
of the motor. By variation of the winding configuration and the contour of the
stator laminations, the full load characteristics are determined. The motor
speed is determined by the number of 'poles'.
2. The rotor consists of a cylindrical short circuited winding around iron

laminations. The rotor winding is often referred to as a squirrel cage. The
cage is constructed of a number of bars running parallel to the motor shaft,
but near to the surface of the rotor. The rotor bars are short circuited by
shorting rings at each end of the rotor. The shape, material and position o
the bars within the rotor determine the starting characteristics of the motor.
In operation, the induction motor performs as a transformer with current induced in

the rotor by the flux from the stator. When the rotor is stationary, (locked rotor
conditions), the motor current is limited by the effective series impedance of the
rotor and stator. At very low speeds, the dominant impedance is the rotor. At high
speeds, the stator impedance can become influential. Thus the rotor determines
the starting characteristics of the motor while the stator has an influence on the full
speed characteristics.
The torque developed by the motor is a function of the rotor current, the effective
rotor resistance and the rotor slip (difference between rotor speed and
synchronous rotor speed). During starting, the current is limited by both the rotor

MOTOR DESIGN
resistance an d the rotor leakage reactance. Motors which exhibit a high locked
rotor current tend to have a low locked rotor torque, while motors with a low locked
rotor current generally have a high locked rotor torque. A high starting torque is
generated by the use of a high resistance rotor, however this can result in
increased slip at full load. A rotor consisting of two cages, a high resistance outer
cage giving a high starting torque and a high reactance inner cage giving a lo
slip operation is one compromise co monly used. The double cage motor can
sometimes be more limited in starting capacity than single cage motors and so is
not always suitable for multiple start applications. Typical starting torques (locked
rotor torque) are in the range of 120% to 220% of Full Load Torque. It is possible
in many cases to increase the starting torque (at full voltage) by over 50% by
utilising a different rotor design.
The designs of A.C. induction motors fall into four main categories, each exhibiting
different starting and operating characteristics. The motor design should be
selected by the machine manufacturer to suit the mechanical load presented to it
by the machine.
Design A Motors Design A motors have a shallow rotor bar design resulting in low rotor inductance
and usually low rotor resistance. Design A motors exhibit a high locked rotor
current and a low locked rotor torque. They have a good operating efficiency and a
high pull out torque. The full load slip of these motors is low.
Typical locked rotor current : (LRC) = 650% to 1000% FLC.

Typical locked rotor torque (LRT) = 100% to 140% FLT.
Design B Motors Design B motors have a higher rotor inductance and rotor resistance than design A
motors. Design B have a lower locked rotor current and higher locked rotor torque
than design A motors. The efficiency is similar to design A, but pull out torque can
be lower and slip higher.
Typical locked rotor current (LRC) = 550% to 650% FLC.

Typical locked rotor torque (LRT) = 140% to 240% FLT.
Design C Motors Design C motors are often known as double cage motors because of two windings
on the rotor. One winding is a low resistance as found in design B motors and an
outer winding which has a high resistance. The low resistance inner winding is
designed to have a high reactance. Double cage motors have a low locked rotor
current and high locked rotor torque. Typically greater than 200%.
Design D Motors Design D motors have a high reactance squirrel cage winding and exhibit a high
starting torque up to 300% and a low locked rotor current. The high resistance
rotor results in a high full load slip and low efficiency.
Increasing the motor size or rating will not always increase the starting torque.
Often, when difficulty is experienced starting a machine, the motor is replaced by
a higher rated motor when an equivalent rated motor could have been used. A
75kW motor with 180% LRT has a higher start torque than a 100kW motor with
120% LRT. The starting current for the 75kW motor would generally be less than
that required for the 100kW motor. By incorrect motor selection, a larger sized
motor may be employed to achieve the required starting torque at higher motor
and starter cost, and higher starting current.
When reduced voltage starting is employed, the torque is reduced by the square o
the current or voltage reduction. As high current motors tend to have low starting
torque, any reduction in the start voltage results in a greater differential in the
starting torque between the high and low starting torque motors. In many
applications it is now desirable or mandatory that the starting current is reduced to
less than three times full load current. Reduction from six times FLC to three times
FLC is a two to one reduction, resulting in a torque reduction of four to one.

MOTOR DESIGN
Similarly, a reduction from nine times FLC to three times FLC is a three to one
reduction in current, resulting in a nine to one reduction in starting torque. If motor
'A' has a LRT of 180% and a LRC of 600%, then at three times FLC reduced
voltage starting of the motor will initially produce 45% torque. Motor 'B' has a LRT
of 120% and a LRC of 900%, resulting in an initial starting torque of 13% at three
times FLC with reduced voltage starting. This is a torque differential of over 3
times for two motors which appear to be very similar and would be sold in direct
competition. The higher torque motor may be a little more expensive, but the cost
factor is insignificant compared to the torque available. The increase in torque will
mean that some machines can be succe ssfully started at three times FLC with
motor 'A' but not with motor 'B'. To develop 45% FLT, motor 'B' requires 5.2 times
FLC. This would result in much more expensive starting equipment and in many
cases the start current would be unacceptable.
Motor A LRC = 600% LRT = 180%
300 300
at 3 x FLC the torque is 180 x x = 45%
900 900
Motor B : LRC = 900% LRT = 120%
300 300
at 3 x FLC the torque is 120 x x = 13. 3%
900 900
In many situations it is best to use a high starting torque motor which has a lo
locked rotor current. This may result in higher motor cost, but the cost of the motor
and starter combination will often be reduced.
EXAMPLE: A selection of 110kW four pole motors and their characteristics.
MOTOR SPEED FLC LRC LRT FL T T

(RPM) (AMPS) (% FLC) (% FLT) EF'NCY (3XFLC) (4XFLC)
(%) (% FLT) (% FLT)
1 1470 191 600 263 93 65.8 116.9
2 1475 184 600 190 93.5 47.5 84
3 1475 191 570 150 92 41.6 73.9
4 1480 187 660 190 94.5 39.2 69.8
5 1470 185 550 120 92 36 63
6 1470 191 670 150 93 30.1 53.5
7 1480 190 780 200 94 29.6 52.6
8 1475 182 850 220 93.5 27.4 48.7
9 1480 190 670 120 94 24 42.8
As can be seen from the above table, the realisable torque under reduced voltage
or reduced current starting conditions for motors of a similar rating can cover a
wide range. For the nine motors surveyed, the initial start torque at three times full
load current ranges from 65.8% to 24%. A span of greater than two to one at the
same current. In effect, the motors, which all offer very similar full load
characteristics, ha e very different starting efficiencies.
Initial Start Torque

Calculation Initial start torque is calculated as follows.
IST I
TST = LRT x x ST
LRC LRC
Similarly, the start current for an initial start torque can be calculated as follows:

MOTOR DESIGN
TST
IST = LRC x
LRT
Using the above formula and applying it to the above example, start currents for a
specified initial start torque from each individual motor are as follows :
Motor 10% FLT 20%FLT 50% FLT 100% FLT

1 1.2xFLC 1.7xFLC 2.6xFLC 3.7xFLC
From the above table it can be seen that if an initial start torque of 50% FLT is
required, then with motor '1' a standard duty starter can be employed, but with
motor '9', a heavy duty starter must be used. A more expensive starter. Further,
the lower starting efficiency motors suffer a high level of heating during start and
thus the starting frequency must be lower.
The speed/torque curves for induction motors are unique to each design type. In
engineering a motor and starter for an application, the speed/torque curve for the
motor and starter should, ideally, be plotted against the machine speed/torque
curve. Some motor manufacturers show the speed/torque curve as a single line,
while others illustrate the curve as a shaded b and. The speed/torque
characteristics are not smooth, but have many peaks and troughs. The curves
given by the manufacturers are average curves only. In order to ensure that the
motor will start satisfactorily, there should be a good differential between the motor
torque and the machine torque requirement at all speeds. If the start torque is
marginal, the motor will noticeably change in acceleration as it increases in speed.
The flat spots are usually very audible. Particularly severe torque flat spots occ ur
for motors which have a rotor that is 'off round' causing an uneven air gap between
the rotor and stator.
Typical speed/torque curves

MOTOR DESIGN
START TORQUE Machines and motor loads have widely differing start torque requirements. Some
motor applications need only 10% rated torque to accelerate to full speed while
other applications may require over 200% torque. The starting torque requirement
is usually not constant over the speed range from zero to full speed.
The starting torque necessary to start a machine has two major components:
1. Work or Load torque
2. Acceleration torque
The initial starting torque requirement is the breakaway torque. Once the motor
has begun to rotate the torque becomes the sum of the 'work torque' and the
'accelerating torque'.
Work Torque The 'work torque' is the torque required to overcome the
mechanical work being done by the machine and includes frictional losses and
windage losses. The 'work torque' is speed dependent and in applicat ions such as
fans and pumps, the work torque has a speed squared relationship.
Accelerating Torque The accelerating torque is the torque which accelerates the
load or machine to full speed and is the torque developed by the motor minus the
'work load' requirement of the motor load. To accelerate a high inertia, a high
accelerating torque is required. Increased accelerating torque reduces the starting
time.
During start, the motor is under stress and is effectively overloaded. Longer start
times result in higher frame temperatures, so excessive start times should be
avoided.
A punch press application, where the motor is accelerating a large flywheel only, is
an example of a machine requiring high acceleration torque and low work torque.
The machine exhibits low frictional and windage losses but has a high inertia. The
torque requirements are initially the breakaway torque and then predominantly
acceleration torque until full speed is reached. In contrast a fan has a 'work torque'
which increases with the fan speed so sufficient torque must be available to
accelerate the fan and also shift a volume of air dependent on the fan speed.

MOTOR DESIGN
Many applications such as fans and pumps exhibit a speed squared 'work load'
characteristic.
Refrigeration compressors generally start o -load, and work against a lo

pressure, but can reach full pressure within a limited number of revolutions unless
a bypass valve is used during start. Sufficient torque must be available to either
accelerate the compressor to full speed before a high pressure is reached, or
accelerate the compressor against the maximum pressure achieved during start.
The specification of the starting torque requirements of a machine is an

engineering problem and in some cases can become very involved. In many
cases motor selection is traditionally based on experience. Starting requirements
can often be ascertained in the same manner.
A flywheel is used as a mechanical energy reservoir in many machines, allowing a

high intermittent or transient torque loading with a smaller motor operating with
reduced maximum torque demand. To start the motor and flywheel, the energy
must be converted from the electrical energy by the motor, and be transferred to
the flywheel by the coupling and drive system. The starting time is dependent on
the amount of stored energy in the flywheel at full speed, and the rate of energy
transfer from the electrical supply to the flywheel. The potential energy of the
flywheel at speed, is dependent on both the inertia and the speed of the fly wheel.
The rate of energy transfer from the motor is dependent on the torque developed
by the motor.
There are some rules of thumb that are useful in determining starting torque
requirements.
1. TORQUE OUTPUT OF A MOTOR (Tm)
1. Tm = 9,600 x KW Tm = Full Load Torque in N.M.

N KW = Rated Power in K.W.
N = Rated Full Load Speed Of The
Motor in R.P.M.
2. Tm = 5,250 x HP Tm = Full Load Torque in lb-ft

N KW = Rated Power in H.P.
N = Rated Full Load Speed
Of The Motor in R.P.M.
3. Tm = 7,400 x KW Tm = Full Load Torque in lb-ft

N KW = Rated Power in K.W.
4. Tm = 63,030 x HP Tm = Full Load Torque in in-lb

N KW = Rated Power in H.P.

MOTOR DESIGN
2. ACCELERATING TORQUE
1. Ta = M x N M = Moment of inertia seen by the

9.5t motor including the inertia of the
motor in Kgm 2
N = Rated Full Load Speed O
The Motor in R.P.M.
t = Time For Acceleration Fro
Zero Speed To Rated Full Load
Speed.
2. Ta = M x N M = Moment of inertia seen by the

308t motor including the inertia of the
motor in lbft 2
N = Rated Full Load Speed Of The
Motor in R.P.M.
t = Time For Acceleration Fro
Zero Speed To Rated Full Load
Speed
If the load is operated at a different speed from the motor, a correction is applied
to the load inertia.
(Nload )2
M = Mmotor + Mload x
(Nmotor )2
ie. The effective moment of inertia seen by the motor is the actual load inertia
multiplied by the speed ratio squared, in such a manner that if the load speed is
higher than the motor, the effective inertia is increased.
The starting torque of the motor must initially exceed the breakaway torque and
must also exceed the work and minimum acceleration torque during starting.
Once the starting torque is known, the required starting current can be calculated.
The full voltage starting torque of the motor depends on the motor design. Refer to
the motor manufacturers data.
The ratio of Full Voltage t orque (LRT) to required starting torque, is equal to the
square of the ratio of Locked Rotor Current (LRC) to the required starting current.
TFV (ILR )2
=
TST (IST )2
TFV = Full Voltage Start Torque

TST = Start Torque
ILR = Locked Rotor Current
IST = Start Current
TST
Start Current IST = ILR
TFV
The locked rotor current is also a function of motor design. Typically 6 - 8 X F.L.C.

MOTOR STARTING
MOTOR STARTING
MOTOR STARTING Motor Starting There are many misconceptions about mot or starting. The most
commonly held impression that the start current of a motor, starting under full
voltage conditions, is dependent on the driven load, is totally incorrect. The
starting current of the motor is dependent on the motor design, rotor speed and
stator voltage from zero speed until full speed is reached. The load will only
influence the time taken for the motor to reach full speed. The current/speed curve
of the motor is independent of all external influences other than stator voltage.
The otor, when started Direct-On-Line, will always initially draw locked rotor
current. The current will stay at the locked rotor current as the motor begins to
accelerate, and fall as the motor approaches full speed. For many induction
motors the current does not fall significantly until the motor is over ninety percent
speed. Starting an unloaded motor Direct-On-Line is just as severe on the supply
as starting a fully loaded motor, except that the overload is for a shorter time.
Some clamp type ammeters do no t show the true start current due to the slo
response time of the meter.
Direct On Line
Starters
The simplest form of starter is the Direct-On-Line or Across-The- Line starter,

consisting of an isolation contactor and motor overload protection device. In some
industries Direct-On-Line starters are extensively used, however in many
applications full voltage starting is not permitted by the Power Authority due to the
high starting currents and the resultant voltage disturbances that a re caused. The
full voltage starter causes a current transition from zero to locked rotor current at
the instant of contactor closure. This current will generally be between six and nine
times the rated full load current of the motor. The result is a voltage transient
induced in the supply due to the fast rising current transient, and a voltage
deflection of six to nine times that expected under full load conditions. Full voltage
starting also causes a torque transient from zero to Locked Rotor Torque at the
instant of contactor closure. The instantaneous torque application results in a
severe mechanical shock to the motor, drive system and the machine. The
damage resulting from the torque transient is more severe than that due to the
maximum torque amplitude.
MOTOR STARTING
M1
3~
CONTACTOR THERMAL MOTOR

OVERLOAD
BAA10050
Reduced Voltage
Starting The full voltage starting of induction motors results in maximum starting torque,
maximum starting current and minimum starting time. Reduced Voltage Starting
reduces starting current, start ing torque and increases starting time. Reduced
Voltage Starting is used to reduce the starting current and starting torque.
Three traditional methods of reduced voltage starting are commonly used :
Primary resistance Starting

Auto Transformer Starting
Star-Delta Starting
Reduced Voltage Starting is used very extensively, and in many areas is

mandatory. The use of reduced voltage starting has been promoted as a means o
reducing power supply voltage disturbances resulting from motor starting. In many
cases, due to the misapplication of reduced voltage starters, the benefits are
marginal and many installations would be subjected to less disturbances if a full
voltage starter replaced the poorly applied reduced voltage starting system.
It is essential that any reduced voltage starter employed must be able to

accelerate the motor to almost full speed before stepping to full voltage. A step to
full voltage at much less than rated motor speed will result in a current step to a
maximum that can be very close to locked rotor current.
Switching to a full voltage at eighty percent would result in a current of typically

seventy five percent of locked rotor current, or five times F.L.C. At fifty percent
speed, the current would be ninety percent of locked rotor current. The maximu
current will be significantly reduced only if the change-over occurs at a rotor speed
of ninety percent or better. The speed o the motor at change-over is dependent
on the torque of the motor at the reduced voltage, and the speed/torque curve o
the load. If the time in the reduced voltage is too short, the motor may not have
time to accelerate to the speed where the available torque equals the load torque,
resulting in a premature transition to full voltage.
The two controllable parameters which determine the reduced voltage starters
performance are therefore start time and the start voltage. If either of these
parameters is not correctly set, then the reduced voltage starter is of limited
advantage.
The transition from the reduced voltage to full voltage can be either open
transition switching, or closed transition switching. Open transition switching
occurs when the starter goes through an open circuit stage in the switching
sequence. Stage [1], connection to the reduced voltage; [2] disconnect from the
reduced voltage (open circuit); [3] connect to the full voltage.
MOTOR STARTING
The closed transition starter does not have an open circuit s tep in changing fro
the reduced voltage to the full voltage. During the transition period the starter
provides a bridging impedance between the supply and motor to eliminate the
open circuit.
Open transition starting causes severe current and torque transients which can be
much more detrimental to both the supply and the mechanical equipment than full
voltage starting. When the motor is spinning and then disconnected from the
supply, it acts as a generator with an output voltage which may be the same
amplitude as the supply. The frequency of the voltage generated by the motor is
dependent on the motor speed. The voltage generated by the motor during the
open transition decays to zero slowly and at the time of reclose there can still be
significant voltage present at the motor terminals. As the frequency of the voltage
generated by the motor will always be less than the supply frequency there will
invariably be an instantaneous voltage difference between the motor terminals and
the supply. The voltage generated by the motor at the instant of reclose may be
equal to the supply voltage but exactly out of phase. This equates to reclosing with
twice the supply voltage on the motor. The result is a current of twice locked rotor
current and a torque transient of four times locked rotor torque. The transients
associated with open transition starters are responsible for many of the supply
disturbances and mechanical breakdowns experienced in industry.
Primary Resistance
Starters
The Primary Resistance Starter is o ne step beyond the Direct -On- Line starter.
Resistors are connected in series with each phase, between the isolation contactor
and the motor. The resistors limit the start current and torque.
RUN CONTACTOR
M
3~
LINE CONTACTOR START RESISTORS THERMAL MOTOR

OVERLOAD
BAA10051
The motor current is equal to the line current and the starting torque is reduced by
the square of the current reduction ratio. The current reduction is dependent on the
ratio of the motor impedance to the sum of the added primary resistance and
motor impedance.

MOTOR STARTING
As the motor accelera tes, the stator impedance increases, resulting in increasing
stator voltage with speed. Once the motor is up to full speed, the resistors are
bridged by a second contactor to supply full voltage to the motor.
The initial start voltage is determined by the value of the resistors used. If the
resistors are too high in value, there will be insufficient torque to accelerate the
motor to full speed. In this case, the step to full voltage will result in a high current
and torque step.
The reduced voltage start time is controlled by a preset timer which must be
correctly set for the application. If the time is too short, the motor will not have
achieved full speed before the resistors are bridged. Excessive start time results in
unnecessary motor and resistor heating.
Several stages of resistance can be used and bridged in steps to control the
current and torque more accurately, and thereby minimise the magnitude of the
current and torque steps.
Primary resistance starters dissipate a lot of energy during start due to the high
current through, and the high voltage across the resistors. The resistors may take
the form of wound, cast or liquid resistors. For extended times or frequent starts,
the resistors are physically large and must be well ventilated.
Primary resistance starters are closed transition starters, so they are not subject to
'reclose' transients.
Primiary Resistance Starter designed for a starting current of Primiary Resistance Starter designed for a starting curren t of
4.0 x FLC 3.0 x FLC
Auto Transformer
Starters
The Auto-Transformer Starter employs an auto-transformer to reduce the voltage
during the start period. The transformer has a range of output voltage taps which
can be used to set the start voltage.
The motor current is reduced by the start voltage reduction, and further reduced by
the transformer action resulting in a line
current less than the actual motor current.
The initial line current is equal to the LRC reduced by the square of the voltage
reduction. A motor started on the fifty percent tap of an Auto-Transformer will have
a line start current of one quarter of LRC and a start torque of one quarter of LRT.

MOTOR STARTING
During the motor acceleration period, the starter may be designed to either step
through two or more stages or voltage steps from the initial start tap to full voltage.
The simplest Auto-Transformer starters are single step and often control two
phases only. The initial start voltage is set by tap selection, and the start time is
controlled by one or more timer. If the start voltage is too low, or the start time
incorrectly set, the transition to full voltage will occur with the motor at less than
full speed, resulting in a high current and torque step.
Auto- Transformer starters are usually rated for infrequent starting duties.
Frequent or extended start rated Auto-Transformers are large and expensive due
to the heating in the transformer.
Auto-transformer starters can be constructed as open transition starters but most

commonly the Korndorfer closed transition configuration is employed to eliminate
the 'reclose' transients.
Run (A) Start Run (A) Start

Contactor Contactor Contactor Contactor
3 Auto
Transformer
(A) Start
Contactor
3 ø Auto (B) Start

Thermal Transformer Thermal Contactor
Overload Overload
M M
3~ 3~
OPEN TRANSITION CLOSED TRANSITION
BAA10052
Correctly Adjusted Aut -Transformer Starter (60% Tap) Incorrectly Adjusted Aut -Transformer Starter (50% Tap)
MOTOR STARTING
Star-Delta
Starters
The Star-Delta starter is the most common reduced voltage starter used in
industry because of its low cost. The Star -Delta starter has traditionally met the
requirement for 'reduced voltage' starting to employed, but in many installati on
the advantage of its use is purely political.
Main Delta
Contactor Contactor
Thermal
Overload
Motor
3~
Star
Contactor
BAA10053
The motor is initially connected in star configuration and then after a preset time
the motor is disconnected from the supply and reconnected in delta configuration.
The current and torque in the star configuration are one third of the full voltage
current and torque when the motor is connected in delta.
The current and torque for any one motor cannot be controlled to suit the
application. Only two possible choices are ava ilable, star or delta configuration. I
there is insufficient torque available in star configuration to accelerate the load to
full speed, a high starting torque motor such as a double cage motor should be
employed.
If the motor does not reach full speed in star, the transition from start to delta
configuration will result in a high current and torque step, defeating the purpose o
the reduced voltage starting requirement.
Most Star-Delta starters are open transition starters so the transition from star to
delta results in very high current and torque transients in addition to the high step
magnitudes. Closed transition Star -Delta starters are rarely used due to the

MOTOR STARTING
increased complexity and cost. The closed transition starter reduces the 'reclose'
effect but does not improve the controllability of the start parameters.
Solid State
Soft Staters The Solid State Soft Starter is similar to the primary resistance starter in that it
controls the voltage applied to the motor by means o an impedance in series with
each phase connected to the motor. The Solid State Soft Starter uses solid state
A.C. switches instead of fixed or liquid resistors.
Contactor A.C. Switches Overloads Motor
The A.C. switches are either triacs, reverse parallel connected SCR-diode or SCR-
SCR circuits. The voltage is controlled by variation of the conduction angle of the
SCR's or triacs. The triac and SCR-SCR are both symmetric controllers resulting
in odd order harmonic generation. The asymmetric control of the SCR -diode A.C.
switch causes even order harmonic currents to flow in the motor and supply. The
even harmonics are undesirable for motor control because of the increased losses
and heating induced in the motor and supply transformers.
The A.C. switch has a very low power dissipation compared to the traditional
primary resistors and is controllable to give a motor voltage from zero to full line
voltage without any steps or transients.
Solid State Soft Starters come in two control formats; [1] Open Loop Control o r [2]
Closed Loop Control. Open loop controllers, like traditional electromechanical
starters, operate following a preset timed sequence. The most common open loop
system is the Timed Voltage Ramp where the voltages begins initially at a preset
'start voltage' and increases to line voltage at a preset 'ramp rate'. Closed loop
controllers monitor one or more parameters during the start period and modify the
MOTOR STARTING
motor voltage in a manner to control the starting characteristics. Common closed

loop controllers are Constant Current, Current Ramp and Constant Acceleration.
Solid State Starters can be designed to give greater starting duties than most
motors, and because of their linear voltage control do not cause current or torque
steps or transients. Solid State Soft Starters are transitionless.
Summary Although it is possible to correctly apply and engineer electromechanical reduced

voltage starters such that the torque and current magnitudes and transients are
reduced to acceptable levels, the misapplication of motors and starters often
results in voltage flicker and deflections well in excess of those experienced with
Direct-on-Line starting techniques.
Reduced voltage starting has been specified in order to reduce the interference
caused by motor starting. It is also used in many applications to reduce the
mechanical damage caused by torque transients and steps. If these objectives are
to be achieved the motor and starter must be correctly selected and commissioned
for optimum performance. The motor starter can do more than just start the
motor. Unfortunately, incorrectly installed and calibrated electromechanical
starters eventually reach full voltage and Direct -On-Line start the motor acting as
expensive Direct-On-Line starters.

ELECTRONIC SOFT STARTERS
Principles of
Operation The Solid State Soft Starter is a reduced voltage starter that controls the voltage
applied to the motor by the use of solid state A.C. switches in series with the
supply to the motor.
A.C. Switches Motor
BAA10055
The A.C. switch takes the form of either [1] a triac, [2] two SCR's in reverse
parallel connection, [3] an SCR reverse parallel connected with a diode. Both the
triac and SCR -SCR controllers control both halves of the wave for
symmetrically. This is commonly termed Full Wave Control, whereas the SCR -
diode approach is an asymmetric or Half Wave control system.
Triac SCR-Diode SCR-SCR
All three methods of control are used in commercially available equipment. Each
system having its merits and limitations. For operation in industrial environments,
where most starters are employed, it is essential that high voltage A.C. switches
are used to withstand the high transient voltages commonly occurring on the
power supply systems. Typical voltage ratings are 2.5 - 3 times the line voltage.
For 415 volt three phase supplies semiconductors of 1200 volt ratings are used.
The triac as an A.C. switch is very easy to control as it is a bi directional current
controller and requires only one trigger circuit connected to it s single gate. The
overload current characteristics of many of the triacs available are inferior to SCR
surge ratings, making triacs less rugged. The unavoidability of high voltage high
current triacs restricts their use. SCR - Diode A.C. switches have commercial
advantages which can make them attractive to soft start manufacturers because,
like the triac, they have only one control gate. A high voltage high current diode is
cheaper than a high voltage high current SCR, so the use of a diode and SCR is
cheaper than two SCR's. The SCR used in a SCR -diode circuit does not have to
withstand a high reverse voltage, so unlike the SCR -SCR format where both
forward and reverse blocking voltages of the SCR's must be very high, the SCR
may be an asymmetric SCR designed for forward blocking characteristics only.
The SCR-SCR A.C. switch method has the highest component cost but offers far
superior performance and reliability characteristics to the SCR -Diode approach.
The full wave control method is preferable to the hal wave option because of the
adverse effects that can be experienced when D.C. and even harmonic currents
are present in iron cored inductors. The iron hysteresis loss is minimised when the
current wave form is symmetrical about zero. ie. no D.C. offset. An asymmetric
waveform will cause the iron to become polarised, offsetting the hysteresis loop
and increasing the iron losses. The result is increased heating in the motor and
supply transformer. The presence of D.C. or even harmonic components in the
stator will cause a stationary torque field to be generated which acts to reduce the
motor speed. This is the principle of D.C. injected braking systems. The zero
speed or breaking torque must be overcome by additional starting torque. This
becomes an extra torque requirement during start and necessitates an increased
starting current compared to a symmetrical control system. The SCR -Diode
method should only be used in situations where a low starting torque and
infrequent starts of a short duration are required.
The start voltage is continuously variable from zero to full voltage and can be
easily controlled by electronic circuitry without the use of any electromechanical
switching device. The smooth stepless start achievable with soft starters
eliminates many of the problems associated with traditional starting techniques.
The voltage is controlled by controlling the conduction angle of the solid state A.C.
switches. The switches are capable of two states of operation, either fully ON, or
completely OFF. Partial conduction is not used as this results in very high power
dissipation. When the solid state switches are conducting, the potential across
them is less than one and a half volts.
During the non conduction period the current through the switches is very low.
Typical leakage currents are much less than fifty milliamps. The resultant power
loss in the A.C. switches is much less than the power dissipated in traditional
primary resistance starters. The high efficiency of the starter during start enables
multi-start design to be economically achieved.
Control Formats The electronic control circuitry can be configured to determine the starting
characteristics of the machine. Both open loop and closed loop control formats can
be used. An open loop control system has no feedback of the starting performance
to the controller and operates to follow a preset time referenced voltage
characteristic. Most traditional starters are open loop systems where the voltage
transitions are controlled by timers. A closed loop cont roller has one or more
feedback loops which monitor starting parameters and adjust the voltage in a
manner to cause the monitored parameter to conform to a prescribed pattern.
Open Loop
Current
Transformer
Closed Loop Tachometer
Open Loop
Current
Transformer
Closed Loop Tachometer

Open loop soft start controllers are available in both a voltage step or pedestal
format and a timed voltage ramp format. Voltage step or pedestal controllers step
to a preset voltage at start and maintain that voltage for an adjustable period. The
voltage then steps to full line voltage. The voltage step starter has little advantage
over a closed transition electromechanical starter and is rarely used. The timed
voltage ramp approach is used extensively in low cost solid state soft start
systems. The initial start voltage is adjustable, as is the ramp rate. In operation,
the starter quickly ramps the voltage from zero to the preset start voltage. The
start volta e is then ramped up at a controlled rate from the initial start voltage to
full line voltage. The 'start voltage' and 'ramp rate' are often referred to as 'torque'
and 'acceleration' adjustments. This implies a greater level of control than is
readily achievable. Soft start is a means of controlling the rate of torque
application during motor starting, but does not give good control over the rate o
motor acceleration. This acceleration rate is determined predominantly by the
motor and machine inertia. Adjustments of the starting parameters will influence
the acceleration rate but will not enable the starting ti e to be accurately
controlled. Soft Start is a GENTLE start, not necessarily a slow start. A high inertia
load requires a slow ramp time if the current is to be minimised. If the start voltage
rises to quickly, the current will also rise quickly resulting in a starting current
which can approach locked rotor current under worst conditions. A low inertia load
requires a short ramp time. Excessive starting time can cause the voltage to
insufficient for stable operation once the motor has reached full speed.
Full Voltage
Start Voltage
a] Voltage Step
Full Voltage
Start Voltage
a] Voltage Ramp
Closed Loop systems commonly used are:
Constant Current or Current Limit

Timed Current Ramp
Constant Acceleration
The Constant Current starter monitors the starting current and compares it with a
reference. The error or difference between the measured current and the
reference current is used to control the output voltage applied to the motor. If the
current is lo , the output voltage is increased and if the current is high the output
voltage is reduced. As the motor accelerates, the stator impedance rises and in
order to maintain a constant current the voltage also rises. The curve of increasing
voltage with speed is dependent on the stator impedance/speed curve and is
dependent on motor design. All reduced voltage starting systems reduce the
starting torque. With a Constant Current starter the voltage increases as motor
speed increases, this results in an increasi ng torque with full torque available as
the motor reaches full speed. In many applications, the requirement is for an
increasing torque with speed. With Constant Current starters it is important that
the starting current is high enough to accelerate the motor to full speed under all
conditions.
If the motor reaches part speed and has insufficient torque for further acceleration
it will continue to run at the reduced speed. Operation under these conditions will
overheat the motor unless there is excess start time protection.
The Timed Current Ramp soft start system is an enhancement of the Constant
Current system with the current reference being controlled by a ramp circuit. The
initial start current can be set to a level below the maximum start current and the
start current increases at a controlled rate to the maximum start current. This
allows the controlled current starter to cater for a variation in starting torque
requirements or to tailor the starting torque to give a reduced starting torque
without l imiting the maximum starting torque. Typical applications are conveyors
which start under varying load conditions, and pumps which require very lo
torque at low speed.
Constant Acceleration or linear acceleration starters monitor the motor speed by

means of a tacho generator attached to the motor shaft. The speed of the motor is
compared to the output of a reference ramp and the voltage applied to the motor
is controlled in a manner to cause the motor to accelerate at a constant rate. The
acceleration ti e is determined by the ramp rate control in the reference ramp rate
circuit. A current limiting circuit can also be included in a constant acceleration
starter. This can be used to limit the maximum starting current, particularly in
applications where a potential exists for jammed loads.
Starter Ratings The Solid State Soft Starter uses solid state A.C. switches to control the current to
the motor. These switches have some power loss when the equipment is
operational. The power loss is dependent on the current passing through the
switches. During start, the power is much higher than during run because of the
much increased current. The shape factor of the current waveform is also o
importance. The limiting factor with most A.C. switches used is the junction
temperature inside the SCR's, Diodes or Triacs. The junction temperature is
dependant on the A.C.Switch characteristics and also the heatsink temperature.
The differential between the junction temperature and the heatsink temperature is
a function of both the power dissipated and the thermal resistance between the
A.C.Switch junction and the case.

The achievable current rating is based on the rating of the A.C. Switch and
heatsink combination, the mass and thermal resistance of the heatsink often being
a limiting factor. The ratings should be calculated so that during the start period
the junction temperature does not exceed the manufacturers recommendations,
typically 125 degrees Celsius. Many designs rely on the "non repetitive" or
"repetitive" surge ratings of the switching elements during start. For the industrial
environment, this is not satisfactory as each time the junction temperature
exceeds the maximum operating temperature, damage and lifetime degradation
occur.
Most installations are required, sometimes only occasionally, to start frequently

and from full operating temperature. This may occur at commissioning only, or
during the maintenance period of the machine. As permanent damage can occur i
the equipment is stressed, it is important that the starter is designed, specified and
installed to withstand worst case operation rather than typical or ideal operation.
Ratings for start frequency, start duration, start current and prestart parameters
must be taken into consideration during the original equipment design so all should
be available from the manufacturer.
For reliability, ratings based on "Hot Starts" should be used. This means that the
motor can be immediately restarted after operating at maximum ratings for a
period of time. "Cold Start" or undefined prestart conditions, require that the
equipment is allowed to cool to ambient temperature before a restart is attempted.
This may require a restart delay of an hour or more, depending on the equipment
design.
As the ratings are thermal, starting times and frequency are based on restarts
being evenly spaced through each hour. Ratings of ten x thirty second hot starts
per hour are becoming accepted as a standard for industrial grade starters.
Equipment specified with n o start time, or prestart conditions (ie. hot start), are
often designed to operate into the overload characteristics of the semiconductor
switches.
Standard duty and Heavy duty rated starters are offered by many manufacturers,
with standard duty offering a maximum of three times full load current for starting,
and heavy duty starters for five to six times full load current. The standard duty is
useful in most applications requiring low to medium starting torque, but the heavy
duty models are necessary where a high starting torque is required.
Time/current ratings are sometimes given for soft starters, quoting a high start
current for a short time, and a low start current for an extended period. These are
usually based on cold start conditions, and are often indicative of the fuse
characteristics rather than the heatsink characteristics. The time constant o
heatsinks is typically several minutes so significant changes in current ratings fro
ten seconds to thirty seconds are not realistic.
Starters being used to provide a soft stop characteristic in addition to the soft start,
must be selected and rated on the basis of hot start conditions because a soft stop
is equivalent to an immediate restart from full load operating temperature.
Motor Protection Closed loop solid state soft starters monitor some of the operational parameters o
the starter and the motor. These can be used to provide protection for the motor in
addition to the soft start control. The majority of closed loop soft starters monitor
both the supply voltage and the motor current. Motor protection requires that the
motor is isolated from the supply if there is a loss of one phase supplying a poly
phase motor, or if the motor is overloaded in a manner that would cause it to
overheat.

The normal motor protection comprises phase loss protection, and overcurrent
protection. Thermistor protection, phase sequence protection and earth leakage
protection can be optionally fitted to most installations to give increased protection
for the installation.
Traditional motor protection relays comprise three bimetallic bars which are
heated by elements carrying the motor current. Excessive deflection in the bars
will cause the trip contacts to open, releasing the contactor. The overload
characteristic is thermal, as is the overload capacity of the motor. The overload
current/trip time curve is an I squared T (I2) characteristic. Improved thermal
overload relays include a differential bar mechanism to provide increased
protection against phase loss situations. A differential in the current flowing to the
motor will cause the effective trip sensitivity of the relay to increase.
Electronic overcurrent protection is available with either an inverse time/current

characteristic, or an inverse time/current squared characteristic. The inverse
time/current compromise generally finds applications where cost dictates a less
sophisticated approach at the expense of protection characteristics. The motor
heating is a function of excess current squared. The electronic ove rcurrent
protection built into the soft starter is able to discriminate between an operational
overload and an excess current due to starting and consequently can be designed
to offer two modes of protection. 1) Start mode protection offering an extended
response time and start time limiting function, 2) operating protection offering fast
overcurrent protection. As the thermal overload protection relay can not
discriminate between a start and an operational overload, it offers one response
rate only, trying to be slow enough to allow the motor to start yet fast enough to
protect the motor against an overload condition before damage occurs.
Electronic phase loss protection is achieved by a variety of different techniques,

some of which are very marginal in operation, and others that are highly
sophisticated. The simplest system is to monitor the input voltage to the starter
and assume a phase loss situation if the magnitude of the voltage at one input
falls below a prescribed percentage. This is voltage magnitude sensing phase loss
protection, and works well provided there are no motors operating on the same
electrical supply at the time when the phase is interrupted. (The motor controlled
by the starter inclusive). A similar technique is to monitor the magnitudes of the
three phase currents and trip the contactor if the current imbalance is greater than
a prescribed percentage.
Both the current and voltage magnitude discriminating phase loss protection are
affected by the presence of motors operating. Good protection is achieved during
start only, unless the discrimination is set for a very low differential. This is usually
accompanied by nuisance tripping from supply disturbances.
Motors when operating are able to generate voltage and current from an open
circuit phase, acting as two phase to three phase rotary converters. This
regenerated current or voltage can be very close to the supplied magnitudes
making discrimination difficult.

Harmonics The Solid State A.C. switches used to regu late the voltage during start interrupt
the current flow for part of each cycle, resulting in harmonic current generation.
The magnitude of the harmonic energy is a function of the load impedance, the
A.C. switch conduction angle and the rate of change of current at both 'switch on'
and 'switch off' of the A.C. switches. The A.C. switches are self commutated so the
current is not abruptly interrupted but falls gradually to zero. The commutation
angle is determined by the actual power factor of the motor at the speed o
rotation. The 'switch on' or triggering of the A.C. switches is delayed to reduce the
conduction angle on order to reduce the voltage. As the A.C. switches begin to
conduct part way through the cycle a high voltage can be rapidly applied to the
motor windings. The inductive nature of the motor reduces the rate of rise o
current and consequently the higher order harmonics. When the motor is at rest
the motor impedance is at its lowest requiring that the conduction angle be at the
minimum value for a specific current. At minimum speed the motor exhibits a very
low power factor. This reduces the higher order harmonics. As the motor
approaches full speed the power factor rises and consequently the harmonic
content is less diminished by the motor inductance, however the rise in power
factor is accompanied by a rise in motor impedance and consequently the
conduction angle is increased. At minimum power factor the controller would
normally be operating at full conduction generating no harmonics other than those
normally generated by the motor.
Symmetric controllers generate odd order harmonics which are far more tolerable
than the even order harmonics generated by the asymmetric controllers. The even
order harmonic currents are responsible for iron polarisation and heating in both
the motor and supply transformers. The odd order harmonics do not cause
problems within the motor or supply transformers, and interest is generally from an
interference point of view. The odd order harmonic currents will induce a harmonic
voltage on the power distribution system.
The voltage induced is a function of the harmonic current magnitude and the
supply impedance at each harmonic frequency. The harmonic currents are of most
concern to authorities and utilities employing power line carried signalling and
communication systems. Harmonics in the 300 Hz to 3k Hz band audio are o
greatest concern. The harmonics generated by the symmetric controllers are
primarily 3rd, 5th, and 7th harmonics. The harmonic voltages are signiicant only
in installations of high supply impedance.
If the supply impedance is unduly high, there will be considerable noise apparent
on the supply when the motor is operating at full load. This is related to the motor
slip and slot characteristics and appears in the audio frequency band of interest for
communications. The slot noise is not harmonic related and varies with motor
speed.
A supply weak enough for harmonic voltages from the starter to be of concern will
probably be adversely effected by the motor operating at full load with or without
the solid state controller.
Off State Isolation Electromechanical starters use contactors to control the voltage applied to the
motor and generally, equipment malfunction excepted, in the 'off' state there is a
high degree of isolation of the motor from the supply. This can be visually checked
by inspection of the contactors.
NOTE: Electrical safety standards and regulations usually require a manual

isolator in addition to the contactors which be operated be fore work on the
equipment is carried out.
I1
I2
I3
BAA10310
Req
Req M
3~
Req
BAA10310
Req
M
3~
Req
Req
BAA10310
Total Leakage Current = SCR forward leakage current (I1) + SCR reverse leakage current (I2) +
Snubber network current (I3)
The solid state A.C. switches used in solid state starters can be used to interrupt
the supply to the motor in the off state and some electrical authorities permit this
control in the 'off' state. It is important to note however that the 'off' state of the
A.C. switches does not offer a high degree of isolat ion due to the leakage current
flow through the semiconductors and protection networks. Steady state current
flow may be in the order of 20 mA with surge current due to voltage transients
many times this figure. I1
I2
I3
BAA10310
Req
Req M
3~
Req
BAA10310
Req
M
3~
Req
Req
BAA10310
Equivalent Circuit of controller using SCR-SCR method to stop the motor. Equivalent leakage resistanc
Req typically 3k to 30k ohm dependent on the SCRs and the snubber network.
A.C. switches of the SCR-Diode type result in D.C. Voltage applied to the motor
windings relative to earth due to the non control of the diodes. I1
I2
I3
BAA10310
Req
Req M
3~
Req
BAA10310
Req
M
3~
Req
Req BAA10310
Equivalent circuit of controller using SCR-Diode method to stop the motor. Note the low impedance current
path through the diodes to the motor even in the off state.
In the interest of operator safety, it is advisable to use an isolation contactor with

solid state soft starters to isolate the supply in the 'off' state.
Semiconductor Fuses Solid State A.C. switches are rugged but can be damaged by excessively high
fault currents such as those accidental short circuits and insulation failure.
Provided the maximum energy through the Semiconductor is limited under fault
condition, no fault should occur. With regenerative switches such as SCRs and
Triacs, the easiest means of current limiting is by the use of correctly designed
and rated fuses.

Semiconductor Fuses are specially designed fuses using specially designed fuse
elements to provide a very fast controlled fault current interruption. The fuses
have a maximum continuos current rating and both pre -arcing and total clearing
I2t ratings. The pre -arcing I 2t is the energy let through which will cause the
semiconductor fuse to begin to rupture. At this energy, the fuse is permanently
damaged. The total clearing I2t is the maximum fault energy that will be allowed to
pass through the fuse as it clears the fault. The total clearing rating of the fuse is
dependant on the potential fault current, operating voltage cycle time and prefault
temperature.
The power Semiconductor devices used are given maximum I2t ratings by the
manufacturers. These are given in the starter information. It is important that the
maximum clearing I 2t of the fuse is less than the maximum I2t of the device it is
protecting for the conditions under which it is operating.
Standard HRC fuses should not be used for protecting Semiconductor devices
because the fault current limitation is not sufficiently well defined.
Connection of equal fuses in parallel increases the effective I2t by a factor of 4x.
Measurement of
Soft Starter
Performance The Soft Starter uses solid state A.C. switches to control the voltage applied to the
motor. The switches are used to interrupt the circuit between the supply and the
motor for part of each cycle of the applied A.C. voltage. As a result, current flows
for a part of each cycle, and is non sinusoidal. Metering is often designed to
operate on sinusoidal currents only and the measurements of discontinuous or
distorted waveforms will often yield erroneous results. Many dig ital and electronic
instruments measure the peak current of each cycle and use a conversion
multiplier to establish an equivalent R.M.S. voltage. Used with current
transformers (C.T.s), the apparent waveform is often distorted from the true
current wave form and has much higher peak magnitudes due to the phase shift o
the transformer. High quality instruments will sometimes use high frequency
sampling and multiplication to measure the 'true R.M.S.' current. Provided lo
phase shift C.T.s are used, and the sampling rate is much higher than the supply
frequency, good results can be achieved. Average reading analogue instruments
tend to be less affected by the current waveform. Digital clamp type meters have
been found to yield errors of up to 50% in start current readings.
Power Factor
Correction In many installations, power factor correction is necessary or desirable to reduce
the reactive current flowing in the supply.
Power factor correction can be applied as either bulk correction at the point o
supply using an automatic correction system, or alternatively static correction can
be used with each individual motor.
UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES should the power factor correction be connected

between the Solid State Soft Starter and the motor. If static power factor
correction is employed, it must be connected to the supply side of the SCR
assembly.
Connection of capacitors to the output of the SCR assembly, or across the motor
terminals, will result in very high charging currents flowing from the supply into t he
capacitors. This high current can damage the capacitors, SCR assembly, and will
cause the semiconductor protection fuses to rupture. The capacitors and the
inductance of the motor form a resonant circuit, and under pulse charging
conditions, resulting from capacitors connected to the output of the SCR
assembly, very high ringing voltages can be generated. The voltage, if excessive,
will cause the SCR to break down and begin to conduct into the capacitors. This
will initiate a very high rate of rise of cu rrent and cause damage to the SCR.
Semiconductor protection fuses are not able to protect against this mode o
overload.
Static power factor correction is often controlled by the same contactor as that
controlling the motor. In this case, the contactor should be uprated to control both
the motor and capacitor currents. (In many cases this is not correctly done.)
Failure to correctly select the contactor will degrade the useful switching life.
Ideally, separate contactors should be used to control the motor and the power
factor correction capacitors. This prevents any ringing or resonance in the
capacitor/motor circuit at switch off, and allows the correctly selected contactors to
be selected.
K1M
Motor
Solid State Starter

K2M
Power Factor Correction

Capacitors
Switching power factor correction capacitors across an unloaded high impedance

supply, will cause ringing to occur and if the supply is highly inductive, the
voltages generated can be significantly higher than the supply voltage. When a
solid state soft starter is used to control a mo tor at the end of a long supply line or
on a lightly loaded supply, the effect of the connection of capacitors should be
considered. As there is a gradual application of load on the supply when a soft
starter is used, the motor will not dampen any ringing if the capacitors are
switched by the starter isolation contactor. The capacitors are best connected to
the supply after the motor has started by using a separate contactor and a timer or
an 'Bypass Controller'. This will reduce the heating effect on the c apacitors by the
harmonic currents generated during start.
Slip Ring or
Wound Rotor Motors The application of the Solid State Soft Starter to slipring or wound rotor motors is
possible in many installations, but it is important to establish if the slipring motor
has been applied to increase the starting torque of the motor or to provide an
increased level of control during start.
By controlling the resistance connected to the rotor of the slipring motor, the
starting torque can be controlled. The motor ca n develop torque that is much
higher than is possible for a standard cage type motor for all speeds from zero to
synchronous speed. A high value of resistance in the rotor circuit causes the motor

to develop a low starting torque. By gradually reducing the resistance from a high
value, a smooth increase in starting torque can be achieved. This manner o
starting is often used for pumps and conveyors to reduce the starting torque
transients, and is a traditional means of achieving a soft start.
High inertia machines, or machines requiring a high starting torque often use a
slipring motor to give a very high starting torque relative to the motor full load
torque. A standard squirrel cage motor operated with a direct on line starter would
not develop sufficient torque to start the machine satisfactorily.
Solid State Soft Start systems reduce the available full voltage start torque when
applied to squirrel cage or slip ring induction motors. Applications requiring
maximum starting torque can not be used with a soft starter, however applications
where the slipring motor has been employed to reduce and control the starting
torque can be readily adapted to soft start control.
Traditional slipring motor starters employ a number of secondary resistors and

switching means. At start, power is applied to the stator terminals and maximu
resistance is connected across the rotor terminals. Switching devices (typically
bridging contactors) are used to progressively reduce the resistance connected to
the rotor circuit. This requires the use of a multi step timing device.
The contactors, resistors and timer are all expensive components requiring regular
maintenance if good reliability is to be achieved.
To apply the Solid State Soft Starter to a slip ring motor application, first
determine suitable resistance which can be applied to the rotor to give a useful
torque/speed curve. (maximum torque at 80% - 90% speed is usually the best
compromise). The Solid State Soft Starter is installed in the stator circuit of the
motor as with an induction motor. An off loader circuit, or a timer is used to control
a single bridging contactor across the secondary resistance once the motor has
reached full speed.
K1M
Secondary
Resistors
K2M
Line Solid State Slip-Ring

Contactor Soft Starter Motor
Bridging
Contactor
Motor Reversal Motor reversal requires the reversal of two phases applied to the motor. When
using a soft starter, the contactor should be installed on the supply side of the solid
state controller. The isolation contactor can be replaced by a normal reversing
contactor assembly as used in a Direc t On Line (DOL) reversing starter provided
the following precautions are taken:
1. The two contactors are mechanically or electrically interlocked to prevent both

contactors closing simultaneously and to ensure that both contactors must be
fully opened before either contactor can close.

2. The control circuitry is designed to ensure that there is a time delay between
one
3. contactor opening and the second closing. This would preferably be achieved
by the incorporation of a timer into the circuit.
4. The control circuitry is designed to allow the protection circuitry to open either
contactor when closed.
5. The control circuitry controls the voltage applied to the input of the starter
when
6. either contactor is closed so that the solid state circuitry is only enabled when
a contactor is closed. This ensures that the starter will reset and soft start
when the direction is reversed.
7. If phase reversal is carried out on the output of the soft starter, the switching
must be interlocked with the input contactor and / or the soft starter control to
ensure that the soft starter is reset and restarts after switching. The sequence
must be: a) switch off starter, b) reverse phase rotation, c) restart.
Note: 1), 2) and 3) apply to all starters. 4) and 5) ensure that the starter will soft
start when the motor direction is reversed. This also applies to all reduced voltage
reversing starters.
Auto-Reclose and
Automatic Switching Fast automatic switching of the supply to motors should be avoided because of the
very high resultant current and torque transients.
When the motor is operating, a magnetic field is induced into the rotor which is
rotating. When the supply is removed, the motor acts as a generator with the
residual magnetism in the rotor generating a voltage in the stator. Initially, this
voltage can be of a magnitude equal to the supply voltage. The output frequency
and phase is dependent on the motor speed. The residual magnetism in the rotor
decays to a low level at a rate which is dependent on a number o actors such as
the mechanical load on the motor, and the electrical circuitry and power factor
correction still connected to the stator terminals.
If the supply voltage is reinstated before the generated voltage from the motor
decays significantly, the effective reclose voltage can be up to twice the supply
voltage, resulting from the vector sum of the two voltages. If the two voltages are
equal and in phase, then the effective reclose voltage will be zero and no surge
will result, however as the motor will be spinning at less than synchronous speed,
the chance of an in phase reclose are remote.
Auto reclose most commonly occurs when switching from a standby supply, back
to the main supply. This is often achieved by open transition switching between
non synchronised supplies. Open transition times are typically less than one cycle.
Where motor controls are involved, a timer should be used to delay the reclose.
Fast open transition switching of supplies to induction motors results in high surge
currents t hat can be significantly higher than locked rotor currents, and torque
transients that can far exceed locked rotor torques. This can result in mechanical
damage, intermittent fuse failure and premature contactor failure.
Auto reclose effects apply to all types of motor starting and control equipment.

________________________________________________________
AUCOM ELECTRONICS LTD

Head Office
123 Wrights Road, Christchurch, New Zealand.
P.O.Box 21-245, Christchurch, New Zealand.
Phone : [64](03)338-8280
Fax : [64](03)338-8104
E-mail : salessupport@aucom.co.nz
Internet : http://aucom.co.nz
________________________________________________________
AEZ10054 Rev A.0 - May-00

Motor Start Theory

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Motor Start Theory

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ENGINEERED MOTOR CONTROL

REDUCED VOLTAGE STARTING OF

To maximise the benefits available through the application of reduced voltage

This publication examines motor theory as it effects starting performance, and

AuCom Electronics 1 Motor Starting Theory

The induction motor has two prime functions to perform in industry

1. To convert electrical energy into mechanical energy in order to accelerate

Full voltage starting (Direct-On-Line) of induction motors results in a starting

Reduction in motor starting current is often a requirement of the electrical supply

2. The rotor consists of a cylindrical short circuited winding around iron

In operation, the induction motor performs as a transformer with current induced in

AuCom Electronics 2 Motor Starting Theory

Typical locked rotor current : (LRC) = 650% to 1000% FLC.

Typical locked rotor current (LRC) = 550% to 650% FLC.

AuCom Electronics 3 Motor Starting Theory

Motor A LRC = 600% LRT = 180%

EXAMPLE: A selection of 110kW four pole motors and their characteristics.

MOTOR SPEED FLC LRC LRT FL T T

Initial Start Torque

AuCom Electronics 4 Motor Starting Theory

Motor 10% FLT 20%FLT 50% FLT 100% FLT

Typical speed/torque curves

AuCom Electronics 5 Motor Starting Theory

1. Work or Load torque

AuCom Electronics 6 Motor Starting Theory

Refrigeration compressors generally start o -load, and work against a lo

The specification of the starting torque requirements of a machine is an

A flywheel is used as a mechanical energy reservoir in many machines, allowing a

1. TORQUE OUTPUT OF A MOTOR (Tm)

1. Tm = 9,600 x KW Tm = Full Load Torque in N.M.

2. Tm = 5,250 x HP Tm = Full Load Torque in lb-ft

3. Tm = 7,400 x KW Tm = Full Load Torque in lb-ft

4. Tm = 63,030 x HP Tm = Full Load Torque in in-lb

AuCom Electronics 7 Motor Starting Theory

1. Ta = M x N M = Moment of inertia seen by the

2. Ta = M x N M = Moment of inertia seen by the

TFV = Full Voltage Start Torque

AuCom Electronics 8 Motor Starting Theory

The simplest form of starter is the Direct-On-Line or Across-The- Line starter,

CONTACTOR THERMAL MOTOR

Three traditional methods of reduced voltage starting are commonly used :

Primary resistance Starting

Reduced Voltage Starting is used very extensively, and in many areas is

It is essential that any reduced voltage starter employed must be able to

Switching to a full voltage at eighty percent would result in a current of typically

LINE CONTACTOR START RESISTORS THERMAL MOTOR

AuCom Electronics 11 Motor Starting Theory

AuCom Electronics 12 Motor Starting Theory

Auto-transformer starters can be constructed as open transition starters but most

Run (A) Start Run (A) Start

3 ø Auto (B) Start

AuCom Electronics 14 Motor Starting Theory

Contactor A.C. Switches Overloads Motor

motor voltage in a manner to control the starting characteristics. Common closed

Summary Although it is possible to correctly apply and engineer electromechanical reduced

AuCom Electronics 16 Motor Starting Theory

ELECTRONIC SOFT STARTERS

A.C. Switches Motor

Triac SCR-Diode SCR-SCR

Closed Loop Tachometer

Closed Loop Tachometer

AuCom Electronics 18 Motor Starting Theory

Closed Loop systems commonly used are: