Advertising

Advertising is a marketing communication that employs an openly

sponsored, non-personal message to promote or sell a product,
service or idea.[1]: 465 Sponsors of advertising are typically
businesses wishing to promote their products or services.
Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an
advertiser pays for and has control over the message. It differs
from personal selling in that the message is non-personal, i.e., not
directed to a particular individual.[1]: 661, 672 Advertising is
communicated through various mass media,[2] including traditional
media such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, outdoor
advertising or direct mail; and new media such as search results,
blogs, social media, websites or text messages. The actual
presentation of the message in a medium is referred to as an
advertisement: advert or ad for short.

Commercial ads often seek to generate increased consumption of

their products or services through "branding", which associates a
A Coca-Cola advertisement from the
product name or image with certain qualities in the minds of
1890s
consumers. On the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an
immediate sale are known as direct-response advertising. Non-
commercial entities that advertise more than consumer products or
services include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Non-
profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement. Advertising
may also help to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful.

Modern advertising originated with the techniques introduced with tobacco advertising in the 1920s, most
significantly with the campaigns of Edward Bernays, considered the founder of modern, "Madison
Avenue" advertising.[3][4]

Worldwide spending on advertising in 2015 amounted to an estimated US$529.43 billion.[5] Advertising's

projected distribution for 2017 was 40.4% on TV, 33.3% on digital, 9% on newspapers, 6.9% on
magazines, 5.8% on outdoor and 4.3% on radio.[6] Internationally, the largest ("Big Five") advertising
agency groups are Dentsu, Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP.[7]

In Latin, advertere means "to turn towards".[8]

Contents
History
19th century
20th century
Radio from the 1920s
Commercial television in the 1950s
 Cable television from the 1980s
Internet from the 1990s
Classification
Traditional media
New media approaches
Rise in new media
Niche marketing
Crowdsourcing
Globalization
Foreign public messaging
Diversification
New technology
Education
Purposes
Sales promotions and brand loyalty
Criticisms
Regulation
Theory
Hierarchy-of-effects models
Marketing mix
Research
Semiotics
Gender effects on comprehension
Alternatives
See also
Influential thinkers in advertising theory and practice
"Fathers" of advertising
References
Further reading
History
External links

History
Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters.[9] Commercial messages and political
campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising
on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial
advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many
parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock
art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.[10]
In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as
recorded in the Classic of Poetry (11th to 7th centuries BC) of
bamboo flutes played to sell confectionery. Advertisement usually
takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A
copper printing plate dated back to the Song dynasty used to print
posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo
with "Jinan Liu's Fine Needle Shop" and "We buy high-quality
steel rods and make fine-quality needles, to be ready for use at
home in no time" written above and below[11] is considered the
world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.[12]

In Europe, as the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to

grow, and the general population was unable to read, instead of Bronze plate for printing an
signs that read "cobbler", "miller", "tailor", or "blacksmith", advertisement for the Liu family
images associated with their trade would be used such as a boot, a needle shop at Jinan, Song dynasty
suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horseshoe, a candle or even a bag China. It is the world's earliest
of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the identified printed advertising medium.
backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers
(town criers) to announce their whereabouts. The first compilation
of such advertisements was gathered in "Les Crieries de Paris", a
thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve.[13]

In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in weekly

newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were
used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became
increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and
medicines, which were increasingly sought after. However, false
advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a
problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.

19th century

Thomas J. Barratt of London has been called "the father of modern

advertising".[14][15][16] Working for the Pears soap company, Edo period LEL flyer from 1806 for a
Barratt created an effective advertising campaign for the company traditional medicine called Kinseitan
products, which involved the use of targeted slogans, images and
phrases. One of his slogans, "Good morning. Have you used
Pears' soap?" was famous in its day and into the 20th century.[17][18]

Becoming the company's brand manager in 1865, listed as the first of its kind by the Guinness Book of
Records, Barratt introduced many of the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising and these were
widely circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and exclusive brand image
for Pears and of emphasizing the product's availability through saturation campaigns. He also understood
the importance of constantly reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that
"tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a
generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of
today is always better than the older idea, but it is different – it hits the present taste."[15]

Enhanced advertising revenues was one effect of the Industrial Revolution in Britain.[19] Thanks to the
revolution and the consumers it created, by the mid-19th century biscuits and chocolate became products
for the masses, and British biscuit manufacturers were among the first to introduce branding to distinguish
grocery products.[20][21] One the world's first global brands, Huntley & Palmers biscuits were sold in 172
 countries in 1900, and their
global reach was reflected in
their advertisements.[20]

In June 1836, French newspaper

La Presse was the first to include
paid advertising in its pages,
allowing it to lower its price,
extend its readership and
increase its profitability and the
Advertising for Huntley & formula was soon copied by all
Palmers wafers c. 1890 titles. Around 1840, Volney B.
Palmer established the roots of
the modern day advertising
agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of
space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the
space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad – the copy, Poster for Pears soap created under
layout, and artwork – was still prepared by the company wishing Thomas J. Barratt’s leadership,
to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation 1900. Victoria and Albert Museum,
London
changed when the first full-service advertising agency of N.W.
Ayer & Son was founded in 1869 in Philadelphia. Ayer & Son
offered to plan, create, and execute complete advertising
campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising agency had
become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was
firmly established as a profession. [22] Around the same time, in
France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news
agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the
first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for
advertisement space in newspapers.[22]

George William Joy's depiction of the

20th century interior of a late 19th century
omnibus conspicuously shows the
Advertising increased advertisements placed overhead
dramatically in the United States
as industrialization expanded the
supply of manufactured
products. In 1919 it was 2.5
percent of gross domestic
product (GDP) in the US, and it
averaged 2.2 percent of GDP
between then and at least 2007,
though it may have declined
dramatically since the Great
Recession. Advertising revenue as a percent of
US GDP shows a rise in audio-visual
Industry could not benefit from and digital advertising at the expense
its increased productivity of print media.[23]
without a substantial increase in
Advertisement for Guy's Tonic
consumer spending. This
in the 1900s
contributed to the development of mass marketing designed to influence
the population's economic behavior on a larger scale.[24] In the 1910s
and 1920s, advertisers in the U.S. adopted the doctrine that human instincts could be targeted and
 harnessed – "sublimated" into
the desire to purchase
commodities. [25] Edward
Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund
Freud, became associated with
the method and is sometimes
called the founder of modern
advertising and public
relations. [26] Bernays claimed A print advertisement for the 1913
that: issue of the Encyclopædia
Britannica

"[The] general
An Estonian language
advertisement about a cruise
principle, that men
between Tallinn and Helsinki
are very largely
in the 1930s actuated by motives
which they conceal
from themselves, is
as true of mass as of
individual
psychology. It is
evident that the
successful
propagandist must
understand the true
motives and not be
content to accept
the reasons which
men give for what
they do."[27]

In other words, selling products by appealing to the rational minds of customers (the main method used
prior to Bernays) was much less effective than selling products based on the unconscious desires that
Bernays felt were the true motivators of human action. "Sex sells" became a controversial issue, with
techniques for titillating and enlarging the audience posing a challenge to conventional morality.[28][29]

In the 1920s, under Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, the American government promoted
advertising. Hoover himself delivered an address to the Associated Advertising Clubs of the World in 1925
called 'Advertising Is a Vital Force in Our National Life."[30] In October 1929, the head of the U.S. Bureau
of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Julius Klein, stated "Advertising is the key to world prosperity."[31]
This was part of the "unparalleled" collaboration between business and government in the 1920s, according
to a 1933 European economic journal.[32]

The tobacco companies became major advertisers in order to sell packaged cigarettes.[33] The tobacco
companies pioneered the new advertising techniques when they hired Bernays to create positive
associations with tobacco smoking.[3][4]

Advertising was also used as a vehicle for cultural assimilation, encouraging workers to exchange their
traditional habits and community structure in favor of a shared "modern" lifestyle.[34] An important tool for
influencing immigrant workers was the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers
(AAFLN). The AAFLN was primarily an advertising agency but also gained heavily centralized control
over much of the immigrant press.[35][36]
At the turn of the 20th century, advertising was one of the few
career choices for women. Since women were responsible for most
household purchasing done, advertisers and agencies recognized
the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact,
the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a
woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards,
the advertisement featured a couple with the message "A skin you
love to touch".[37]

In the 1920s psychologists Walter D. Scott and John B. Watson

contributed applied psychological theory to the field of advertising.
Scott said, "Man has been called the reasoning animal but he could
with greater truthfulness be called the creature of suggestion. He is
reasonable, but he is to a greater extent suggestible".[38] He
demonstrated this through his advertising technique of a direct
command to the consumer.

Radio from the 1920s 1916 Ladies' Home Journal version

of the famous ad by Helen
In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio Lansdowne Resor of the J. Walter
equipment manufacturers, followed by non-profit organizations Thompson Agency
such as schools, clubs and civic groups who also set up their own
stations.[39] Retailer and consumer goods manufacturers quickly
recognized radio's potential to reach consumers in their home and
soon adopted advertising techniques that would allow their
messages to stand out; slogans, mascots, and jingles began to
appear on radio in the 1920s and early television in the 1930s.[40]

The rise of mass media communications allowed manufacturers of

branded goods to bypass retailers by advertising directly to
consumers. This was a major paradigm shift which forced
manufacturers to focus on the brand and stimulated the need for
superior insights into consumer purchasing, consumption and
usage behaviour; their needs, wants and aspirations.[41] The
earliest radio drama series were sponsored by soap manufacturers
and the genre became known as a soap opera.[42] Before long,
radio station owners realized they could increase advertising
revenue by selling 'air-time' in small time allocations which could
be sold to multiple businesses. By the 1930s, these advertising
spots, as the packets of time became known, were being sold by
Advertisement for a live radio
the station's geographical sales representatives, ushering in an era
broadcast, sponsored by a milk
of national radio advertising.[43] company, Adohr milk, and published
in the Los Angeles Times on May 6,
By the 1940s, manufacturers began to recognize the way in which 1930
consumers were developing personal relationships with their
brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense.[44]
Advertisers began to use motivational research and consumer research to gather insights into consumer
purchasing. Strong branded campaigns for Chrysler and Exxon/Esso, using insights drawn research
methods from psychology and cultural anthropology, led to some of the most enduring campaigns of the
20th century.[45]
Commercial television in the 1950s

In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling advertisement
time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and
compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the
standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common
practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the
sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show – up to and including having one's
advertising agency actually writing the show.[46] The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a
notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame.

Cable television from the 1980s

The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering
the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the
advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television
became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to
advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada.[47]

Internet from the 1990s

With the advent of the ad server, online advertising grew, contributing to the "dot-com" boom of the
1990s.[48] Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to
free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, some websites, including the search engine Google,
changed online advertising by personalizing ads based on web browsing behavior. This has led to other
similar efforts and an increase in interactive advertising.[49]

The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media since
1925. In 1925, the main advertising media in America were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars,
and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television
and radio had become major advertising media; by 2017, the balance between broadcast and online
advertising had shifted, with online spending exceeding broadcast.[50] Nonetheless, advertising spending as
a share of GDP was slightly lower – about 2.4 percent.[51]

Guerrilla marketing involves unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of
products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer
can respond to become part of the advertising message. This type of advertising is unpredictable, which
causes consumers to buy the product or idea.[52] This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and
"embedded" ads, such as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and
various campaigns utilizing social network services such as Facebook or Twitter.[53]

The advertising business model has also been adapted in recent years. In media for equity, advertising is not
sold, but provided to start-up companies in return for equity. If the company grows and is sold, the media
companies receive cash for their shares.

Domain name registrants (usually those who register and renew domains as an investment) sometimes
"park" their domains and allow advertising companies to place ads on their sites in return for per-click
payments. These ads are typically driven by pay per click search engines like Google or Yahoo, but ads can
sometimes be placed directly on targeted domain names through a domain lease or by making contact with
the registrant of a domain name that describes a product. Domain name registrants are generally easy to
identify through WHOIS records that are publicly available at registrar websites.[54]
Classification
Advertising may be categorized in a variety of ways, including by
style, target audience, geographic scope, medium, or
purpose.[2]: 9–15 For example, in print advertising, classification by
style can include display advertising (ads with design elements
sold by size) vs. classified advertising (ads without design elements
sold by the word or line). Advertising may be local, national or
global. An ad campaign may be directed toward consumers or to
Play media
businesses. The purpose of an ad may be to raise awareness (brand
An advertisement for the Wikimedia
advertising), or to elicit an immediate sale (direct response Foundation
advertising). The term above the line (ATL) is used for advertising
involving mass media; more targeted forms of advertising and
promotion are referred to as below the line (BTL).[55][56] The two
terms date back to 1954 when Procter & Gamble began paying
their advertising agencies differently from other promotional
agencies.[57] In the 2010s, as advertising technology developed, a
new term, through the line (TTL) began to come into use,
referring to integrated advertising campaigns.[58][59]

Traditional media

Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial

advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street
furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema
and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens,
shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human
billboards and forehead advertising, magazines, newspapers, town
criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes
("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or
overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger
An advertisement for a diner. Such
screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic
signs are common on storefronts.
bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on
apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the
opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the
backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any situation in
which an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message
through a medium is advertising.[60]

Paying people to hold signs is one of

the oldest forms of advertising, as
with this human billboard.
 Share of global adspend[61]
Medium 2015 2017
Television advertisement 37.7% 34.8%
Desktop online advertising 19.9% 18.2%
Mobile advertising 9.2% 18.4%
A taxicab with an advertisement for
Newspaper 12.8% 10.1% Daikin in Singapore. Buses and other
Magazines 6.5% 5.3% vehicles are popular media for
advertisers.
Outdoor advertising 6.8% 6.6%
Radio advertisement 6.5% 5.9%
Cinema 0.6% 0.7%

Television
Television advertising is one of the most expensive
types of advertising; networks charge large amounts
for commercial airtime during popular events. The
annual Super Bowl football game in the United States Mobile Billboard in East Coast Park,
is known as the most prominent advertising event on Singapore
television – with an audience of over 108 million and
studies showing that 50% of those only tuned in to
see the advertisements.[62][63] During the 2014 edition
of this game, the average thirty-second ad cost US$4
million, and $8 million was charged for a 60-second
spot.[62] Virtual advertisements may be inserted into
regular programming through computer graphics. It is
typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops[64]
or used to replace local billboards that are not
relevant to the remote broadcast audience.[65] Virtual A DBAG Class 101 with UNICEF ads
billboards may be inserted into the background where at Ingolstadt main railway station
none exist in real-life. This technique is especially
used in televised sporting events. Virtual product
placement is also possible.[66][67] An infomercial is a
long-format television commercial, typically five
minutes or longer. The name blends the words
"information" and "commercial". The main objective in
an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so
that the target sees the presentation and then
immediately buys the product through the advertised
A Transperth bus with an
toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials
advertisement on its side
describe and often demonstrate products, and
commonly have testimonials from customers and
industry professionals.[68]

Radio
Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an
antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in
exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to
sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an
expanding medium that can be found on air, and also online. According to Arbitron, radio
has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93 percent of the U.S.
population.[69]
Online
Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the
Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed
purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract
customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server.
Examples of online advertising include contextual ads
that appear on search engine results pages, banner
ads, in pay per click text ads, rich media ads, Social
network advertising, online classified advertising,
advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including
e-mail spam.[70] A newer form of online advertising is Hot air balloon displaying advertising
Native Ads; they go in a website's news feed and are for GEO magazine
supposed to improve user experience by being less
intrusive. However, some people argue this practice is
deceptive.[71]

Domain names
Domain name advertising is most commonly done
through pay per click web search engines, however,
advertisers often lease space directly on domain
names that generically describe their products. When
an Internet user visits a website by typing a domain
name directly into their web browser, this is known as
"direct navigation", or "type in" web traffic. Although
many Internet users search for ideas and products
using search engines and mobile phones, a large
number of users around the world still use the address
bar. They will type a keyword into the address bar
such as "geraniums" and add ".com" to the end of it.
Sometimes they will do the same with ".org" or a
country-code Top Level Domain (TLD such as ".co.uk" Advertising man pasting a bill for
for the United Kingdom or ".ca" for Canada). When Madame Tussauds, London in 1877
Internet users type in a generic keyword and add .com
or another top-level domain (TLD) ending, it produces
a targeted sales lead.[72] Domain name advertising
was originally developed by Oingo (later known as
Applied Semantics), one of Google's early
acquisitions.[73]

Product placements
Covert advertising is when a product or brand is
embedded in entertainment and media. For example,
in a film, the main character can use an item or other
of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report,
where Tom Cruise's character John Anderton owns a A television commercial being filmed
phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top in 1948
corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo.
Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot,
where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times,
calling them "classics", because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs
also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on
the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded,
which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly,
product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are
featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise
 of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front.
Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops
to show a Coca-Cola billboard.

Print
Print advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper,
magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad
readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly
targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics.
One form of print advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or
companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad paid by the word or line. Another
form of print advertising is the display ad, which is generally a larger ad with design
elements that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.[2]: 14

Outdoor
Billboards, also known as hoardings in some parts of the world, are large structures
located in public places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians and
motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor
and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location with large numbers of
viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office
buildings, and in stadiums. The form known as street advertising first came to prominence
in the UK by Street Advertising Services to create outdoor advertising on street furniture
and pavements. Working with products such as Reverse Graffiti, air dancers and 3D
pavement advertising, for getting brand messages out into public spaces.[74] Sheltered
outdoor advertising combines outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing large mobile,
structures (tents) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space
aims to exert a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoors, where the
creative decor can intensify the impression.[74] Mobile billboards are generally vehicle
mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for
carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially
equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The
billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. Some
billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically
rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in
metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: target advertising, one-day and long-
term campaigns, conventions, sporting events, store openings and similar promotional
events, and big advertisements from smaller companies.[74]

Point-of-sale
In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a
product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near
checkout counters (a.k.a. POP – point of purchase display), eye-catching displays
promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-
store video displays.[75]

Novelties
Advertising printed on small tangible items such as coffee mugs, T-shirts, pens, bags, and
such is known as novelty advertising. Some printers specialize in printing novelty items,
which can then be distributed directly by the advertiser, or items may be distributed as part
of a cross-promotion, such as ads on fast food containers.

Celebrity endorsements
Advertising in which a celebrity endorses a product or brand leverages celebrity power,
fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products or to promote specific stores'
or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share
 their favorite products or wear clothes by specific
brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in
advertising campaigns such as television or print
adverts to advertise specific or general products. The
use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its
downsides, however; one mistake by a celebrity can
be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For
example, following his performance of eight gold
medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China,
swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was
terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with
him after he was photographed smoking
marijuana.[76] Celebrities such as Britney Spears
have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi,
Candies from Kohl's, Twister, NASCAR, and
Toyota.[77]

Aerial The RedEye newspaper advertised

Using aircraft, balloons or airships to create or display to its target market at North Avenue
advertising media. Skywriting is a notable example. Beach with a sailboat billboard on
Lake Michigan.

New media approaches

A new advertising approach is known as advanced advertising,

which is data-driven advertising, using large quantities of data,
precise measuring tools and precise targeting.[78] Advanced
advertising also makes it easier for companies which sell ad-space
to attribute customer purchases to the ads they display or An Allegiant Air aircraft in the special
broadcast.[79] Blue Man Group livery

Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional"

media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift
toward the usage of the Internet for news and music as well as
devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo.[80]

Online advertising began with unsolicited bulk e-mail advertising

known as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for e-mail
users since 1978.[81] As new online communication channels
became available, advertising followed. The first banner ad
appeared on the World Wide Web in 1994.[82] Prices of Web- A Zeppelin NT (D-LZFN) of
based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the Friedrichshafen used for
surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives. advertisement

In online display advertising, display ads generate awareness

quickly. Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive
awareness of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response.
Display is not only used for generating awareness, it's used for direct response campaigns that link to a
landing page with a clear 'call to action'.

As the mobile phone became a new mass medium in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content
appeared on mobile phones in Finland,[83] mobile advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in
2000. By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2 billion and providers such as Admob
delivered billions of mobile ads.
More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video
messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile
ads is the 2D barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera
feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone
users already are active users of 2D barcodes.

Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the
International Space Station.

Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can include personal recommendations ("bring a
friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the
United States, "Xerox" = "photocopier", "Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly, "Hoover" =
vacuum cleaner, and "Band-Aid" = adhesive bandage). However, some companies oppose the use of their
brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a
generic trademark – turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is
lost.[84]

Early in its life, The CW aired short programming breaks called "Content Wraps", to advertise one
company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some
products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and Toyota.[85][86]

A new promotion concept has appeared, "ARvertising", advertising on augmented reality technology.[87]

Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness
of mass messages (propaganda).

Rise in new media

With the Internet came many new advertising

opportunities. Pop-up, Flash, banner, pop-under,
advergaming, and email advertisements (all of which
are often unwanted or spam in the case of email) are
now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of
"entertaining" advertising, some people may like an
advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show
a friend. In general, the advertising community has not
yet made this easy, although some have used the
Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing
to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009, US newspaper advertising revenue, Newspaper
mobile and Internet advertising grew by 18% and 9% Association of America published data[88]
respectively, while older media advertising saw
declines: −10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8%
(magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers). Between 2008 and 2014, U.S. newspapers lost more than half their
print advertising revenue.[89]

Niche marketing

Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market
using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of the long tail, advertisers
will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a
message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible. However, usage tracking, customer
profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social
networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads
that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others,
Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These
advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more
about a particular business or practice, from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and
actually choose what advertisements they want to view.[90] Niche marketing could also be helped by
bringing the issue of colour into advertisements. Different colours play major roles when it comes to
marketing strategies, for example, seeing the blue can promote a sense of calmness and gives a sense of
security which is why many social networks such as Facebook use blue in their logos. Google AdSense is
an example of niche marketing. Google calculates the primary purpose of a website and adjusts ads
accordingly; it uses keywords on the page (or even in emails) to find the general ideas of topics disused and
places ads that will most likely be clicked on by viewers of the email account or website visitors.

Crowdsourcing

The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements. User-generated
ads are created by people, as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, often resulting
from brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of
PepsiCo held the "Crash the Super Bowl" contest, allowing people to create their own Doritos
commercials.[91] Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.[91] Due to the success
of the Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the
2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl
ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl
Ad Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by
Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".[92][93] Another example of companies using
crowdsourcing successfully is the beverage company Jones Soda that encourages consumers to participate
in the label design themselves.[94]

This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on
behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google,
Nike, Hershey's, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper.[95] Crowdsourcing
remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear.[96]

Globalization

Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-
national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that
must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one
voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising local effectiveness of ads, and
increasing the company's speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing
are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising
executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel.[97]

Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to
identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is how economies of scale are
maximized. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market.
Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide
insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual,
not verbal, elements of the ad.[98]
Foreign public messaging

Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often
promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is
not only largely unaware of the forum as a vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the
message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial
breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this
messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign
destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism,
some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or
improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for
advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those
countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired
international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services
which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments;
examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore),
Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of
China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light,
countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions.

Diversification

In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note that "big
global clients don't need big global agencies any more".[99] This is reflected by the growth of non-
traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia
and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".[100]

New technology

The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as

TiVo) allow watchers to record the programs for later viewing,
enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally,
as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of
television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV.
However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will
receive additional profits from these sets.

To counter this effect, a variety of strategies have been employed.

Many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows
like Survivor. Other strategies include integrating advertising with
internet-connected program guidess (EPGs), advertising on
companion devices (like smartphones and tablets) during the show,
and creating mobile apps for TV programs. Additionally, some like
brands have opted for social television sponsorship.[101]
Human billboard at the National
The emerging technology of drone displays has recently been used
Multicultural Festival being used to
for advertising purposes.[102]
advertise Facebook news feed

Education
In recent years there have been several media literacy initiatives, and more specifically concerning
advertising, that seek to empower citizens in the face of media advertising campaigns.[103]

Advertising education has become popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available
in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising
plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking. A unique
model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create
campaigns for real companies.[104] Organizations such as the American Advertising Federation establish
companies with students to create these campaigns.

Purposes
Advertising is at the front of delivering the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The
purpose of advertising is to inform the consumers about their product and convince customers that a
company's services or products are the best, enhance the image of the company, point out and create a need
for products or services, demonstrate new uses for established products, announce new products and
programs, reinforce the salespeople's individual messages, draw customers to the business, and to hold
existing customers.[105]

Sales promotions and brand loyalty

Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are
used to gather information about what type of customers one draws in and where they are, and to jump start
sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples
coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential
customers to action.[106]

Criticisms
While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic
growth,[31] it is not without social costs. Unsolicited commercial e-
mail and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have
become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as
being a financial burden on internet service providers.[107]
Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as
schools, which some critics argue is a form of child
exploitation.[108] This increasing difficulty in limiting exposure to
specific audiences can result in negative backlash for
advertisers.[109] In tandem with these criticisms, the advertising Mobstr - Visual Pollution, London
industry has seen low approval rates in surveys and negative
cultural portrayals.[110]

One of the most controversial criticisms of advertisement in the present day is that of the predominance of
advertising of foods high in sugar, fat, and salt specifically to children. Critics claim that food
advertisements targeting children are exploitive and are not sufficiently balanced with proper nutritional
education to help children understand the consequences of their food choices. Additionally, children may
not understand that they are being sold something, and are therefore more impressionable.[111] Michelle
Obama has criticized large food companies for advertising unhealthy foods largely towards children and
has requested that food companies either limit their advertising to children or advertise foods that are more
in line with dietary guidelines.[112] The other criticisms include the change that are brought by those
advertisements on the society and also the deceiving ads that are aired and published by the corporations.
Cosmetic and health industry are the ones which exploited the highest and created reasons of concern.[113]

A 2021 study found that for more than 80% of brands, advertising had a negative return on investment.[114]
Unsolicited ads have been criticized as attention theft.[115]

Regulation
There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence
of advertising. Some examples include restrictions for advertising alcohol, tobacco or gambling imposed in
many countries, as well as the bans around advertising to children, which exist in parts of Europe.
Advertising regulation focuses heavily on the veracity of the claims and as such, there are often tighter
restrictions placed around advertisements for food and healthcare products.[116]

The advertising industries within some countries rely less on laws and more on systems of self-
regulation.[116][117][118] Advertisers and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they
attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest
and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with
the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.[119]

In the UK, most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the UK
Town and County Planning system. Currently, the display of an advertisement without consent from the
Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offense.[120] In the US, many
communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public realm.[121] As long ago as the
1960s in the US, there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside.[122] Cities such
as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban[123] with London also having specific legislation to control
unlawful displays.

Some governments restrict the languages that can be used in advertisements, but advertisers may employ
tricks to try avoiding them. In France for instance, advertisers sometimes print English words in bold and
French translations in fine print to deal with Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of
English.[124]

The advertising of pricing information is another topic of concern for governments. In the United States for
instance, it is common for businesses to only mention the existence and amount of applicable taxes at a later
stage of a transaction.[125] In Canada and New Zealand, taxes can be listed as separate items, as long as
they are quoted up-front.[126][127] In most other countries, the advertised price must include all applicable
taxes, enabling customers to easily know how much it will cost them.[128][129][130]

Theory

Hierarchy-of-effects models

Various competing models of hierarchies of effects attempt to provide a theoretical underpinning to

advertising practice.[131]

The model of Clow and Baack[132] clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and
for each individual advertisement. The model postulates six steps a buyer moves through
when making a purchase:
 1. Awareness
2. Knowledge
3. Liking
4. Preference
5. Conviction
6. Purchase
Means-end theory suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that
leads the consumer to a desired end-state.[133]
Leverage points aim to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to
linking those benefits with personal values.[134]

Marketing mix

The marketing mix was proposed by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s.[135] It consists of four
basic elements called the "four Ps". Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents
the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to
the consumer such as distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands
for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to buy the product.

In the 1990s, the concept of four Cs was introduced as a more customer-driven replacement of four
P's.[136] There are two theories based on four Cs: Lauterborn's four Cs (consumer, cost, communication,
convenience) [137] and Shimizu's four Cs (commodity, cost, communication, channel) in the 7Cs Compass
Model (Co-marketing). Communications can include advertising, sales promotion, public relations,
publicity, personal selling, corporate identity, internal communication, SNS, and MIS.[138][139][140][141]

Research

Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies.
Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or
campaigns.

Pre-testing includes a wide range of qualitative and quantitative techniques, including: focus groups, in-
depth target audience interviews (one-on-one interviews), small-scale quantitative studies and physiological
measurement. The goal of these investigations is to better understand how different groups respond to
various messages and visual prompts, thereby providing an assessment of how well the advertisement
meets its communications goals.[142]

Post-testing employs many of the same techniques as pre-testing, usually with a focus on understanding the
change in awareness or attitude attributable to the advertisement. With the emergence of digital advertising
technologies, many firms have begun to continuously post-test ads using real-time data. This may take the
form of A/B split-testing or multivariate testing.

Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising
research types.[143]

Semiotics
Meanings between consumers and marketers depict signs and symbols that are encoded in everyday
objects.[144] Semiotics is the study of signs and how they are interpreted. Advertising has many hidden
signs and meanings within brand names, logos, package designs, print advertisements, and television
advertisements. Semiotics aims to study and interpret the message being conveyed in (for example)
advertisements. Logos and advertisements can be interpreted at two levels – known as the surface level and
the underlying level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an image or personality for a product.
These signs can be images, words, fonts, colors, or slogans. The underlying level is made up of hidden
meanings. The combination of images, words, colors, and slogans must be interpreted by the audience or
consumer.[145] The "key to advertising analysis" is the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the object
and the signified is the mental concept.[146] A product has a signifier and a signified. The signifier is the
color, brand name, logo design, and technology. The signified has two meanings known as denotative and
connotative. The denotative meaning is the meaning of the product. A television's denotative meaning
might be that it is high definition. The connotative meaning is the product's deep and hidden meaning. A
connotative meaning of a television would be that it is top-of-the-line.[147]

Apple's commercials used a black silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They
placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be constantly
changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is music in the background
and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through
advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that the music device is an iPod. The white
color signifies almost all of Apple's products.[148]

The semiotics of gender plays a key influence on the way in which signs are interpreted. When considering
gender roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories. Certain characteristics of stimuli
may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the product is perceived as feminine or
masculine). Second, the characteristics of individuals can affect attention and elaboration of the message
(traditional or non-traditional gender role orientation). Lastly, situational factors may be important to
influence the elaboration of the message.

There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and subjective.[149] Objective claims
stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or service feature. For
instance, a camera may have auto-focus features. Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective,
impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are non-physical features of a product or
service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For instance the brochure has a
beautiful design.[150] Males tend to respond better to objective marketing-communications claims while
females tend to respond better to subjective marketing communications claims.[151]

Voiceovers are commonly used in advertising. Most voiceovers are done by men, with figures of up to 94%
having been reported.[152] There have been more female voiceovers in recent years, but mainly for food,
household products, and feminine-care products.[153]

Gender effects on comprehension

According to a 1977 study by David Statt, females process information comprehensively, while males
process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving
problems, which could have an effect on how they interpret advertising.[154] According to this study, men
prefer to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message, whereas females engage in more
creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation. Later research by a Danish team[155] found that
advertising attempts to persuade men to improve their appearance or performance, whereas its approach to
women aims at transformation toward an impossible ideal of female presentation. In Paul Suggett's article
"The Objectification of Women in Advertising"[156] he discusses the negative impact that these women in
advertisements, who are too perfect to be real, have on women, as well as men, in real life. Advertising's
manipulation of women's aspiration to these ideal types as portrayed in film, in erotic art, in advertising, on
stage, within music videos, and through other media exposures requires at least a conditioned rejection of
female reality, and thereby takes on a highly ideological cast. Studies show that these expectations of
women and young girls negatively impact their views about their bodies and appearances. These
advertisements are directed towards men. Not everyone agrees: one critic viewed this monologic, gender-
specific interpretation of advertising as excessively skewed and politicized.[157] There are some companies,
however, like Dove and Aerie that are creating commercials to portray more natural women, with less post
production manipulation, so more women and young girls are able to relate to them.

More recent research by Martin (2003) reveals that males and females differ in how they react to
advertising depending on their mood at the time of exposure to the ads, and on the affective tone of the
advertising. When feeling sad, males prefer happy ads to boost their mood. In contrast, females prefer
happy ads when they are feeling happy. The television programs in which ads are embedded influence a
viewer's mood state.[158] Susan Wojcicki, author of the article "Ads that Empower Women don’t just Break
Stereotypes—They’re also Effective"[159] discusses how advertising to women has changed since the first
Barbie commercial where a little girl tells the doll that, she wants to be just like her. Little girls grow up
watching advertisements of scantily clad women advertising things from trucks to burgers, and Wojcicki
states that this shows girls that they are either arm candy or eye candy.

Alternatives
Other approaches to revenue include donations, paid subscriptions and microtransactions. Websites and
applications are "ad-free" when not using ads at all for revenue. For example, the online encyclopaedia
Wikipedia provides Wikipedia provides relatively free[160] to its content by receiving funding from
charitable donations.[161]

See also
Advertisements in schools Business and economics portal
Advertising campaign
Advertising management Media portal
Advertorial
Annoyance factor
Bibliography of advertising
Branded content
Commercial speech
Comparative advertising
Conquesting
Copywriting
Demo mode
Direct-to-consumer advertising
Family in advertising
Graphic design
Gross rating point
History of advertising
History of advertising in Britain
History of Advertising Trust
Informative advertising
 Integrated marketing communications
List of advertising awards
Local advertising
Mad men
Marketing communications
Market overhang
Marketing mix
Media planning
Meta-advertising
Mobile marketing
Museum of Brands, Packaging and Advertising
Performance-based advertising
Promotion
Promotional mix
Senior media creative
Sex in advertising
Shock advertising
Television advertisement
Tobacco advertising
Trade literature
Video commerce
Viral marketing
World Federation of Advertisers

Influential thinkers in advertising theory and practice

N. W. Ayer & Son - probably the first advertising agency to use mass media (i.e. telegraph) in
a promotional campaign
Ernest Dichter - developed the field of motivational research, used extensively in advertising
E. St. Elmo Lewis - developed the first hierarchy of effects model (AIDA) used in sales and
advertising
Arthur Nielsen - founded one of the earliest international advertising agencies and
developed ratings for radio & TV
David Ogilvy - pioneered the positioning concept and advocated of the use of brand image
in advertising
Charles Coolidge Parlin (1872–1942) - regarded as the pioneer of the use of marketing
research in advertising
Rosser Reeves (1910–1984) - developed the concept of the unique selling proposition
(USP) and advocated the use of repetition in advertising
Al Ries - advertising executive, author and credited with coining the term "positioning" in the
late 1960s
Daniel Starch - developed the Starch score method of measuring print media effectiveness
(still in use)
J Walter Thompson - one of the earliest advertising agencies

"Fathers" of advertising
 Late 1700s - Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)- "father of advertising in America"[162]
Late 1800s - Thomas J. Barratt (1841-1914) of London - called "the father of modern
advertising" by T.F.G. Coates[163]
Early 1900s - J. Henry ("Slogan") Smythe, Jr of Philadelphia - "world's best known slogan
writer"[162]
Early 1900s - Albert Lasker (1880-1952) - the "father of modern advertising"; defined
advertising as "salesmanship in print, driven by a reason why"[164]
Mid-1900s - David Ogilvy (1911–1999) - advertising tycoon, founder of Ogilvy & Mather,
known as the "father of advertising"

References
Notes

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considered the founder of modern advertising and Madison Avenue, Edward Bernays,
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Further reading
Arens, William, and Michael Weigold. Contemporary Advertising: And Integrated Marketing
Communications (2012)
Belch, George E., and Michael A. Belch. Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated
Marketing Communications Perspective (10th ed. 2014)
Biocca, Frank. Television and Political Advertising: Volume I: Psychological Processes
(Routledge, 2013)
Chandra, Ambarish, and Ulrich Kaiser. "Targeted advertising in magazine markets and the
advent of the internet." Management Science 60.7 (2014) pp: 1829–1843.
Chen, Yongmin, and Chuan He. "Paid placement: Advertising and search on the internet*."
The Economic Journal 121#556 (2011): F309-F328. online (http://www.stern.nyu.edu/networ
ks/06-02_Chen_He_Paid_Placement.pdf)
Johnson-Cartee, Karen S., and Gary Copeland. Negative political advertising: Coming of
age (2013)
McAllister, Matthew P. and Emily West, eds. HardcoverThe Routledge Companion to
Advertising and Promotional Culture (2013)
 McFall, Elizabeth Rose Advertising: a cultural economy (2004), cultural and sociological
approaches to advertising
Moriarty, Sandra, and Nancy Mitchell. Advertising & IMC: Principles and Practice (10th ed.
2014)
Okorie, Nelson. The Principles of Advertising: concepts and trends in advertising (2011)
Reichert, Tom, and Jacqueline Lambiase, eds. Sex in advertising: Perspectives on the erotic
appeal (Routledge, 2014)
Sheehan, Kim Bartel. Controversies in contemporary advertising (Sage Publications, 2013)
Vestergaard, Torben and Schrøder, Kim. The Language of Advertising. Oxford: Basil
Blackwell, 1985. ISBN 0-631-12743-7
Splendora, Anthony. "Discourse", a Review of Vestergaard and Schrøder, The
Language of Advertising in Language in Society Vol. 15, No. 4 (Dec., 1986), pp. 445–
449

History
Brandt, Allan. The Cigarette Century (2009) (https://books.google.com/books?id=yybaN6j4Ip
EC&pg=PA31)
Crawford, Robert. But Wait, There's More!: A History of Australian Advertising, 1900–2000
(2008)
Ewen, Stuart. Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer
Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976. ISBN 0-07-019846-2
Fox, Stephen R. The mirror makers: A history of American advertising and its creators
(University of Illinois Press, 1984)
Friedman, Walter A. Birth of a Salesman (Harvard University Press, 2005), In the United
States
Jacobson, Lisa. Raising consumers: Children and the American mass market in the early
twentieth century (Columbia University Press, 2013)
Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Packaging the presidency: A history and criticism of presidential
campaign advertising (Oxford University Press, 1996)
Laird, Pamela Walker. Advertising progress: American business and the rise of consumer
marketing (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.)
Lears, Jackson. Fables of abundance: A cultural history of advertising in America (1995)
Liguori, Maria Chiara. "North and South: Advertising Prosperity in the Italian Economic
Boom Years." Advertising & Society Review (2015) 15#4
Meyers, Cynthia B. A Word from Our Sponsor: Admen, Advertising, and the Golden Age of
Radio (2014)
Mazzarella, William. Shoveling smoke: Advertising and globalization in contemporary India
(Duke University Press, 2003)
Moriarty, Sandra, et al. Advertising: Principles and practice (Pearson Australia, 2014),
Australian perspectives
Nevett, Terence R. Advertising in Britain: a history (1982)
Oram, Hugh. The advertising book: The history of advertising in Ireland (MOL Books, 1986)
Presbrey, Frank. "The history and development of advertising." Advertising & Society
Review (2000) 1#1 online (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/asr/v001/1.1presbrey.html)
Saunders, Thomas J. "Selling under the Swastika: Advertising and Commercial Culture in
Nazi Germany." German History (2014): ghu058.
Short, John Phillip. "Advertising Empire: Race and Visual Culture in Imperial Germany."
Enterprise and Society (2014): khu013.
 Sivulka, Juliann. Soap, sex, and cigarettes: A cultural history of American advertising
(Cengage Learning, 2011)
Spring, Dawn. "The Globalization of American Advertising and Brand Management: A Brief
History of the J. Walter Thompson Company, Proctor and Gamble, and US Foreign Policy."
Global Studies Journal (2013). 5#4
Stephenson, Harry Edward, and Carlton McNaught. The Story of Advertising in Canada: A
Chronicle of Fifty Years (Ryerson Press, 1940)
Tungate, Mark. Adland: a global history of advertising (Kogan Page Publishers, 2007.)
West, Darrell M. Air Wars: Television Advertising and Social Media in Election Campaigns,
1952–2012 (Sage, 2013)

External links
Advertising Educational Foundation (http://www.aef.com/), archived advertising exhibits and
classroom resources
Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising & Marketing History at Duke University (http://library.d
uke.edu/rubenstein/hartman/index.html)
Duke University Libraries Digital Collections:
Ad*Access (http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/adaccess/), over 7,000 U.S. and
Canadian advertisements, dated 1911–1955, includes World War II propaganda.
Emergence of Advertising in America (http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/eaa/),
9,000 advertising items and publications dating from 1850 to 1940, illustrating the
rise of consumer culture and the birth of a professionalized advertising industry in the
United States.
AdViews (http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/adviews/), vintage television
commercials
ROAD 2.0 (http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/outdooradvertising/), 30,000
outdoor advertising images
Medicine & Madison Avenue (http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/mma/),
documents advertising of medical and pharmaceutical products
Art & Copy, a 2009 documentary film about the advertising industry

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