Syntax: Clause Types and Clause Combination: Unit 6

Unit 6
Morphosyntax and Semantics in the English Language
Syntax:
Clause types
and clause combination
Table of contents
Scheme 3
Key ideas 4
6.1. How to study this unit? 4
6.2. Introduction: Speech acts and clause types 4
6.3. Declarative clause 7
6.4. Interrogative clause 12
6.5. Imperative clause 17
6.6. Exclamative clause 19
6.7. Clause combination: Simple, compound, and
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)
complex sentences 20
6.8. Bibliographical references 22
6.9. Master class 24
In Depth 25
Test 2929
Speech acts and clause types
Declarative clause
Interrogative clause
Syntax Clause types and

clause combination
Imperative clause
Exclamative clause
Simple sentence
Compound
Clause combination sentence
Complex sentence

Scheme
Unit 6. Scheme
3
Key ideas
6.1. How to study this unit?
In order to study this unit you should read:
Brinton, L. J. (2000). The Structure of Modern English: A Linguistic Introduction.

Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. (pp. 211-214, pp.
256-263). Available at the virtual campus under the art. 32.4 of the Spanish Intellectual
Property Law.
T
he present section deals with different types of clauses and clause
combinations.
 We start with a description of speech acts and their correspondence with clause
types.
 Secondly, we analyse the different types of clause and their main features.
 And finally we discuss the status of the clause in a sentence containing two or
more clauses, dependent and independent clauses and their combinations.
6.2. Introduction: Speech acts and clause types
T
he theory of speech acts assumes that when we communicate with each
other, we perform certain kinds of acts, such as thanking, congratulating,

apologising, giving orders, making statements, etc. By uttering a sentence a
speaker performs a speech act. According to John R. Searle, “the speech act or acts
performed in the utterance of a sentence are in general a function of the meaning
of the sentence. The meaning of a sentence does not in all cases uniquely

4
Unit 6. Key ideas
determine what speech act is performed in a given utterance of that sentence, for a
speaker may mean more than what he actually says, but it is always in principle
possible for him to say exactly what he means” (1999, p. 18). That is why, he claims
that “a study of the meanings of sentences and the study of speech acts are not two
independent studies but one study from two different points of view” (Searle, 1999,
p. 18).
The basic speech acts are as follows:

 Statement.
 Question.
 Directive.
 Exclamation.
These four basic speech acts are associated with four clause types.
Speech act Clause type
Statement Declarative
Question Interrogative
Directive Imperative
Exclamation Exclamative
Table 1. Basic speech acts are associated with four clause types.
We should clearly distinguish speech acts from clause types. The term clause type
refers to the grammatical function of a clause, which is related to a specific speech
act. We should also bear in mind that the above correspondence between speech
acts (semantic-pragmatic category) and clause types (grammatical category) is not
absolute. The complete overlapping between speech acts and clause types is
sometimes referred to as direct correspondence.

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Unit 6. Key ideas
Examples:
It is a lovely garden. Statement/Declarative.
Did you see the children playing in the garden? Question/Interrogative.
Turn the TV on. Directive/Imperative.
How beautiful you are today! Exclamation/Exclamative.
However there isn’t always a complete correspondence between speech acts and
clause types, which reflects the complexity of human communication. Apart from
statements, declarative clauses can also express questions, and directives and
interrogative clauses can sometimes be interpreted as assertions or orders. For
example, Could you pass me the salt? is interpreted as a request. In these cases we
consider that the speech act is indirect or we sometimes speak about indirect
correspondence.
Clause type Possible speech acts Examples
A: So, you’re going to be here about quarter past?

Question
B: Yeah, quarter past, twenty past, yeah.
Declarative Command You sit here.
Offer I’ll hold that for you.
Exclamation There’s a rat!
Command Will you be quiet?
Request Could you carry this for me?

Interrogative
Intensified
Was I embarrassed when I realized what had
statement, or
happened! (I’m telling you I was embarrassed)
exclamation
Intensified warning
about a particular Do that again and I am going to smack you.
Imperative course of action
Offer Have a banana.
Table 2. Indirect correspondence between speech acts and clause types.

Source: adapted from Berry, 2012, p. 243.

6
Unit 6. Key ideas
The figure below shows the system of clause types, as seen by Angela Downing and
Philip Locke (2006), who distinguish five clause types: declarative, interrogative
(yes/no), interrogative (wh-), exclamative, and imperative.
Independent clause
Indicative Imperative
Exclamative Declarative
Interrogative
Polar (yes/no) Non-polar (wh-)
Figure 1. System of clause types. Source: adapted from Downing & Locke, 2006, p. 177.
6.3. Declarative clause
L
et us take as a starting point James R. Hurford’s definition of declarative
clause: “A declarative clause, used on its own, is the typical way of making
statement, or assertion, as opposed to asking a question or giving an order.
In English, the grammatical shape of a normal declarative clause involves a subject
occurring before all the verbs in the clause” (2003, p. 56, bold in original). As we
saw earlier in this unit and in Unit 4, there might be some exceptions to both the
speech act which corresponds to this clause type and the subject-verb order. Taking
the verbal group as a whole, we can say that the order of the constituents in the
declarative clause is Subject + finite verbal form (realised either by an operator and
a main verb or only by a lexical verb, but marked for tense or modality).

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Unit 6. Key ideas
Examples:
He was a very strange person. (he - subject / was - predicator)
He couldn’t remember his real name. (he - subject / couldn’t remember -
predicator)
He avoided needless explanations.
He lived in a sinister house at the end of the street.
Negation
Let us examine the following examples:
Group A
Robert saw something.
Robert drank some whiskey.
Robert sometimes goes to the theatre.
Robert sometimes lends his laptop to some of his friends.
Group B
Robert did not see anything.
Robert did not drink any whiskey.
Robert doesn’t ever go to the theatre.
Robert doesn’t ever lend his laptop to any of his friends.
The negative form is different from the positive form in two ways:
 The negative sentences contain not and n’t.
 The negative sentences contain words such as ever and any instead of some.

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Unit 6. Key ideas
Some is part of a group of words called assertives, and any belongs to a group of
words called nonassertives.
Assertives Nonassertives
some any
someone anyone
somebody anybody
something anything
somewhere anywhere
sometimes ever
Table 3. Assertive and nonassertive words.
The negative sentences in Group B have an alternative version.
Group C
Robert saw nothing.
Robert drank no whiskey.
Robert never goes to the theatre.
Robert never lends his friends his laptop.
The sentences in Group C are different from the sentences in Group B in two ways:
 In Group C the verbal form is not negative, i.e. there isn’t n’t attached to the
operator.
 The nonassertive words are replaced by negative words, such as nothing and
never.

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Unit 6. Key ideas
However, consideration of affirmative sentences in which the subject is an assertive
verb shows that we cannot substitute it with a nonassertive word, only the C option
is possible for these sentences.
Someone has eaten my ice-cream.

*Anyone hasn’t eaten my ice-cream.
No one has eaten my ice-cream.
To understand the syntax of negation we must also take into account cases in which
the negative form of a sentence formed by negating the verb is not the logical
negation of its affirmative counterpart.
(a) Some of the students attended the conference.

(b) Some of the students did not attend the conference.
(c) None of the students attended the conference.
Let us imagine that we have a group of 20 students, and that 8 of them did not
attend the conference. This case corresponds to sentence (b). Although it is
negative, sentence (b) is not the logical negation of sentence (a). Sentence (c) is the
logical negation of sentence (a) instead.
Another problematic example is the negative alternative of the sentence: (a) Many
voters voted for Carter. Carl Lee Baker discusses the two negative counterparts of
this sentence, namely: (b) Many of the voters did not vote for Carter., and (c) Not
many of the voters voted for Carter., and shows that (b) is not the logical negation
of (a) and that both (a) and (b) are true at the same time. The author argues that if
“anything over 50 million counts as ‘many’” and “if 75 million voters voted for
Carter and 100 million did not”, then both (a) and (b) are true (1989, pp. 408-409).
Consequently, the negative counterpart of sentence (a) will be sentence (c). For
Carter, in negative sentences when a word has a more dominant position than
another word, we say it has “wider scope” (1989, p. 409). Thus in sentence (b)
Many of the voters did not vote for Carter, many has a more dominant position than

10
Unit 6. Key ideas
not, and in the sentence (c) Not many of the voters voted for Carter, not has a more
dominant position than many, hence a wider scope.
Negative and negative-like words
not
never
nobody
no one
nowhere
nothing
hardly
scarcely
few
little
rarely
seldom
Table 3. Negative and negative-like words.
Scope of negation
Scope of negation refers to the way a negative word influences the other
constituents of the clause. Carl Lee Baker argues that “in determining the relative
scope of quantity words and negatives, assign scope on the basis of the left-to-right
position in the sentence, starting with wider scope for whatever is found on the
left” (1989, p. 411) or what is also known as left-to-right rule.

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Unit 6. Key ideas
Scope of negation
(left-to-right rule)
Some people didn’t bring any presents.
Some people didn’t bring any presents.

(assertive word) (negative form) (nonassertive word)
Figure 2. Left-to-right rule.
The Nonassertive Rule, according to Baker, means that: “Nonassertive words are
used in situations in which they fall within the scope of negation, i.e., situations in
which they have narrower scope than some negative word” (1989, p. 411). In the
example above the phrase any presents falls within the scope of negation, which is
why the nonassertive word any is used. Some, which is classified as an assertive
word, falls outside the scope of negation, because it is placed before the negative
form. There are some exceptions to this rule, like in He didn’t read some of the
books on the list. Some is an assertive word, but in this case, we will interpret it as
being outside the scope of negation, meaning He didn’t read all the books on the
list.
6.4. Interrogative clause
W
hen we come to think about interrogative clauses, perhaps the first
characteristic that comes to mind is the order of the Subject and the
members of the verbal groups that realise the predicator function. In
this case, the finite operator of the verbal group precedes the Subject of the clause.
Examples:
Did you buy a few envelopes? (did - operator/ you - subject)
Have you ever met the lady in question? (have - operator / you - subject)
Are you going to look at those pictures again? (are - operator / you - subject)
Is she looking forward to her summer holidays? (is - operator / she - subject)

12
Unit 6. Key ideas
Yes/no interrogatives
We use yes/no interrogatives when we ask for confirmation. The listener will
frequently choose to use a short answer.
Examples:
 A: Did she understand him better after a couple of weeks?
B: No, she didn’t.
 A:Will Betty wait for her friend?

B: Yes, she will.
 A: Are you watching a film right now?

B: Yes, I am.
Alternative interrogatives
Alternative interrogatives are similar to the yes/no interrogatives in that they start
with the operator, but the answer to these interrogatives cannot be yes or no. They
present two alternatives and the listener has to choose one of them.
Examples:
 A: Are you coming on Monday or on Friday?
B: On Monday.
 A: Did she wear the blue dress or the red one at the party?
B: The red one.
 A: Will Peter come alone or with his girlfriend?

B: With his girlfriend.

13
Unit 6. Key ideas
Wh- interrogatives
For Concha Castillo, “Wh-questions demand information about the participants in

an event or situation. They are also called information questions and are typically
characterised by a final ‘falling’ tone (2003, p. 380, italics in original). The wh-
question words are: who, what, where, when, whose, whom, why, how. The word
order in wh- interrogatives is as follows:
Wh- word Finite operator Subject Main verb (+ other elements)
Where did you meet this famous opera singer?
What will she do with this new project?
Why didn’t your brother come to the party?
When did he get an answer?
Table 4. Wh- interrogatives word order.
Exceptions to the rule are those wh- interrogatives in which the wh- word functions
as a subject.
Double interrogatives: questions within questions
Double interrogatives are often referred to as indirect questions in General English

textbooks. Indirect questions are used when we want to be more polite or more
formal, e.g.:
What time is it? (Direct question)

Do you know what time it is? (Indirect question)
Introductory phrases in indirect questions include: Do you know . . . ? Can you tell
me . . . ? Do you happen to know . . . ?, which are polar interrogatives or yes/no
questions, but also expressions such as I wonder / was wondering . . ., I have no idea
. . ., I'm not sure . . ., or I'd like to know . . .. As its name suggests, double

14
Unit 6. Key ideas
interrogatives or questions within questions are formed by a wh- interrogative
embedded in a yes/no question, i.e. Can you tell me where the nearest train station
is? It therefore appears that double interrogatives only partially coincide with
indirect questions, as the introductory phrase in indirect questions is not always a
question.
Let us take the polar yes/no question Do you know? and see how wh- questions can
be embedded in it. The word order of the embedded question changes and instead
of the order of the constituents of an interrogative clause (operator + subject +
main verb), the order of the constituents in the embedded wh- question is that of a
declarative clause (subject + operator + main verb, whenever there is an operator)
Polar yes/no question: Do you know?
What time does the train leave?

Wh- questions How much does the book cost?
Is she coming to the party on Sunday?
Do you know what time the train leaves?
Do you know how much the book costs?
Do you know if she is coming to the party on Sunday?
Table 5.Polar yes/no questions.
Echo questions
In echo questions the listener usually repeats part of what the speaker has said,
although they might repeat the whole sentence. Echo questions are used to confirm
or clarify some information; sometimes they in a way show interest in what the
speaker is saying and keep the conversation going. According to Concha Castillo,
“Echo questions, as their name indicates, are interrogative structures whose
function is to repeat or echo a previous statement in case a portion of it has not

15
Unit 6. Key ideas
been heard properly or needs clarifying or reasserting on part of the speaker”
(2003, p. 382, italics in original).
Examples:
 A: I sent him an email.
B: You sent him an email? (polar)
 A: I saw Peter at the party.

B: You saw who? (open)
Question tags
Question tags can be attached to three different types of clauses: declarative,

imperative, and exclamative.
Examples:
It was a nice evening, wasn’t it? (declarative)
Speak quietly, will you? (imperative)
What a nice evening, wasn’t it? (exclamative)
For Concha Castillo, “A tag-question (or question-tag) is a kind of grammaticalised

elliptical or abbreviated interrogative that is appended to a declarative sentence –
or otherwise to an exclamative or imperative sentence – and that functions as a
confirmation of what is stated in the declarative.” She argues that “most commonly,
interrogative tags function as a reinforcement of the speaker’s statement and
demand no further feedback; they are characterised by a ‘falling’ tone. However,
some instances of tags seek for an answer on the part of the hearer, in which case
their intonation is of the ‘rising’ type” (2003, p. 378).

16
Unit 6. Key ideas
Key Figures in the History of Linguistics.
Figure 3. Roman Jakobson (1896-1982). Source: Wikipedia.
Read further information about Jakobson in the following link:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Jakobson
6.5. Imperative clause
T
he most important feature of the imperative clause is that the Subject is
omitted and only the base form of the verb is used. The base form is not
marked for tense or modality, but it can be preceded by the negative form
of the verb do or sometimes emphatic do.
Examples:
Open the door!
Do sit down, please!

17
Unit 6. Key ideas
Raspberry, hibiscus and dark chocolate ripple
200ml double cream

200ml whole milk
1 tsp vanilla bean paste
50g caster sugar
2 large eggs
150g raspberries
75g caster sugar
2 dried hibiscus flowers
100g dark chocolate, chopped into small pieces
 Heat the cream and milk in a saucepan with the vanilla, bringing it gently to the boil.
 Meanwhile whisk together the sugar and eggs in a bowl.
 Once the cream mixture is boiling pour it over the eggs and whisk well. Return the
mixture to the pan over a low heat, stirring continuously until thickened. Remove and
allow to cool completely.
 Once cool, churn in an ice-cream maker according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
 While this is happening make the raspberry ripple. Heat the raspberries, sugar and
hibiscus flowers together in a pan with 50ml water. Bring to the boil then remove
immediately. Allow to cool before removing the hibiscus flowers as this helps with the
infusion.
 Once the ice cream has thickened, mix in the chocolate and churn it for a further
minute.
 Spoon half of the mixture into a plastic container then pour over half of the cooled
raspberry mixture. Repeat with the rest of the ice cream and sauce, keeping back some
of the sauce to serve. Using a skewer or knife, swirl in the raspberry by making wavy
patterns in the ice cream.
 Cover and freeze for at least four hours before serving with the rest of the sauce.
(Adapted from Shedden, 2017)

18
Unit 6. Key ideas
6.6. Exclamative clause
“E
xclamative clauses,” according to Downing and Locke, “open with a
wh- element what or how, followed by a NG or adjective/adverb
respectively. Like the declarative, they have Subject-Finite ordering”
(2006, p. 190).
Examples:
What a fool I have been!
What a shame!
How splendid!
“How kind of you”
How kind of you to think of me

When I was out of sorts
It really meant a lot to be
In someone else's thoughts
Someone else's mind
Someone else as kind, as you
The thoughtfulness you showed has made
A difference in my life
Paul McCartney (Chaos and Creation in the Backyard, 2005)


19
Unit 6. Key ideas
6.7. Clause combination: Simple, compound, and
complex sentences
S
entences in English are classified into simple, compound, and complex.
 Simple sentence: I saw James.

It contains only one clause.
 Compound sentence: I saw James and he greeted me as an old friend.

The compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses and the
relation between them is that of coordination. The two clauses have equal
syntactic status, which implies that their order can be reverted without changing
the meaning of the sentence.
Coordinating conjunctions: but, and, both, or, yet, either . . . or, neither . . . nor,
etc.
Examples:
Peter jumped out of the car and slummed the door.
It was raining heavily that day, so we stayed at home.
I wanted to go to London but my boyfriend didn’t like the idea.
Clause 1 Coordinator Clause 2
Figure 4.Compound sentence.

 Complex sentence: I saw James, who is an old friend of mine.

Complex sentences contain two or more clauses and at least one of them is
subordinate and one of them is independent. The main clause is typically finite,
while subordinate clauses can be finite or non-finite.

20
Unit 6. Key ideas
Examples:
He didn’t come, because he was busy. (finite)

She called the doctor to make an appointment. (non-finite)
Main clause Subordinate clause
Figure 5.Complex sentence.
There are three major types of subordinate clause:
 Relative: The relative clause is “a subordinate clause of which the most central
type functions as modifier to a noun . . . The noun serves as antecedent for an
element within the relative clause . . . or merely understood” (Huddleston &
Geoffrey, 2009, p. 306, bold in original).
Example:
» The watch that you lost is not in the office.
» Politicians who don’t keep their promises are not respected.
» This is the problem I was speaking about.
» My boyfriend, who likes pizza, has booked a table for two at an Italian
restaurant.
 Comparative: Comparative clause is “a kind of subordinate clause (usually finite)

functioning as complement to than, as or like and expressing one of the two
terms in a comparison” (Huddleston & Geoffrey, 2009, p. 297, bold in original).
Examples:
He ate more chocolates than I did.
He made more mistakes than I expected.
You have more handbags than you need.

I didn’t spend as much money on my house as you did on yours.

21
Unit 6. Key ideas
 Content. Content clause is “the default kind of finite subordinate clause, lacking
the special properties of relative and comparative clauses” (Huddleston &
Geoffrey, 2009, p. 297, bold in original).
Example:
I know that he is the best cook in town.
I wonder whether she will ring me back tomorrow.
I don’t think that I can help you.
Tell me what you think about his new film.
6.8. Bibliographical references
Baker, C. L. (2016). English Syntax. Cambridge, MA & London, England: The MIT
Press.
Berry, R. (2012). English Grammar. A Resource Book for Students. London & New
York: Routledge.
Castillo, C. (2003). English Syntax for Spanish Speakers: A Comparative Introduction.

Bern: Peter Lang.
Downing, A. & Locke, Ph. (2006). English Grammar: A University Course. London &
New York: Routledge.
Huddleston, R. & Geoffrey, K. (2009). A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hurford, J. R. (2003). Grammar. A Student’s Guide. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

22
Unit 6. Key ideas
Searle, J. R. (1999). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shedden, F. (2017, August 13). Flora Shedden: my favourite ice cream recipes. The
Telegraph.

23
Unit 6. Key ideas
6.9. Master class
Syntax: Clause types and clause combination
The master class provides an overview of the clause types and their main features.
It starts with an overall picture of speech acts and their correspondence with clause
types. The master class deals with the four main types of clause: declarative,
interrogative, exclamative, and imperative, which are illustrated with a variety of
examples. Additionally, we explore the clause combinations that produce complex
and compound sentences.
The master class is available at the virtual campus


24
Unit 6. Key ideas
In Depth
Interconnection and Interaction of Interrogative Sentences in the English
Language
Sklyarova, N. (2013). Interconnection and Interaction of Interrogative Sentences in the

English Language. International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering
and Education 1 (2), 45-50.
The present paper offers the results of a study of interrogative sentences. The
author argues that the paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations in the language
provide the starting point for the differentiation between the concepts of
interconnection and interaction. Sklyarova relates paradigmatic interaction to the
existence of mixed types of interrogative sentences and syntagmatic interaction –
to their combination in speech.
Available at the virtual campus under the art. 32.4 of the Spanish Intellectual
Property Law.

25
Unit 6. In Depth
On the semantics and logic of declaratives and interrogatives
Ciardelli, I., Groenendijk, J. & Roelofsen, F. (2015). On the Semantics and Logic of
Declaratives and Interrogatives. Synthese 192, 1689-1728.
The authors of this paper start by describing the basics of inquisitive semantics and
then focus on declarative and interrogative sentences within this approach. They
develop inquisitive semantics for logical language with a clear division between
declaratives and interrogatives to show that the logical approach and inquisitive
semantics are not incompatible.
Property Law.
Syntax and Grammar
This short video offers some basic

definitions of simple, compound, complex,
and compound-complex sentences. These
definitions are supported by simple
examples that are easy to understand and
remember.
Access to the video through the virtual campus or the following link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Hz_mg3wh4o

26
Unit 6. In Depth
Encoding the addressee in the syntax: evidence from English imperative subjects
Zanuttini, R. (2008). Encoding the Addressee in the Syntax: Evidence from English
Imperative Subjects. Nat Lang Linguist Theory 26: 185-218.
In this article, Zanuttini deals with the imperative subjects in English. First, she
explores the main properties of four kinds of subjects that the author considers
acceptable for all speakers of English. She also addresses the question of the
difference between imperative subjects and vocatives. The study contributes to the
idea that the notion of addressee is encoded in syntax.
Property Law.

27
Unit 6. In Depth
Clauses and sentences
This website provides information about clauses and clause hierarchy in the
sentence, explaining the difference between matrix and subordinate clause. The
authors define the clause types in English and also simple, complex, and compound
sentences. Clauses and sentences are explained in a seven-step sequence. The self-
corrective exercises for each part help learners check their progress.
Access to the webpage through the virtual campus or following this link:
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/clauses/subtype.htm

28
Unit 6. In Depth
Test
1. Choose the correct answer.

A. Declarative clauses express statements.
B. Declarative clauses can express questions.
C. Both A and B are correct.
2. The sentence Have some tea, please is

A. Declarative.
B. Imperative.
C. interpreted as Declarative or Imperative, depending on the context.
3. The sentence My sister is going to study Marketing in Canada next year is

A. Simple.
B. Compound.
C. Complex.
4. The sentence Have you ever been to Moscow? is

A. Polar Interrogative.
B. Non-polar interrogative.
C. Echo question.
5. In the sentence The advice you gave me was very helpful.

A. The subordinate clause is was very helpful.
B. The main clause is the advice you gave me.
C. Both A and B are wrong.

29
Unit 6. Test
6. In the sentence You have more time than you need.
A. (than) you need is comparative subordinate clause.
B. (than) you need is relative subordinate clause.
7. Choose the correct answer:

A. The sentence I arrived late, which caused some problems is complex.
B. The sentence I arrived late, but it didn’t cause any problems is compound.
C. Both A and B are correct.
8. The sentence What a party it was is

A. Open interrogative.
B. Exclamative.
C. Declarative.
9. The sentence I can’t say which actor will win the Oscar this year is
A. Simple.
B. Compound.
C. Complex.
10. In the sentence It is obvious why she didn’t come to work today.
A. why she didn’t come to work today is relative subordinate clause.
B. why she didn’t come to work today is content subordinate clause.

30
Unit 6. Test

31
Unit 6. Test

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Unit 6

Morphosyntax and Semantics in the English Language

Speech acts and clause types