Thomas Bardwell & His Practice of Painting Article

Thomas Bardwell and His Practice of Painting: A Comparative Investigation between
Described and Actual Painting Technique

Author(s): M. Kirby Talley, Jr. and Karin Groen
Source: Studies in Conservation , May, 1975, Vol. 20, No. 2 (May, 1975), pp. 44-108
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the International Institute for
Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1505685
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44 Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108
THOMAS BARDWELL AND HIS PRACTICE OF

PAINTING: A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION
BETWEEN DESCRIBED AND ACTUAL PAINTING
TECHNIQUE
M. KIRBY TALLEY, JR and KARIN GROEN*
Abstract-Thomas Bardwell (1704-67), an English portrait painter, wrote a technical treatise

entitled The Practice of Painting and Perspective Made Easy which was published in 1756. Th
section on painting deals exclusively with the oil technique and may be considered one of th
most original productions of its kind written in England. A total of 153 paint samples wer
taken from 15 of Bardwell's paintings dating between 1740 and 1766, the better part of his activ
career. Through cross-sections, and likewise numerous analyses, made from these pain
samples it was possible to reconstruct Bardwell's actual practice. This in turn could be com-
pared with the suggested technique as explained in his book. Bardwell's actual practice follow
his written advice rather closely; however, in general it was discovered to be less complicate
'(One of his Paintings being seen in your Noble Collection;) Please, now to cast an Eye on tho
Pen: 'Twill be no disagreeable Amusement to compare them together; to set the Theory in opp
the Practice; and to consider those admirable Rules in the One, which have had so happy an Effe
other.'-John Senex, 'The Dedication' to Leonardo Da Vinci, A Treatise of Painting, London: J
1721.
1. INTRODUCTION
From February 1971 until November 1973 a special research project was carried
Central Research Laboratory for Objects of Art and Science, Amsterdam. Th
this project was to compare the suggested technique of painting as set fort
Bardwell's (1704-67) book, The Practice of Painting and Perspective Made Ea
S. Richardson, 1756) with cross-sections made from samples taken from Ba
tures. While the study of older technical treatises and the scientific examination
to determine pigments used and/or paint layer construction are hardly new phe
Bardwell Project can claim to be the first of its kind.2
*Sections 1-4, 5.1, 6.1-6.1.11, 7.1-7.2.2, 7.3.1, 7.4, 7.5.1 were written by M. Kirby Talley
5.2, 6.2, 7.2.3, 7.3.2, 7.5.2 by Karin Groen, and sections 5.3, 7.2.4, 7.3.3, 7.4.1-7.4.7, 7.5.3, 8 by
In sections 7.4.1-7.4.7 the descriptions of the actual technique and relevant tables were done
and the discussions by both authors.
1For a survey of the work published between 1961 and 1972, the reader is referred to PLES
'Painting Methods and Materials', Conservation of Paintings and the Graphic Arts: Preprints o
to The Lisbon Congress 1972, London: The International Institute for Conservation of Histor
Works, 1972, pp. 101-105.
2Commenting on the project, Miss Joyce Plesters remarked, 'It will certainly be the first st
technical book on painting combined with scientific examination of paintings done by the a

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Thomas Bardwell and his Practice of Painting 45
2. SUMMARY DISCUSSION OF TECHNICAL LITERATURE IN

ENGLAND BETWEEN 1573 AND 1756
A great number of works were written in England between 1573, the date of p
of the anonymous, A very proper treatise, wherein is briefly settforthe the arte of
(London: Richard Tottill), 'which is generally regarded as being the earliest English
book on the subject of painting,'3 and 1756, the date of Thomas Bardwell's Th
of Painting. Most of the works written between these two dates do not deal ex
with one technique (as does Bardwell's), but contain descriptions of various tec
In the seventeenth century clear distinctions were drawn between these techniques
which fall under our general term 'painting'.4 Limning, or miniature painting, is e
with pigments ground with distilled water, or the purest available, and at the time o
mixed with gum water most usually made with gum arabic.5 Although portrait min
take descriptions of technique and materials from the realm of fancy to objective fact.' PLESTE
letter to M.K.T., 23 August 1971. Until quite recently very little serious work has been done on s
and eighteenth-century English manuscripts and published treatises on the technique of pa
bibliographies of technical books and manuscripts written in England between c. 1500 and 1850
is referred to the following: (1) HARLEY, R. D., Artists' Pigments, c. 1600-1835, London: Bu
1970, pp. 209-219, hereafter in text or notes, Harley, Artists' Pigments; (2) HARLEY, R. D., 'Lit
Technical Aspects of the Arts. Manuscripts in the British Museum', Studies in Conservation
1-8; (3) OGDEN, HENRY V. S., and OGDEN, MARGARET S., 'A Bibliography of Seventeenth-Centur
on the Pictorial Arts in English', The Art Bulletin, 29, No. 3 (1947), 196-201; (4) SCHMID, F.,
of Books on the Practice of Drawing and Painting from 1650 to 1850', exhibition catalogue
Courtauld Institute of Art, 15 December-11 January 1934-35, pp. 1-31. R. D. Harley's excel
Artists' Pigments, c. 1600-1835, treats pigments used in England, their origin, nomenclature, m
manufacture, chemical composition, and history of use, but does not concern itself with the t
painting. Dr Harley's article, 'Artists' Brushes-Historical Evidence from the Sixteenth to the N
Century', Conservation of Paintings and the Graphic Arts: Preprints of Contributions to The Lisbon
1972, London: The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works
123-129, contains helpful information on the types of brushes used in England during the s
and eighteenth centuries. A most valuable work is J. A. VAN DE GRAAF'S published dissertatio
Mayerne Manuscript als Bron voor de Schildertechniek van de Barok, Diss. Utrecht 1958, Mijdrecht:
Verweij, 1958. One book which deals primarily with the technique rather than the materials of
both English and continental, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is F. SCHMID'S T
of Painting, London: Faber and Faber, 1948. Despite an extensive use of the contemporar
Dr Schmid's book must be used with caution. The facts are poorly organized and much of t
seems the result of a fertile imagination, especially the reconstruction of various artists' p
instance, Dr Schmid on pp. 51-52 credits Chardin (1699-1779) with having used cadmium orange
sulphide yellow-the orange is merely a colour variation-was noticed in 1817, used in 1829, b
become commercially available as a pigment until about 1846'. Refer to GETTENS, RUTHERFO
STOUT, GEORGE L., Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopaedia, 1942; rpt. New York: Dover P
Inc., 1966, p. 102. See also under Cadmium Orange, pp. 100-101 (hereafter in text or notes, G
Stout). Reviews of Dr Schmid's book appeared in: (1) Museums Journal, 48 (1948), 177-178; (2
of Art, 42 (1949), 272. An article with an informative summary of the decline of technical practice
during the latter part of the eighteenth century and beginning of the nineteenth is John Gage
and Mysteries', Apollo, 80, No. 29 (July 1964), 38-41.
3HARLEY, Artists' Pigments, p. 2. For a concise and informative survey of the manuscripts and
works in which their history and influence are traced the reader is referred to the first two chapter
of this book.
4Ibid., pp. 16-17. Dr Harley mentions and describes four different techniques: oil painting, limning, washing,
and staining.
5For descriptions of grinding colours and mixing them with gum water see: (1) HILLIARD, NICHOLAS,
A Treatise Concerning the Arte of Limning, ed. by PHILIP NORMAN, The Walpole Society, 1 (1912), 21. Hil-
liard's treatise runs from p. 1 to p. 50. (2) NORGATE, EDWARD, Miniatura or The Art of Limning, ed. by
MARTIN HARDIE, Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1919, pp. 9-11.
Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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46 M. Kirby Talley, Jr and Karin Groen
were most commonly executed with an aqueous medium, oil was

Johnson (1593-1661) 'painted too in small in oil, and often co
manner'.6 Washing is also a water technique; the pigments ar
as those for limning, but washing is not to be confused with the
ing we have intend[ed] nothing else, but either to set out Maps, o
Colors." In oil painting the pigments are first ground with li
and then further mixed or 'tempered' with one or another of th
ments which are poor driers can be mixed either with a 'drying
oil, or nut oil mixed with varnish.8 Of the many technical manus
written between 1573 and 1756 in England only a few of the mo
discussed here. For limning, the two most original works w
subsequent influence on other writers were Nicholas Hilliar
the Art of Limning, written between 1598 and 1602-03, and
or the Art of Limning, written in two versions, the first (a copy
Harley 6000) between 1621 and 1626 and the second (a copy of w
Tanner 326) between 1648 and 1650. A large number of transcrip
to disseminate its influence, and it was published without cr
by William Sanderson in his Graphice: The use of the Pen and Pe
Art of Painting (London: Robert Crofts, 1658).9 While limni
technical precepts are equally valid for oil painting. With regard
for portraiture and the method of painting for each sitting Nor
to be observed in a picture by the life is upon the matter the sam
ordinary pictures.'10 Sanderson is even more explicit on the sub
Water-Colours, differing somewhat from Oyl-Colours. In both,
tinguish. The way and manner, those directions before and
for either.'1 The clearest equation between the two techniques is
in Oyl is nothing but the Work or Art of Limning performed w
with Oyl.'12 Limning, therefore, cannot be entirely divorced fr
6WALPOLE, HORACE, Anecdotes of Painting in England, 3rd ed., ed. by RA

York: Arno Press, 1969, I, 212. Walpole's source for this comment on Joh
books used by Walpole for his Anecdotes. The passage in Vertue reads, 'as
Oil Colour pictures instead of limnings said to be done by Corn Janson
from the larger ones. and very probably it might have been a custom muc
and small.' 'The Note Books of George Vertue Relating to Artistes and
pole Society, 24 (1935-36), 143.
7SALMON, WILLIAM, Polygraphice: or, The Arts of Drawing, Engraving, Etch
Japaning, Gilding, &c., 8th ed., London: 1701,I, 189. A general discussion
201. Salmon's book was published first in 1672 and ran through editions in
For a listing of these editions refer to Harley, Artists' Pigments, p. 218, an
La Letteratura Artistica, 3rd Italian ed., Firenze: 'La Nuova Italia', 1964,
"Detailed instructions concerning the different oils with which pigments
can be found in: (1) SMITH, MARSHALL, The Art of Painting According to th
Italian, French, and Germane Masters, London: 1692, pp. 71-73, and (2) BA
of Painting and Perspective Made Easy: In which is contained, The Art of
of Colouring, London: S. Richardson, 1756, pp. 7-9 (N.B. Hereafter Practi
or text). Mention of the use of 'drying' oil, varnish (along with a recipe),
mixed with varnish can be found in ELSUM, JOHN, The Art ofPainting Afte
cal Observations on the Principal Colours, London: 1703, pp. 37, 39, 89, 9
9The reader is referred to footnote 5 and the introductions by Dr Norman
editions of Hilliard's and Norgate's treatises. Problems of dating and the v
are dealt with in detail.
10Miniatura, ed. Hardie, p. 26.
"1Graphice, p. 52.
12Polygraphice, I, 161.

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technical procedures for limning are often found under directions f

comparative study showing the development of a pure oil technique mus
into account.
Henry Peacham's The Compleat Gentleman (1622) 'appears to be the first book in English
to discuss portrait painting in oils'.13 The section on oil painting is only one chapter in a book
treating such subjects as 'Of Nobilitie in Generall', 'Of Poetry', and 'Of Travaile'. Peacham
comments, 'Painting in Oyle is done I confesse with greater iudgment, and is generall
of more esteeme then working in water colours'.14 However, he terms oil painting 'more
Mechanique' and warns that it requires much more time. De Mayerne's Manuscript2,
compiled between 1620 and 1646 and in the main a collection of recipes, serves as a source
for the oil technique as practised in the seventeenth century in Flanders and Holland and
brought over to England by Rubens and Van Dyck among others. Norgate's manuscript,
that dating from 1648 to 1650, includes a section on oil painting in which appear many
recipes and an account of the order to be followed in painting a portrait after the life and the
paint mixtures to be used.15 One other seventeenth-century manuscript must be men-
tioned, MS. Harley 2337.16 The anonymous writer, who was a painter, explains how one
should paint a portrait in oils. His instructions, however verbose and repetitive, are very
thorough. Mr Collins Baker dates the manuscript 'late seventeenth century'."
Works dealing either primarily or exclusively with the oil technique begin to appear near
the end of the seventeenth century in England. The most important seventeenth-century
book on oil painting is Marshall Smith's The Art of Painting (London, 1692)8. Included are
detailed instructions on how each colour is to be ground, specifying water, brandy, urine, or
one of the oils, and then tempered either with linseed, nut, or 'drying' oil, or varnish.
Smith further describes equipment such as the maulstick, different brushes, the easel, and
the like-something Bardwell generally neglects in his book. Beginning on page 77 of his
book, Cap. XXIX, 'The way of Painting a Face', Smith gives a detailed account of the
method, including colour mixtures, for painting a portrait. This account continues through
page 81 and is followed by Cap. XXX, 'Precepts in Colouring and Glasing', pages 81-85,
which contains along with numerous helpful technical hints instructions for painting dif-
ferent, coloured draperies. The only book which equals and in part surpasses Smith's as far
as the explanation of the method of oil painting is concerned is Bardwell's Practice, pub-
lished 64 years later. Only one other book published during the period 1692-1756 need be
mentioned, John Elsum's The Art of Painting After the Italian Manner (London, 1703)8.
Although Elsum's book contains much interesting technical advice, it is in general spread
throughout the book. Due to this lack of organization the book would tend not to be of much
use to a novice painter who might wish to look up, say, a fairly detailed section on 'First
Painting'. An important difference between Smith's book and Elsum's is that, 'Whereas
Marshall Smith seems to have taken information of foreign origin and adapted it to English
practice, Elsum included information without alteration.'18 While Smith's and Bardwell's
books contain the most thorough and best-organized explanations of the oil technique
as practised in England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, no internal evidence
exists in Bardwell's book to indicate that he ever saw Smith's work. In many instances
13HARLEY, Artists' Pigments, p. 7.

14PEACHAM, HENRY, The Compleat Gentleman, London: Francis Constable, 1622; rpt. Amsterdam: Theat-
rum Orbis Terrarum Ltd, 1968, p. 100. N.B. Mistake in pagination, actually p. 110.
15Miniatura, ed. Hardie, pp. 91-105.
16The relevant technical sections were abstracted and transcribed by COLLINS BAKER, C. H., Lely & The
Stuart Portrait Painters: A Study of English Portraiture Before & After Van Dyck, London: The Medici
Society, Limited, 1912, II, 234-241.
17Ibid., p. 234.
18HARLEY, Artists' Pigments, p. 20.

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the technical explanations in both books agree as far as pr

must be noted that agreement between practices mentione
several of the works discussed above can be demonstrated w
conclusively that Bardwell was ever aware of them. This simi
be explained most probably by the fact that sound technical meth
periods and therefore become traditional. Internal evidence, h
show that Bardwell used Elsum's book for certain minor details.19
3. BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT OF THOMAS BARDWELL
Before discussing Bardwell's book and the technique explained in it, some a
his life must be given. He was born in 1704 and died in 1767. The earliest work wh
be connected with him was decorative in nature, i.e., house-painting, decorati
imitation wood, and the like, and he seems to have had a paint-supply busine
as 1732, judging from his letter of 31 May 1732 to Mr Buxton, Bardwell's employe
time. A good idea of the nature of this business is given in the 10 June 1738 i
Norwich Gazette. The business was taken over in this year by Robert Bardwel
brother, when Thomas left Bungay, a small village in Suffolk. Robert's adve
states that he painted 'History, Landskips, Signs, Shew-Boards, Window-Blind
Pots for Chimnies, and House-Painting in imitation of all Sorts of Wood, S
Mahogony, to such Perfection, as is not practised in this Part of the Kingdom
all Sorts of Colours for House-Painting ready prepared .. .' .2o By 1740 Thoma
probably in London, and his first sponsor was John Campbell, second Duke
(1680-1743). By this time Bardwell had turned to portraiture and between the year
he enjoyed an extensive clientele in London, his native East Anglia, and Scotl
most probably through his early contact with Argyll that Bardwell was introduce
Scottish sitters, several of whom were married to daughters of the second Duke o
In 1741 Bardwell painted his first picture of William Henry van Nassau Zuylestein
Earl of Rochford (1717-81). When Bardwell published his book in 1756 he ded
work to the Earl of Rochford, thanking him for 'The many Favours and Ben
Lordship has heaped upon me' ('Dedication', Practice, p.v.). One of these favou
doubt the crown copyright which Rochford, who was 'groom of the stole and firs
the bedchamber',21 most probably helped Bardwell secure for his book. Bardwell p
George II requesting a crown copyright for his book. This petition (Public Rec
State Papers, Domestic, George II (SP 36/133 f. 46) ) is undated, but the crown
was 'Given at Our Court at St. James's the 29th Day of January 1756' (crown copy
Practice, precedes title-page), and was signed by Henry Fox who was Secretar
between 25 November 1755 and October 1756 (DNB, XX, 1889, 123). This rem
crown copyright gave Bardwell the sole rights to his book, including that of
Such a practice was highly unusual in the eighteenth century, and Bardwell's case
19Commenting on brown-pink on pp. 8-9 of Practice, Bardwell states that 'It is strengthened
Umber, and weakened with Terraverte.' Discussing the same colour, Elsum states on p. 123
that, 'It is weakned with Terravert, and strengthned with Burnt-Umber.'
20The first-named author (M.K.T.) is deeply indebted to Mr A. P. Baggs, Cambridge, who went
bridge University Library on his behalf and searched Box 34 of the Buxton Papers in order to forw
copy of this letter from Bardwell to Buxton. The first-named author (M.K.T.) is also deeply in
Trevor Fawcett, University of East Anglia Library, for sending him a copy of the Norwich Gazett
ment, the original of which is in the Norwich Public Library. Mr Fawcett graciously gave him
to use this information which will be appearing in his own article on Norwich art and artists in th
century, to be published by The Walpole Society, Volume XLVI.
21Dictionary of National Biography, LXIII, London: Smith, Elder, & Co., 1900, 429 (hereaft
in text).

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considered exceptional. It was customary for an author to sell his book ou

sellers who would in turn sell the book and keep what profits were made for
Bardwell's book was no sooner in print than it was reviewed by an anon
identified as James 'Athenian' Stuart,23 in The Monthly Review, or Literary J
1756. In a methodical fashion Stuart tears the book to pieces. Despite his man
ments put forth with a scintillating sarcasm and directed mainly against
pretensions in Bardwell's work, Stuart overlooked the book's real meri
treatise.
By 1759 Bardwell had returned to his native East Anglia where he remained u
His last years were quite busy; he had an extensive local clientele. He died on
1767 and his will (Norfolk Archdeaconry Court Wills 92) was proved on 2 Nov
Bardwell's obituary appeared in the Norwich Mercury for 12 September 1767
he was a capable portraitist and his postures frequently betray his pref
Dyck. After his death Bardwell was soon forgotten, but his book enjoyed gre
in repeated editions, both legal and pirated. On Bardwell's book, Edward
Anecdotes of Painters, 1808, commented, 'It must be confessed, that the inst
tained in that short work, so far as they relate to the process of painting, ar
have hitherto been published, and many young artists at that time found it
copyright, which ran for 14 years, expired in 1770 and a second edition a
according to Edwards. In 1778 it was reprinted,25 and again in 1782. In 1795 t
edition appeared, the anonymous Practical Treatise on Painting in Oil-Co
B. and J. White), and after this a series of pirated editions followed with gre
in 1798, 1801, 1803, 1805, 1807, 1808, 1822, 1839 and 1840.26 Part of Bardwell
on landscape painting were quoted, with acknowledgement, by the anony
Artist' in his Handbook of Young Artists and Amateurs in Oil Painting (N
and Putnam, 1845). Among the many young artists, alluded to by Edward
found Bardwell's book useful was James Ward (1769-1859). In the Convers
Northcote with James Ward, Ward is quoted as having said, 'indeed, I went t
of copying out Bardwell's Treatise on Oil-Painting.'27 No doubt can exist
book was held in high esteem for almost a century after it was written.
The Practice of Painting and Perspective Made Easy, described as 'that
Edwards, is divided into two major sections, the first dealing with pain
and the second dealing with perspective (pp. 42-64). Preceding the first sectio
lowing: the crown copyright; title-page; Bardwell's signature and warning
genuine without it; the dedication. Following the section on perspective
22For accounts of publishing practices in eighteenth-century England the reader is referr

A. S., 'Some Aspects of Copyright From 1700 To 1780', The Library: A Quarterly Review
4th Ser., 7 (1927), 67-81; (2) HOWARD, WILLIAM J., 'Literature in the Law Courts, 1770-
Eighteenth-Century Texts: Papers given at the Editorial Conference, University of Toro
ed. D. I. B. SMITH, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1968, pp. 78-91.
23NANGLE, BENJAMIN CHRISTIE, The Monthly Review First Series 1749-1789 Indexes o
Articles, Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1934, pp. 43, 58.
24Anecdotes ofPainters who have resided or been born in England, 1808; rpt. London: Cor
1970, p. 7.
25Mr R. W. Ketton-Cremer's MS notes transcribed in the file on Bardwell at the Castle Museum, Norwich.
26All editions, both legal (excepting the one of 1778) and pirated, are dealt with fully in the previously cited
works of F. Schmid: (1) 'Exhibition of Books on the Practice of Drawing and Painting from 1650 to 1850',
Cat. Nos. 24, 25, 26, 37, 38, 39; (2) The Practice ofPainting, pp. 17, 36, 87, 90-95, plus the article by the same
author, 'The Strange Case of Thomas Bardwell', Technical Studies in the Field of the Fine Arts, 9, No. 3
(1941), 153-159.
27Conversations of James Northcote with James Ward, ed. Fletcher, 1901, p. 100. The authors' attention was
first drawn to this passage on p. 41, note 5, in John Gage's 'Magilphs and Mysteries' cited in footnote 2
above. Ward most probably used the 1795 pirated edition.

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Museum copy of the book (shelf number 1481. e.6. (2.), a xerox
for the project) are three handwritten pages containing a list of boo
technical information. These pages date c. 1808 from the inclusion o
in the list of books and were obviously bound up with the copy
National Gallery, London, copy a printed page of errata (missing in
the title-page. The section on painting is composed of the follow
pages 1-7. Bardwell discusses colouring from a theoretical and
(2) 'Of the principal Colours used in the Flesh', pages 7-9; (3) 'Of
are absolutely necessary for painting Flesh', pages 9-11; (4) 'Firs
(5) 'Second Painting', pages 14-15; (6) 'Third Painting', pages 15-1
pages 16-20; (8) 'On Copying', pages 20-22. (This apologia was writ
attack on copyists in his Analysis of Beauty published in 1753.) (9) 'O
general method, pages 23-25; (10) Sections on different colour
Sattin', 'Blue Sattin', 'Scarlet and Crimson', 'Pink-Colour', 'Yellow
'Black', and 'Linen'-run from pages 25 to 34; (11) 'Landschapes',
colours and mixtures, and sections on 'Dead-colouring', 'Second P
Last Painting'. Discounting the introduction and section on copying,
tion on painting is contained on 33 pages.
4. PRELIMINARY STEPS FOR THE INVESTIGATION
In order to locate pictures by Bardwell one of the authors (M.K.T.) sent off 60 cop
form letter to all the major and many of the minor public collections in En
Scotland, and a few in America. Most of the answers were disheartening-'no
work by Bardwell in our collection'. Many answers suggested other addresses,
did bear valuable information.
Once a sufficient number of his pictures were located, a three-page letter was sent off
explaining the proposed Bardwell Project and our intentions of comparing his written
and actual practice. Since permission was immediately requested in this letter to take
samples from paintings, the structure of a painting and exactly what taking a sample involved
and would later show as a cross-section was discussed in some detail.
To clarify what was meant by layer structure, a xerox copy was included of an 'Anatomy
of an Oil Painting' found in Ralph Mayer's The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Tech-
niques (2nd ed., London: Faber and Faber, 1964, p. 384). Xerox copies of pages 3 and 11
of Bardwell's Practice were also enclosed, to give some idea of his book. The answers from
the majority of those asked to grant permission were affirmative, including two private
owners in Scotland. The great co-operation of the people involved in granting the necessary
permissions cannot be over-emphasized. Special mention must be made of the National
Portrait Gallery's loan of the Suckling portrait. It is to be hoped that such an occurrence is
indicative of a new trend which will greatly help in the scientific examination of paintings.
The fact that private owners also allowed pictures in their collections to be sampled is
remarkable. A total of 153 paint samples were taken, plus four samples of canvas, from 15
paintings dating between 1740 and 1766, the better part of Bardwell's active career.28 Perhaps
28A chronological list of the 15 pictures from which samples were taken follows with relevant information.
In measurements, length precedes width. An example of Bardwell's typical monogram signature is shown by
a photograph (Fig. 1) of the one on the Suckling portrait. Bardwell used such a signature throughout his
career, even signing his will in that way.
(1) John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll, and Duke of Greenwich, 1680-1743.
Size of canvas: 55 x 44 in.
Signed and dated 'T. Bardwell pinxit 1740'. T. and B. in monogram.
Coll.: National Portrait Gallery, London.
Lit.: Piper, David, Catalogue of Seventeenth-Century Portraits in the National Portrait Gallery 1625-

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due to Bardwell's rank as an artist, secondary, it was possible to take m

than ordinarily would have been allowed. The large size of certain pic
and also the fact that some were being restored at the time samples w
pictures were in such excellent condition that the number of samples tak
and then only from clothing or the background. Conditions under w
taken were not always ideal. Miss Plesters and the first-named author spe
in a private restoration firm's storage-room in Soho which had an ear
ceiling light, moving around four pictures which measured 240 x 152
surroundings filled with pictures we were unable to place the ones be
flat position. They were tilted horizontally against a wall, the only positi
work. Similar conditions were encountered when the writers returned to
land. The Phipps portraits in the Hall of Pembroke College, Oxford, first
from the wall by three attendants. Again lighting was extremely poor. In
pictures owned by the Drummond Morays could not be removed from th
1714, Cambridge: The University Press, 1963, pp. 12-13, No. 3110, and Pl. 29
16 November 1971 by Miss Karin Groen and Miss Joyce Plesters. Ten paint s
available. Condition: excellent. The picture underwent slight restoration in 194
(2) William Crowe, Sheriff of Norwich 1741, Mayor 1747.
Size of canvas: 240 x 152 cm.
Date c. 1746.
Coll.: Castle Museum, Norwich.
Lit.: A Companion to St. Andrew's Hall in the City of Norwich. Giving a concise description of th
Ancient Building, a catalogue of the Pictures contained therein, and The Names Of The Artists by whom
they were painted, 2nd ed., Norwich: C. Berry, 1812. p. 23 (hereafter Companion). Reeve, Jam
City of Norwich, A Catalogue of the Portraits and Paintings in St. Andrew's Hall, And other Publ
Buildings, Norwich: The East of England Printing Works, 1905, No. 40 (2) (hereafter Reeve).
Samples taken 13 July 1971 by Miss Plesters. Twenty-three paint samples and one canvas samp
No photograph was available when samples were taken. Condition: good, but in bad need of cleanin
This picture was restored in 1937 and was in London for restoration in 1971.
Between the years c. 1746 and 1766 Bardwell did a series of nine Civic Portraits of the sheriffs and mayo
of Norwich. Two of these pictures were signed and dated and one signed. Mention is made of J
Press in the Ipswich Journal 21 June 1760. The remaining six, while unsigned, are certainly by Bardwe
and have been given to him in the early literature (see Companion above). All of the Civic Portrai
with the exception of Crowe, are a variation of the same posture.
(3) James Phipps, scholar and clergyman, c. 1702-73.
Size of canvas: 48j x 391 in.
Signed and dated 'T. Bardwell pinxit 1749'. T. and B. in monogram.
Coll.: Pembroke College, Oxford.
Lit.: Poole, Mrs Reginald Lane, Catalogue of Portraits in the possession of The University, Colle
City, and County of Oxford, 3 vols., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1912, 1925. Vol. III, 1925, 242, No. 1
(hereafter Poole).
Samples taken 17 November 1971 by Miss Groen. Eight paint samples. Photographs were taken
time of work. Condition: good, but in bad need of cleaning.
(4) Mary Phipps, wife of James Phipps, c. 1706-78.
Date c. 1749.
Coll.: Pembroke College, Oxford.
Lit.: Poole, III, 242-43, No. 20.
Date of samples and conditions same as above. Five paint samples. Condition: good, but in bad need
of cleaning.
While this painting is neither signed nor dated, it is ascribed to Bardwell by Mrs Poole for the following
reasons: it is obviously a companion portrait to James Phipps and the handling in both portraits is the
same.
(5) Francis Scott, Earl of Dalkeith, 1721-50.

Signed 'T. Bardwell. f'. T. and B. in monogram.
Date c. 1747-50.

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FIG. 1 Detail photograph from Maurice Suckling (refer note 28

gram signature. Photograph by W. Bokman, reproduced by the
National Portrait Gallery, London.
Coll.: Mr B. M. Drummond Moray, Abercairny, Crieff, Perthshire.

Samples taken 22 November 1971 by Miss Groen. Two paint samples
excellent condition of this picture prevented more samples being tak
Two signed copies of this picture are in the collection of the Duke
(6) Robert Buxton, 1710-50.
Size of canvas: 29j x 24j in.
Date c. 1751.
Samples taken 19 November 1971 by Miss Groen. Five paint samples. Photographs were taken at
of work. Condition: good, but in bad need of cleaning.
While this picture is neither signed nor dated it is a version of the signed and dated (1751) portr
Robert Buxton. The handling agrees with Bardwell's work and this picture is assuredly the one ref
to by Duleep Singh, Prince Frederick, Portraits in Norfolk Houses, 2 vols., Norwich: 1927, II
No. 27 under 'The Buxton Family Portraits', 'N.B.-There is certainly another portrait of this
man, in an oval, and by Thomas Bardwell.'
(7) Lady Caroline Campbell, Countess of Dalkeith, 1717-94.
Signed and dated 'T. Bardwell f. 1752'. T. and B. in monogram.
Coll.: Mr B. M. Drummond Moray, Abercairny, Crieff, Perthshire.
Samples taken 22 November 1971 by Miss Groen. Three paint samples. A photograph was avail
able. The excellent condition of this picture prevented more samples being taken.
A signed version of this portrait is in the Duke of Buccleuch's collection, Bowhill.
(8) The Honourable James Stuart Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, 1718-1800.
Date c. 1752-53.
Coll.: Captain P. L. Mackie Campbell, Stonefield, Tarbert, Loch Fyne, Argyll.
Samples taken 23 November 1971 by Miss Groen. Three paint samples. A photograph was av
Condition: excellent, but heavily restored. This picture is a version, or perhaps later copy, of the s
and dated (1752) portrait in the Duke of Buccleuch's collection, Bowhill. A signed and dated
three-quarter-length of the same sitter was sold in the Peterkin Sale, Anderson Galleries, New
15/1/1937, No. 50. Since the portrait in Capt. Mackie Campbell's collection had been heavil
painted and restored, we took only three samples.
(9) Lady Elizabeth Stuart Mackenzie, wife of James, died 1799.
Date c. 1752-53.
Coll.: same as No. 8.
Date of samples and conditions same as No. 8. Four paint samples. Condition: excellent, but restore
however, not as severely overpainted as No. 8. While this portrait is neither signed nor dated i
similar in handling and posture to other pictures by Bardwell. Lady Elizabeth is obviously a compan
portrait to No. 8. A reasonably safe attribution can be made to Bardwell.

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FIG. 2 Detail photograph of Robert Buxton (refer note 28 (6)), sample 742/2
right cheek. A marker was held at the spot. Photograph reproduced by the cou
Museums Service.
(10) Thomas Fermor, Earl of Pomfret, 1698-1753, and Henrietta Louisa Jeffreys, Countess of Pomfret,
1703-61.
Size of canvas: 85 (arched top) x 49 in.
Signed 'T. Bardwell. f'. T. and B. in monogram.
Date c. 1753.
Coll.: The Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.
Lit.: Poole, I, 188-189, No. 456.
Samples taken 20 July 1971 by Miss Plesters. A photograph was available. Twenty-one paint samples.
Condition: fair. The picture was in London for relining and restoration.
(11) John Gay, Sheriff of Norwich 1746, Mayor 1754.
Date c. 1755.
Lit.: Companion, p. 23, and Reeve, 56 (18).
Samples taken 12 July 1971 by Miss Plesters. Sixteen paint samples and one canvas sample. No ph
graph was available. Condition: fair but in bad need of cleaning. This picture was in London
restoration.
(12) Robert Rogers, Sheriff of Norwich 1743, Mayor 1758.
Date c. 1758.
Lit.: Companion, p. 24, and Reeve, No. 32.
Date of samples and condition same as No. 11. Sixteen paint samples and one canvas sample. Condi
fair but in bad need of cleaning. This picture was restored in 1930 and was in London for restoration.
(13) Maurice Suckling, Captain in the Navy and uncle of Admiral Lord Nelson, 1725-78.
Signed and dated 'T. Bardwell. f. 1764'. T. and B. in monogram.
Coll.: National Portrait Gallery, London.
Lit.: Farrer, Rev E., 'Portraits in Suffolk', Vol. I, East Suffolk MSS, Ipswich Public Library, 1
62, No. 14, and Catalogue of the National Portrait Gallery, Oxford: University Press, 1932, p.
No. 2010.
Samples taken 16 November 1971 by Miss Groen and Miss Plesters. Ten paint samples. Conditio
very good but in need of surface cleaning.
(14) James Poole, Sheriff of Norwich 1763, Mayor 1765.
Size of canvas: 242 x 149-5 cm.
Date c. 1765.
Lit.: Companion, p. 25, and Reeve, 41 (3).
Samples taken 12 July 1971 by Miss Plesters. Twenty paint samples and one canvas sample. No p
graph was available. Condition: fair but in bad need of cleaning. This picture was in London
restoration.

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size. Photographs of paintings sampled were not always available

necessitating careful written descriptions of the places from
Later on, when photographs of those pictures became avail
accurately as possible. Miss Groen used a camera for most of
and took photographs of the places from which each sample w
the spot indicated the sample (Fig. 2). In all cases, as far as su
detailed descriptions of the pictures were made concerning t
and Bardwell's technique, especially the way in which the pai
were examined by the naked eye and with the aid of a hand-
samples were taken after selecting a spot with a magnifying
examination under ideal circumstances was allowed through
portrait by the National Portrait Gallery, London, to the Ce
Amsterdam.
5. GROUNDS
5.1. Written Technique

Bardwell's book, while explaining the technique of portrait, drapery, and landscape pain
in a methodical and for the most part clearly formulated manner, assumes a certain kn
edge on the reader's part. As previously mentioned, Bardwell, unlike Marshall S
does not include much information on the materials (excepting pigments) of pain
he concentrates on the technique. Hence, anyone using the book would have to po
a basic knowledge of the equipment necessary for painting such as a palette, maulstick,
different brushes (though some mention of brushes is made by Bardwell), the eas
the like. No instructions are given, for instance, for the preparation of the canvas.
The omission of detailed instructions for preparing the 'ground'29 on the canvas is cur
(15) John Dersley, Sheriff of Norwich 1759, Mayor 1764.

Size of canvas: approximate to that of other Civic Portraits.
Signed and dated 'T. Bardwell f. 1766'. T. and B. in monogram.
Lit.: Companion, p. 25, and Reeve, No. 26.
Samples taken 19 November 1971 by Miss Groen. Seven paint samples. Photographs made at tim
work. This picture was cleaned and perhaps restored in 1928. Condition: fair but in need of cle
29Bardwell's usage of the term 'ground' is various and at times confusing; each meaning must be dis
He meant the following different aspects by 'ground'.
(1) On page 1 of Practice Bardwell equates 'ground' with dead-colouring. By dead-colouring is under
First Painting, Practice, p. 3. On pages 4 and 5 this usage of 'ground' is further clarified by a quotation
from Roger De Piles The Art of Painting, 3rd ed., London: Thomas Payne, no date but c. 1750,
Double punctuation is used to distinguish what is from Bardwell and what from De Piles. The
between brackets do not appear in De Piles. 'Monsieur De Piles says, Titian and Rembrandt "prepare
first Lay, [or Grounds, very near alike; and] with Colours that kindly united, and were as near to th
as possible; on [which ] they laid their Virgin Teints with light Strokes of the Pencil; and thus they i
the Force and Freshness of Nature." ' Under Rembrandt in Richard Graham's A Short Account Of th
Eminent Painters, Both Ancient and Modern, printed with The Art of Painting by C. A. Du Fresnoy
by Dryden, 2nd ed., London: Bernard Lintott, 1716, p. 371, appears a passage very similar to the one
quoted. Here the word 'ground' does appear. Rembrandt 'prepar'd his Ground with a Lay of such fr
Colours as united, and came nearest to the Life. Upon this he touch'd in his Virgin Tints'. Ground
dead-colouring equals First Painting of flesh. Bardwell applies the term 'ground' to three specific tin
for the dead-colouring of flesh. On page 9 of Practice he states that the Light Red Tint 'is the mo
and best conditioned of all Colours, for the general Ground of the Flesh'. On page 10 the Shade
termed 'the best Colour for the general Ground of Shadows', and the Red Shade 'a good Ground
dark Shadows'.
Elsewhere in Practice Bardwell uses 'ground' for the dead-colouring or underpainting of other parts of the
picture. On page 18 under 'Back-Grounds' he advises, 'Where the Marks of the Trowel are so strong in the

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especially since Bardwell wrote his book for 'Such as are born with a hap
destitute of a Master or Guide' (Practice, p. 4). Granted, Bardwell repeate
his book is devoted to explaining his 'Method of Colouring', but such an
it quite clear he supposed his readers would be familiar with the essential te
Ready-prepared canvases were available from the colourmen, but Dossie
to the Arts (1758, I, x) warns against such canvases, 'from whence great
the painter and detriment to the pictures, are produced.' Dossie in the same
mention of a method he believed would obviate the common hazards of 'stif
or causing (as it is called) the colours to sink in'.30 This recommended m
pears in Volume I, page 203 of his book, is extremely bad; the canvas is t
as much hot drying oil as it can absorb. Such a procedure would doom th
Priming of the Cloth, that one Body of Colours will not be sufficient to conceal it, we
to prevent it.' The term 'ground' as underpainting is understood in this passage; it can
place of the word 'Colour'. On page 24 under the introduction 'Of Painting Draperies
that 'It often happens, that the Colour of the Cloth is very improper for the Ground
when it is so, we should change it with those Colours which we think are most pro
support the finishing Colours. This Method of Dead-colouring must consequently prese
greatest Lustre'. Under 'Scarlet and Crimson' a specific mixture for a dead-colour is giv
red, made of light Oker, Light-red, and White, is the proper Ground for Scarlet' (Pract
gives clear directions for the 'grounds' of the different-coloured draperies.
(2) On pages 5 and 6 of Practice Bardwell differentiates between his first meaning
associated with the word, i.e., the preparation or priming of the support, in this case c
it suitable to be painted upon. Commenting on Sir Godfrey Kneller (1646-1723), Bardw
and 6 that he 'prepared his Grounds, and First Lay of Colours, on such Cloths as Lely u
usage of 'ground' is rather confusing due to the inclusion of 'and' instead of 'or'; he se
between 'Grounds, and First Lay of Colours'. However, by 'Grounds' here Bardwell pro
paintings, as for example in the flesh, the background or for the various draperies. 'Clot
and by 'Cloths' Bardwell implies a double meaning, namely, support plus the prepa
This double meaning becomes apparent when Bardwell adds that Sir Godfrey 'inven
coloured Cloths'. Such grey grounds were criticized by Bardwell for allowing a 'slight
(Practice, p. 6). A clear distinction is drawn between a ground-the cloth-of one ov
case grey, and the first lay of colours, what Bardwell terms dead-colouring. On pages
he implies that grounds of a light overall colour are best for portraiture. He cautions on
the Cloth is of a dark or bad Colour, there must be a strong Body of Colour laid al
such as will not sink into the Ground, but appear warm, and a little lighter than the
be of the same Forwardness to finish, as if it had been a light Ground'. The double
support plus priming, is obvious in this passage and 'Cloth' is equated with 'Groun
in his Handmaid to the Arts, London: J. Nourse, 1758, I, x, makes the same equatio
ground, 'the very priming of cloths for grounds of painting.' On page 7 Bardwell e
whites 'sink into whatever Ground they are laid on; therefore they should be laid on w
however, the meaning of 'ground' is ambiguous; it can refer to the general preparatio
canvas and to a local underpainting of white, e.g., for white drapery. For landscapes B
a specific dark ground, 'a sort of tanned Leather Colour, which is made of Brown Oke
red' (Practice, p. 36). This 'tanned Leather Colour' is more of the nature of an overall '
above the last layer of the priming.
(3) In the section 'Of Back-Grounds', pp. 16-20 of Practice, Bardwell uses 'ground' as sy
background behind the sitter. The entire background can be further divided into various p
area of colour with its own lights and shades, and any decorative accessories such as a cu
like. A wall with a curtain hanging before it forms a background. 'Van Dyck's general
very still and mellow, and to break the Colours of the Ground with those of the Drape
On Rembrandt's handling of light and shade Bardwell comments, 'I have seen a Picture
he has made the Ground just light enough to shew her Complexion and Hair, which w
the greatest Perfection: The Ground was a Wall' (Practice, p. 16). If a landscape is used,
this usage of 'ground' for background.
30See Vol. I, Chap. VI, Sect. I. 'Of the grounds for oil painting', 201-205. On pages 202-
in some detail the usual problems with faulty grounds.

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disintegration.3' A sound method of preparation giving a greyi

bers' Cyclopaedia, 5th ed., 1741-43. The canvas is first stretched
with a pumice-stone. Size is then applied and allowed to dry
which lead white may be added to assist drying. This layer whe
pumice-stone. Another layer may be added 'composed of wh
black, to render the ground of an ash-colour; observing in each
colour as possible; that the cloth may not break, and that the c
be painted over, may preserve the better'.32
Salmon in his Polygraphice explains the preparation of a white
is that which is to be Painted upon, and is thus prepared. Take
over with a slick-stone, size it over with size, and a little honey, an
once with whiting and size mixed with a little hony, so is the C
is further clarified. 'Take of the aforesaid Size, mix it with whit
boards or cloath (being made smooth) dry them, and white
lastly, scrape them smooth, and draw it over with White-lead tem
used was most probably chalk or chalk mixed with lead whi
method from Norgate, and the passages in Salmon's Polygraphi
by the anonymous 'Pictor' in his article, 'The Art of Painting, Li
Magazine, November, 1748.35 Therefore, from 1648-50 to 1748
technical literature in England. The term 'cloth' equals 'prim
Bardwell in his second meaning (see note 29) refers to the p
support which makes it fit for painting. This ground usually c
layers beginning with size used to isolate the support from the
filler and/or pigment. On top of the last layer of filler and/or
of one overall colour other than white-Kneller's 'grey-colo
'tanned Leather Colour' for landscapes-can be applied. By h
implies both support and ground.
The painting is executed upon the last uniform layer of the pr
of filler and/or pigment, which is either white or coloured.
included (Figs. 3, 4), based upon the instructions in Norga
Chambers.
31See Gettens and Stout, pp. 229-230. 'Oil in the ground or applied at the reverse of a fabric is one cause of
its weakening. Not only does the oil film embrittle the whole structure; it also tends by its own oxidation
to increase that of the fibre and to change it to oxycellulose.' See also MAYER, RALPH, The Artist's Handbook
of Materials and Techniques, ed. by EDWIN SMITH, 3rd ed., London: Faber and Faber, 1973, p. 252.
32CHAMBERS, E., Cyclopaedia: or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, 5th ed., II, London, 1743,
no pagination, but under 'Painting in Oil': 'To paint on cloth, or canvas.' The 1st ed. appeared in 1728,
2 vols.; 2nd ed. in 1738, 2 vols. The 1st vol. of the 5th ed. appeared in 1741.
33Polygraphice, I, 161-162.
34See HARLEY, Artists' Pigments, p. 154.
35Compare the passages in Polygraphice, I, 161-162 with Miniatura, ed. Hardie, pp. 91-92. These entries
can be further compared to the one appearing in Pictor, 'The Art of Painting, Limning, &c.', The Universal
Magazine of Knowledge and Pleasure, 3, Nov. 1748, p. 227. The anonymous writer owes most of his article,
pp. 225-233, to Salmon. However, Pictor also borrowed from Chambers' Cyclopaedia giving the same
instructions with some interesting alterations for the preparation of a greyish ground. Compare p. 226
of Pictor's article with the passage in Cyclopaedia referred to above, note 32. Pictor's article received a
damning review by Florella Pittoresque, 'The Universal Mag. again corrected', The Gentleman's Magazine,
and Historical Chronicle, 19 (1749), 101-102.
36See HENDY, PHILIP, and LUCAS, A. S., 'The ground in pictures', Museum, 21, No. 4 (1968), 266-276. N.B.
Hendy and Lucas give the 'priming' as a separate layer of the ground, p. 266. In this article ground and
priming are equated.

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Lead white mixed with oil 6
Application of whiting possibly repeated one or two 5 Ground, or

times & 4 priming
Whiting (chalk with or with

a little honey 3
Size and a little honey 2
Canvas 1 Support
FIG. 3 Norgate-Salmon Method, 1648-50 to 1748.
Possible 'Imprimitura' consisting of lead white and 4

charcoal black
Ground, or
Ochre (with possible addition of lead white) 3 priming
Size 2
Canvas 1 Support
FIG. 4 Chambers Method, 1743.
5.2. Actual Technique

Small patches from the turnover of four original canvases were taken from Rogers, Poole,
Gay, and Crowe in order to determine the sort of material used.37 After microscopical exami-
nation it appeared that linen cloth was used as a carrier for these paintings. The fibres were
in very good condition in Rogers and Crowe, rather bad in Poole, and in very bad condition
in Gay.
Measurement of the fabric count was performed to see if great differences in the fabric
occurred. The small patches of canvas samples from these four paintings were used for
counting. However, for Suckling an attempt was made to count the fabric with the aid
of X-ray photographs. Since the Suckling portrait had been relined during a previous
restoration, X-ray stereo-photographs were made in order to distinguish between the two
canvases. Due to the small difference in level between the original and later canvases,
counting was not possible by this method. The threads were then counted on the painting.
This was possible in the face where the original canvas clearly shows through.
For precise results more countings should have been made on various places of the canvases.38
The counting was performed with the aid of a magnifying glass and ruler. Since the sample
from Crowe was too small to provide a clear reading it was not counted. The results from
37Rogers: warp 10 mm; weft 30 mm

Poole: warp 16 mm; weft 38 mm
Gay: warp 11 mm; weft 23 mm
Crowe: warp 2" mm; weft 7 mm
381966 Book of ASTM Standards with Related Material: Textile Materials- Yarns, Fabrics, and General
Methods, Part 24, Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials, 1966, pp. 441-442 under
'Construction Characteristics of Woven Fabrics (D 1910)', Nos. 30-33.

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those readings made show the following numbers:

Rogers: warp 13 threads/10 mm; weft 14-7 threads/10 mm
Poole: warp 16-9 threads/10 mm; weft 15 threads/10 mm
Gay: warp 15-5 threads/10 mm; weft 15 threads/10 mm
Suckling: warp 13 threads/10 mm; weft 11 threads/10 mm
The canvases were prepared first with glue and then primed with
(chemically calcium carbonate) and lead white in oil with a very lit
Another glue layer plus another priming of calcite and lead white
brown ochre in an oil-medium was then applied.
In a few cases barytes was also found in this mixture. According t
usage of barytes as an extender from the latter part of the sevent
Artists' Pigments, p. 164), the barytes-lead white ratio varied
however, is somewhat sceptical of the use of barytes as an extende
the latter part of the seventeenth and first half of the eighteenth c
(p. 96) date the use of barium sulphate from the beginning of the
the X-ray diffraction powder patterns it was clear that the percent
well samples was much lower than that suggested by Rabat6. There
detection limits of barytes three mixtures containing equal amoun
with 5 %, 10 %, and 20 % barytes, were prepared and analysed by
three X-ray diffraction powder patterns the specific lines of baryte
These were compared to the X-ray diffraction patterns of the
The specific lines for barytes on all three Bardwell X-ray diffractio
about the same intensity as the specific lines on the 5 % test. The
Bardwell samples can be explained in two ways. It was either know
itself, or it occurred as an impurity in the natural chalk which was u
lead white. The low amount of barytes present tends to favour the l
taken from other areas though, might have shown a different per
the uppermost priming contained more lead white than the under
was mostly whitish, except in two cases; the uppermost layers of the
and James Stuart Mackenzie appear greyish. To Crowe's ground on
pigment was added, producing a faint greyish tone, whereas to
pigment was added which gave a darker grey colour. The average t
layers varies, from 80 to 160 microns for the undermost layer, an
for the uppermost (see Appendix).
Gay, Poole, Rogers and Dersley, large paintings in comparison w
pared with ground layers which are thicker than the ones used
The thickness of the ground layers on these larger pictures is quit
at the uppermost layer in the cross-sections. However, precise
in microns were not always possible for the undermost layers due
many of the samples.
5.3. Discussion
Examination of the grounds and canvases of Bardwell's pictures shows that his method of
preparation (or that used by the person who made the grounds if Bardwell bought hi
canvases ready prepared)" agrees in general with the instructions given by both Norga
and Salmon, and Chambers. The two major differences are: (1) Two layers of size were used
in Bardwell's grounds, one immediately on the canvas to isolate it from the whiting, and th
390n the turnovers of the samples taken, no ground preparation was found. This may be an indication th
the canvases were sized and prepared after fastening them to the stretcher. Therefore, they were most
probably prepared by Bardwell or an assistant rather than bought ready-prepared.

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other between the two layers of whiting. This second layer of size was m
as a further precaution to isolate the canvas from the ground layers and
soaking into the canvas. (2) Oil, instead of size and honey, was used as th
whiting layers.
The analyses definitely showed that in most instances the grounds consis
chalk and lead white. On none of the paintings analysed was a separate la
found, as recommended by Norgate and Salmon for the last layer of the
Crowe and Mackenzie are the only paintings of those examined which sh
in the ground preparation. These greyish-coloured layers are of appr
thickness as the whiting layer. This preparation agrees with the instruct
for making an ash-coloured ground. According to the specimen
Chambers' method for the ground preparation in this article, this co
termed the 'imprimitura'. It is interesting to note that Bardwell, after c
(see note 29, no. 2) for using grey grounds, used two himself.
6. PIGMENTS
6.1. Information from Bardwell and Dossie

A total of 19 pigments, the majority permanent, are mentioned throughout the book.
ranged by colour they are as follows: (1) White: flake white, common white; (2) Black: i
black, blue black; (3) Red: light red, vermilion, and then only 'true native Cinnabar' (Pr
tice, p. 8), carmine, lake, Indian red; (4) Yellow: light ochre, Naples yellow, king's y
(5) Blue: ultramarine, ultramarine ashes, Prussian blue; (6) Green: terra verte; (7) B
brown pink, burnt umber, brown ochre. On pages 7 through 9 Bardwell lists 12 pigmen
terms them 'the principal Colours usedin the Flesh'. He uses the word 'colour' interchan
for pigment. For example, 'Flake-White, or Fine White, is the very best White we have
Colour should be ground with the finest Poppy Oil that can be made' (Practice, p. 7). Or,
Oker is a friendly mixing Colour, and of great Use in the Flesh: It is usually ground wi
Linseed Oil, but Nut Oil is better' (Practice, p. 8). However, Bardwell's nomenclatu
descriptions are for the most part, here and elsewhere in his book, very precise indicat
of true pigment names. One change in terminology must be noted. Under 'the pr
Teints that are absolutely necessary for painting Flesh' Bardwell mentions that th
Teint is made of Ultramarine and White, mixed to a lightish Azure' (Practice, p. 1
page 36 under 'Landschapes' the colours and tints are given for the sky. Among the col
are white, ultramarine, and Prussian blue, and they are used to make two tints, 'a
Azure' and a 'lighter Azure'. Bardwell uses 'Azure' strictly as a colour indication, w
formerly it served not only as a name for a specific hue, but also for a variety of natura
artificial copper blues.40
Of the 18 pigments mentioned by Bardwell the following need some further explan
6.1.1. Flake White

'Flake-White, or Fine White, is the very best White we have' (Practice, p. 7). Dossie explains
that 'White flake is lead corroded by means of the pressings of the grape; and consequently
in fact a ceruss prepared by the acid of grapes. It is brought here from Italy; and far sur-
passes, both with regard to the purity of its whiteness, and the certainty of its standing,
all the ceruss, or white lead, made here in common.'
40HARLEY, Artists' Pigments, pp. 47-50. See also ALEXANDER, S. M. 'Glossary of Technical Terms' in
MERRIFIELD, MARY P., Original Treatises On The Arts Of Painting (1849; rpt. New York: Dover Publica
tions, Inc., 1967), I, xiv, under 'Azure, Azzurrium' and 'Azurite'.

2

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Dossie warns that the colourmen adulterate it with 'starch, and

lead, or much worse sophistications'.41 Flake white, then, is
white.
6.1.2. Common White

Common white is listed on page 35 of Practice under the 'principal Colours used in Land-
schapes'. It was used for the dead-colouring. Dossie explains that 'White lead or ceruss is the
corrosion or rust of lead formed by means of vinegar. It is made in our own country;
and it is much cheaper than white flake; but inferior in whiteness, and the other qualities
which render this pigment advantageous in painting. It is, however, the white employed
for all common purposes in oil painting; and also the body or solid basis of the paint in
many mixt colours, where the teint is of a lighter nature, or the coloured pigments will bear
diluting with white'. While Dossie's comparison between the two sorts of lead white is
somewhat vague, common white was most probably a mixture of lead white and chalk,
since he mentions that both chalk and talc were used as 'sophistications'.42
6.1.3. Light Red

Light red 'is nothing but fine light Oker burnt' (Practice, p. 8). By 'light Oker' Bardwell
means what is known as yellow ochre. The Yellow Teint (Practice, p. 10) is made either with
light ochre or Naples yellow mixed with white.
6.1.4. Vermilion
Under vermilion Bardwell stresses that only 'true native Cinnabar' is to be used. Dossie
notes that both the natural and manufactured forms of vermilion differ only in manner of
production and that the natural sort is 'sometimes of a more crimson colour'. He adds that
this crimson colour of native cinnabar 'and the mistaken notion that it would stand better
than vermilion, because it was a natural production, have made it to be coveted by painters
who are curious in colours'.43
6.1.5. Carmine and Lake

Lake is a general term for a variety of dyes precipitated upon an inert base (Gettens and
Stout, p. 124), whereas carmine is the obsolete term for cochineal from which carmine lake
pigment was made. Carmine also stands for the associated artists' colour. Bardwell gives
clear indications as to their respective colours. 'Carmine is the most beautiful Crimson
that can be: It is a middle Colour between Lake and Vermilion; is a fine working Colour;
and glazes delightfully.' 'Lake is a tender, sympathizing, deep Red; but of no strong Body;
therefore it should be strengthened with Indian Red' (Practice, p. 8). Again, Dossie provides
the best contemporary explanation of what carmine and lake were; however, his comment
on carmine used as an oil colour is in disagreement with what Bardwell says about it. 'Carmine
is a bright crimson colour, and is formed of the tinging substance of cochineal brighted
with aqua fortis, by a process similar to that used for dying scarlet in grain .... but it will
not mix with oil so as to have the due effect in that kind of painting.' 'Lake is a white earthy
41Handmaid, I, 121-122. Curious is Dossie's mention that flake white was imported from Italy rather than
the Netherlands, known for its excellent quality of lead white. However, a distinction was made between
'schelpwit', i.e., pure lead white, and 'lootwit', i.e., a mixture of 50 % lead white and 50 % chalk. See VAN DE
GRAAF, J. A., 'Betekenis en Toepassing van "Lootwit" en "Schelpwit" in de XVIIe--Eeuwse Nederlandse
Schilderkunst,' Bull. Institut royal du Patrimoine artistique, 4 (1961), 198-201, and then esp. p. 200, and note 4.
See also GETTENS, RUTHERFORD J., KUiHN, HERMANN, and CHASE, W. T., 'Identification of the Materials
of Paintings: 3. Lead White', Studies in Conservation, 12, No. 4 (1967), 125-139.
42Handmaid, I, 123-124.
43Ibid., p. 46. Bardwell was no doubt 'curious in colours'; it will be remembered that he once had a paint
supply business.

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body, as scuttle-fishbone, the basis of alum, or chalk, tinged with some cri
dye such as is obtained from cochineel, or Brasil wood dissolved or take
some alkaline salt, and precipitated on the earth by the addition of some aci
lakes made from cochineal and Brasil wood, another sort made from 'sc
described.44
6.1.6. Indian Red

Two sorts of Indian red are mentioned by Dossie, common and true. Both sorts are iron
oxides, the common being 'made of the caput mortuum of vitriol after the distillation o
aqua fortis and oil of vitriol', and the true 'a native ochrous earth, of a purple colour
imported from the East Indies.45
6.1.7. Naples Yellow

The most interesting pigment mentioned by Bardwell is Naples yellow. On page 10 of
Practice he states that the 'Yellow Teint is often made of Naples Yellow and White; but I
make it of light Oker and White, which is a good working Colour'. Dossie describes Naples
yellow as 'a warm yellow pigment rather inclining to orange, but in a very minute degree',
and adds that it is primarily used with oil. Dossie also states that it is the brightest yellow,
excepting king's yellow. The composition of the pigment was unknown and Dossie says
some people thought it was a 'native earth'. He further comments that, 'Whether, however,
it is an earth that is at present generally sophisticated, or what the preparation of it is, we
are at present ignorant of, as it is brought from abroad; and this makes it more difficult
to give marks of its genuineness.'46 Bardwell's mention of Naples yellow sheds no light on
its composition. Noteworthy, though, is the fact that he listed it along with light ochre, a
native earth.
6.1.8. King's Yellow

King's yellow, or orpiment, sulphide of arsenic, is mentioned by Bardwell on page 31 o
Practice where it is recommended for the highlights on yellow drapery and to make a green
drapery. 'The finest Green we have, for Drapery, is made of King's Yellow, Prussian,
and Brown Pink. The High Lights are King's Yellow and a very little Prussian.' On page 31
Bardwell also mentions it must be 'ground with good drying Oil; for the longer it is drying,
the more it will change and grow darker: And the sooner it is used, the better it will stand.
It is proper to have two Sorts of King's Yellow: I mean one to be very light'. Dossie state
the colour enjoyed continued popularity despite its drawbacks, i.e., its poisonous nature,
its 'nauseous smell', and its tendency to change when mixed with other pigments, especially
lead white, due to its brightness and the green produced by mixing it with blue pigments.
He also mentions that two shades were made by varying the 'proportion of the arsenic',"47
a clear indication that the artificial variety is meant.
44Ibid., p. 54, pp. 55-56, p. 57. Dossie's discussions on carmine and lake run from p. 54 to p. 66. See also
HARLEY, Artists' Pigments, pp. 120-127, 132-134. 'Dossie is not chemically accurate when he says 'the basis
of alum'. Alum itself is a soluble salt (usually potassium aluminium sulphate, 'potash alum'). In the process
of lake pigment preparation, a solution of the dyestuff is mixed with a solution of alum, then an alkaline
material such as lye (potash), lime or chalk is added, which precipitates the aluminium ion present as the
white insoluble aluminium hydroxide. As the white aluminium hydroxide comes out of solution as a pre-
cipitated solid it absorbs the dyestuff, forming a very strong bond. When the coloured precipitate is filtered
off and any excess dyestuff or soluble salts washed off in water, the resulting pigment is insoluble in water
or any of the usual paint media.' Remarks made by Miss Joyce Plesters after reading the manuscript.
45Handmaid, I, 51 and 112.
46Ibid., pp. 91-92. See also HARLEY, Artists' Pigments, pp. 90-91.
47Handmaid, I, 90-91.

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6.1.9. Brown Pink

Brown pink, according to Dossie, could be made in many different ways. He states that
'there are a great variety of vegetables which afford a yellow tinge very copiously; and
which, treated in the same manner as is practised for making lakes, will afford such a
pigment'. His recommended method specifies French berries,48 though Persian berries
or any from the many varieties of Rhamnus (buckthorn), would provide the same colouring
matter.
6.1.10. Prussian Blue

It should be noted that Bardwell states that Prussian blue 'is a very fine Blue and a kin
working Colour' (Practice, p. 7). No doubt Prussian blue replaced indigo on his palett
Dossie comments that, 'at present, the invention of Prussian blue, and the foulness of the
indico brought from the French or our own plantations, ... have almost banished the use of
it as a paint, except for paper-hangings, or such gross uses.'49
6.1.11. Terra Verte

The only green listed is green earth, or 'terra verte', Bardwell's rather curious usage in place
of either 'terra verde' or 'terre verte'. It is used to weaken brown pink which is 'a fine
glazing Colour' for finishing flesh (Practice, pp. 8-9). Terra verte is also one of the colours
used in landscape painting (Practice, p. 35), and Bardwell terms it one of the four principal
glazing colours on page 38. In landscape painting terra verte serves to make out the distances
mixed with 'Azure' and the sky tints, and in 'the middle Group, the Terra-vert and Prussian
may be changed with some of the Green Teints, such as are made without White' (Practice,
p. 39). On page 20 under 'Back-Grounds' Bardwell cautions that greens 'will fade and grow
darker'. This warning is reiterated on page 40, and he emphasizes that 'it is highly necessary
to improve and force them, by exaggerating the Lights'. Five greens are listed by Dossie:
'verdigrise, chrystals of verdigrise', sap green ('only used in water painting'), Prussian
green, and terra verte.50 Terra verte is the most permanent. Confronted with the other
greens of dubious permanence, Bardwell most probably decided on mixed greens which at
least equalled and in some cases, e.g., verdigris, surpassed them.
6.2. Pigments Actually Found

All of the pigments mentioned by Bardwell, with the exception of brown pink, were identi-
fied. (See the Appendix for the analytical methods used.) Smalt, not mentioned by Bardwell,
was found on one picture, in the shadow of Lady Elizabeth Stuart Mackenzie's neck (see
note 28, no. 9). Arranging them again by colour, the pigments found are the following:
(1) White: lead white with an admixture of lead carbonate-the amount of neutral lead
carbonate (PbCO,) is much smaller than the amount of basic lead carbonate
(2PbCO3. Pb(OH)2). This would tend to indicate that the neutral lead carbonate was
created during the manufacture of lead white-chalk (mostly used for the grounds, mixed
with lead white containing some lead carbonate and in some cases barytes); (2) Black:
ivory black (bone black), carbon black; (3) Red: vermilion, cochineal, Brasil wood, Indian
red, red ochre; (4) Yellow: light ochre, Naples yellow, orpiment; (5) Blue: natural ultra-
marine, Prussian blue, smalt; (6) Green: terra verte; (7) Brown: umber, brown ochre.
While Bardwell's terminology for his two organic reds is somewhat vague, cochineal was
found for carmine and Brasil wood for 'lake'. Both were used as glazes and in mixtures.
As mentioned before, Naples yellow is the most interesting colour cited in Bardwell's book
and it is only listed once, under the Yellow Tint for flesh painting. It should be remembered
48Ibid., p. 115.
491bid., pp. 87-88.
50Ibid., pp. 104-110.

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that Bardwell states his preference for a mixture of light ochre and w
yellow and white. However, Naples yellow was found in the flesh paint
and green drapery. Under the instructions for yellow and green draper
orpiment (king's yellow) are the only yellow pigments given for the va
well's use of Naples yellow can be explained in two ways. Either h
under the impression that it was a type of yellow ochre, or he used a lig
aware that it was indeed different from yellow ochre.51 In only on
earth found, in the field and trees of the landscape background to
samples were taken from the far distance of the landscape, and this ag
instructions for the use of terra verte. The X-ray diffraction pat
of basic lead white, calcite, lead carbonate, SiO2 (oa-quart
(4FeO . 2Fe2O, . 3SiO2 . 4H20).52 Lead white and lead carbonate, an
were added to the terra verte.
Of interest is the fact that the ochres Bardwell used are mostly natural earth pigments
and not artificial iron-(hydr)oxides. Through laser microprobe analysis of some ochre-like
pigment layers the following set of elements was detected: Fe, Al, Ca, Mg, Ti. It is apparent
that these are the spectrographically detectable elements abundantly occurring in the earth's
crust. Therefore, it can be concluded that natural ochre was used for yellow ochre. In the
case of red ochre, either natural red ochre could be used, or red ochre could be made from
naturally occurring yellow ochre by a roasting process which drives off the chemically bound
water molecules. However, in some cases Al and Mg were absent. In these samples a very
bright red was observed microscopically. This red could be an artificial iron oxide pigment,
Indian red.
Brown pink is mentioned by Bardwell on pages 8-9 of Practice. Several samples (Poole:
carnation, shadow scarlet robe, dark shade green drapery, architectural background;
Rogers: greenish half-shadow flesh; Crowe: deep shadow clothing, yellow highlight clothing;
Dersley: dark shadow flesh; Mary Phipps: light yellow highlight clothing; Gay: middle
shadow cheek; Pomfret: translucent brown of Lady Pomfret's hair) in which, microscopically,
there was some indication of a brown which had no distinguishable pigment particles,
were analysed by thin-layer chromatography. Persian berries (= Schiittgelb), quercitron,
sumac, fustic, fustel, and tar served as references. However, none of these organic dyestuffs
could be identified in the above mentioned samples. According to Dossie, page 114, 'Brown
pink is the tinging part of some vegetable of a yellow or orange colour, precipitated
upon the earth of alum, cuttle-fishbone, or some such like calcarious substance.'
However, the tests done on Bardwell's paintings showed that if he used what he con-
sidered 'brown pink' at all, then the pigment was not made from any of the previously
mentioned dyestuffs.
7. PAINTING TECHNIQUE AND PAINT LAYER STRUCTURE
7.1. Introduction
At the outset of this study it was decided that the major stress was to be concentrated on the
51HARLEY, Artists' Pigments, p. 90, says, 'Naples Yellow, [was ] a colour which was the subject of contro-
versy in the eighteenth century when it was variously supposed to be a type of ochre, a sulphurous product
of Vesuvius, or a manufactured colour.' The composition of Naples yellow was first described by Passeri
in 1758 (Gettens and Stout, p. 133) and later, c. 1766, 'de Bondaroy in France reached the same conclusion'
(HARLEY, Artists' Pigments, p. 91).
52Cronstedite is found in the following places: (1) Czechoslovakia: Bohemia (Pfibram); (2) Cornwall:
Wheal Maudlin and Wheal Jane; (3) Brazil: Conghonas do Campo, Minas Geraes. While it is tempting to
assume that Bardwell's green earth came from Cornwall, no proof for such an assertion exists. See DANA,
EDWARD SALISBURY, A Textbook of Mineralogy, 4th ed., revised and enlarged by William E. Ford, New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1963, p. 672.

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technique as outlined in the book and not on the materials of pa

As previously shown, the names used by Bardwell for his 'c
readily identifiable pigment names. His directions for the mixed
and landscape painting are equally concrete. Bardwell always
ments are to be used for the different tints. In many instances,
clarified by some mention of the approximate amount of each p
particular tint. For example, the Red Shade for flesh paintin
very little Indian Red: It is a charming working Colour, and a go
Like the individual pigments the tints are frequently terme
'Blue Teint is made of Ultramarine and White, mixed to a lig
working Colour' (Practice, p. 10). The word 'colour' is used
as a synonym for pigment, but also for a tint, i.e., most commo
Some of Bardwell's flesh tints are made without any additio
Shade ... made of Ivory-Black and a little Indian Red only'
instructions regarding the steps to be followed during painting,
or tints are to be applied during the first, second, or third
pigment nomenclature and directions for compounding tints. Su
for an accurate reconstruction of Bardwell's written practice. Fo
Tint is used to make out the lights in the First Painting of the fl
of a sample taken from a light area on the face one might expec
layer above the ground a mixture compounded from an iron
Iron oxide red is ground and used with nut oil, and lead whit
Therefore, while numerous analyses of pigments and of media w
not done for the sake of identifying materials as an end in itsel
placed upon determining to what extent Bardwell's actual fo
The analyses played a major role in this comparison.
To aid the comparison between the described and actual techn
cross-sections was made by the first-named author after carefu
times. These specimen cross-sections were used later in deve
lowed in taking samples. This system was worked out by M
authors (M.K.T.) in July 1971, when samples were taken fro
quently followed when the writers returned to England and
Our only interest was in what Bardwell actually described, an
if they agreed with the specimen cross-sections. The procedure
was to take samples from the flesh (highlight, carnation, i.e., re
shadow, lips and nostrils), the drapery or clothing (highlight
from backgrounds whether of one overall colour, architectu
system would tend to produce samples which might agree with
it cannot claim to have been infallible. Written or suggested
different from actual practice, and even though Bardwell clearly
Method of Colouring here laid down' was the one 'which I
one should expect that he consistently followed his own advice.
did not permit the use of a binocular microscope when taking th
Thereby, the chances were somewhat diminished of taking sa
more or less exact agreement might occur with the specimen cr
Bardwell divides the painting of a portrait into three paintings,
number. The first and second paintings are also subdivided into
Painting' and 'Second Part of the Second Painting' respectively. H
of the first two sittings should not be considered as separate sitt
steps to one operation. In order to show Bardwell's technique a s
cross-sections will be included here with notations of the mixtures used in each layer.

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Numbering begins at the bottommost layer and works upward, and the la
begins at the first paint layer rather than at the priming or general groun
since Bardwell neglects any specific directions for priming canvases. The
is therefore always to be understood as being below the lowest paint
(Figs. 3, 4) of methods for preparing grounds or primings which may
Bardwell have already been given. A complete idea of the hypothetica
from the support to the last colour layer can be formed by placing the spe
on top of either of the first diagrams. In general, the technique explained
rapid work; as much as possible is to be done in the first painting. 'It is c
the Great Masters imitated Nature in their First Painting or Dead-colouri
could without dirtying the Colours, omitting only the finishing Tou
that should come last; which I design to shew in the Course of this W
intelligible manner I can, and exactly to the Rules and Method of m
(Practice, p. 5).
7.2.1. Palettes for Flesh Painting

On page 11 of the Practice Bardwell lists 'The Colours and Teints that are
First Painting of the Flesh'. For the palette used in finishing the portrai
including a tint made from one, are added. Commenting on palette arran
well's in particular, W. G. Constable, in The Painter's Workshop (Bo
1963, p. 123), states, 'The important point is that these tints were prepared
began to paint, and were laid ready on the palette below the rows of sepa
despite these formalized methods, considerable elasticity was possible
tions in colour choice, the type and number of tints prepared would be s
to what was to be painted. Moreover, all the colours and all the tints
to use were not necessarily all laid out on the palette at once. Those requi
lay-in might first be put ready, and the painting carried to a certain stage
for scumbling and glazing and finishing might be added. Bardwell in par
instructions as to this, notably when a portrait was to be painted.'
Included here are two diagrams showing Bardwell's palette arrangem
Painting and Finishing of the flesh for a portrait. A series of 11 coloure
those for different coloured draperies and landscape) based on Bardwell's
in John Cawse's The Art of Painting (London: Rudolph Ackermann,
is for the most part a plagiarized version of Bardwell's. The addition of t
however, was Cawse's contribution.
Two palettes (Figs. 5, 6), with certain changes, were based on those
The colours and tints are drawn from Bardwell's book, pages 7-11.53
53The palette arrangement for the first and second sittings of a portrait which fo
book is reproduced in Schmid, 'The Strange Case of Thomas Bardwell', Fig. 2, and in
of Painting, facing p. 92. Facing p. 93 is a reproduction of Cawse's palette for finish
in Cawse's book. Schmid's reconstruction of Bardwell's palette appears in his Prac
p. 93, Fig. 61. On p. 94 Schmid comments, 'In the scheme drawing presented on pag
are arranged in the middle of the palette (the plate taken from a later book by Caw
shows a similar arrangement of colours as Bardwell's except that the single colou
placed in the same row).' Refer also to Birren, Faber, History of Color in Paintin
of Color Expression, New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1965, pp. 48-
Bardwell's palette which Mr Birren states is constructed after that in Schmid's book
include all 12 individual pigments given by Bardwell, Practice, pp. 7-9, on his recons
says these individual pigments are 'used in the Flesh, from which all the Teints are
make the tints that are 'absolutely necessary for painting Flesh' (Practice, p. 9), and
the two palettes to be used are described on Practice, p. 11 by Bardwell. While a fe
are included on the palettes, all 12 are certainly not. Therefore, the palette reconst
taken over by Birren is not Bardwell's palette. Cawse's palettes are far closer to

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O
OO
O0
0
@O
FIG. 5 Reconstruction of Bardwell's Palette for First
100 Painting of Flesh: 1. fine white, i.e., flake white; 2. light
ochre and its two tints; 3. light red and its two tints; 4. ver-
?
milion and its tint; 5. tint made of lake, vermilion, and
white; 6. rose tint, i.e., lake, very little Indian red, and white;
7. blue tint, i.e., ultramarine and white, 'mixed to a lightish
Azure'; 8. lead tint, i.e., ivory black and white, 'mixed to a
middle Degree'; 9. green tint, i.e., Prussian blue, light ochre,
and white; 10. half-shade tint, i.e., Indian red and white;
11. shade tint, i.e., lake, Indian red, black, and white; 12.
red shade, i.e. lake and very little Indian red; 13. warm
shade, i.e. lake and brown pink.
FIG. 6 Reconstru
Flesh: 1. fine whi
and its two tints
tint, 'for the Ch
vermilion, and w
blue: N.B. 'It sho
Green Teint, and
half-shade tint;
17. brown pink;
While no definite proof exi

whether all of them along
contemporary English port
(1734-1802) palette reproduc
ney's Palette', Technical Stu
The pigments and mixtur
in F. Hayman, 'Himself wi
both in the collection of t
palettes the pigments are p
Studies in Conservation, 20

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If necessary, after the colours are dry any which are too strong or glaring
toned down and the glazing corrected. Painting
repeat of laying on 'Virgin Teints' as in No. 2 5

Second
Scumbling Lights Lights and Shades are Glazing Shadows 4 Painting
carefully united.
Oiling-out, excess removed 3
Adjust red, yellow, and blue tints to the sitter's complexion, known as 'Virgin 2
Teints'.
red or warm shades over 1 First
deepest shadows Painting
Lights Middle Tint Shadows 1
FIG. 7 Specimen cross-section of flesh paint
7.2.2. Flesh Painting: Written Technique

Flesh Painting, General Method. The inf
tions was drawn from pages 9-16 of Bar
First Painting: The task of the First Paint
or Mezzotinto'. The shadows are done w
and white, which is the 'general Ground
Tint, i.e., light red and white, which is the
and white are added to the Light Red Tint
By mixing the Shade Tint and the Ligh
This tint is of 'a pearly Hue'. The deep
Shade, i.e., lake and very little Indian red,
'In order to finish the First Painting, im
and after them the Blues; observing, th
the Yellows produce the Green. The sam
(Practice, pp. 12-13). The 'Virgin Teints'
vermilion and white; (2) Rose Tint, i.e.,
Tint, i.e., Naples yellow and white, or yell
and white.
The gradations are done with the Blue T
The Green Tint, i.e., Prussian blue, light o
more often to tone down red shadows.
with 'a Body of Shadow-colours' and the li
cautions that 'the First Painting should
are broken the better'.
Second Painting: Before commencing work a little poppy oil is used for oiling-out. All
excess must be removed. Oiling-out is done to refresh colours which in drying have become
dull. This phenomenon is referred to as 'sinking-in' and, as previously mentioned, was
believed by Dossie to be due to poorly prepared canvases. John Elsum describes oiling-out
as follows: 'you must anoint that place you intend to cover, with Nut Oyl well clarifyed,
and very thin, and rubb it in with the Ball of your Hand, and afterwards wipe it well, for if
it be ill wiped it is apt to turn Yellow and Enjaundize the Colours: And this preparative so

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Facilates the Work that it makes the Pencil run freely and
cautions that oiling-out works better in Italy than in 'Colder
scumbled 'with the Light-red Teints, or some other of their ow
only as require it'. Using the Shade Tint, the shadows are correc
Shadows should be glazed with some of the transparent Shad
colours are the Red Shade, Warm Shade, and Dark Shade, i.e., ivo
red. Bardwell includes the Dark Shade in his list of tints, bu
the colours and tints for his palettes on page 11. All of the shad
very thinly to allow the First Painting to show through. After th
the reds, yellows, and blues, are to be laid on, a repeat of the se
ing. At this time the Carmine Tint, i.e., carmine and lead wh
and Lips' (Practice, p. 9).
Third Painting: After the previous work is dry any corrections
can be made.
According to the diagram a total of six layers in the flesh painting, with a possible seventh
in the shadows, might be expected. However, while Bardwell's instructions for the first
two sittings have subdivisions, the work would have been done wet-in-wet. Only between
each sitting or major division of painting was the work allowed to dry. Therefore, taking this
factor into consideration, layers 1 and 2 of the First Painting and 4 and 5 of the Second Paint-
ing would in most cases tend to form respectively one homogeneous paint layer. A normal
total of two colour layers with an oiling-out layer in between could be expected. If any finish-
ing work was done, layer 6 as included in the diagram, a possible total of three paint layers
might occur.
7.2.3. Flesh Painting: Actual Technique
Highlight
Six samples out of 11 show one paint layer in the highlight of the flesh. All of these six
samples were taken from the foreheads of the sitters. Possibly two paint layers were applied
in some of these six samples; however, it is difficult to distinguish two layers clearly because
they were painted wet-in-wet. This is the case with James Poole where two layers can be
very slightly observed painted wet-in-wet. Both layers in Poole contain the same pigments,
lead white plus a little yellow pigment plus very little red ochre.
Judging from the sample taken from Robert Buxton, it is even more probable that Bardwell
painted the flesh wet-in-wet. In the cross-section a contraction of the surface of the paint
layers is noticeable (Fig. 8). This contraction could mean either that the first layer contained
too much oil, or that it was still wet when the next paint layer was added. Again both
layers contain the same pigments.
John Gay is the only example in which a sample taken from the face shows a thin oil layer
between two paint layers. The undermost layer shows lead white plus a little red ochre
plus some yellow pigment. The top one contains the same pigments with an organic red pig-
ment instead of red ochre. In the portrait of John Campbell a greyish-black underpainting
can be seen under the flesh samples taken from the hand. The underpainting is greyish
in the sample taken from the finger and black under the side of the hand where the shadow
is very dark indeed. Looking at the painting (Fig. 9), one notices a deep shadow all around
the hand and between the fingers, as though a dark underpainting had been put on which was
shaded further by adding lighter shadows and highlights. In the highlight a thin oil layer
is found between the highlight and the greyish underpainting.
From James Poole a sample was also taken from the highlight of the right hand. A thin
54ELSUM, JOHN, The Art of Painting, p. 38.

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.... .... ........... ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . .... .. . . .. . . .. . ^ . . . . . . . ..... . . . . ... ..
?i? . .;~
i
1--3
MI
. . . .... ...
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FIG. 8
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in mu
FIG.
pecial
local
Trust
dark
midd
wood
glaze
was
Stu

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4I
3 ~
.: :. . .
2-- 4
i11i
FIG. 10 Cross-section prepared from sample 707/3, James Poole (see note 28
shadow lower chin. Magnification 375 x 1. ground; 2. lead white plus organic r
white, organic red pigment, Naples yellow and a little vermilion; 4. thin brow
black and red ochre.
thickness of the paint layers is 36 gL with a standard deviation of 25 gl. Thirteen observations
were made not counting the undermost layer in Gay measuring 165 1t, the 100 11 thick paint
layer in Robert Rogers, and the 2 gl thin underpainting in James Poole's hand.
Middle Shadow
Fourteen samples were taken from middle shadows in the flesh. From these, seven sho
only one layer (Pomfret Portrait: Lord Pomfret's forehead and Lady Pomfret's bosom
Rogers, Mary Phipps, Buxton, Crowe, John Campbell). In the Pomfret samples some slight
indication exists of a two-layer structure, painted wet-in-wet. The same applies for James
Poole (shadow of right hand), discussed above, where the uppermost part of the botto
paint layer contains more lead white than the undermost part.
In James Poole's greenish shadow on the lower chin the layer structure is even more distinc
One can distinguish three paint layers of which the undermost is composed of lead whi
and an organic red pigment, making a light pink. A darker layer was then added over which
lead white was in part touched. These two layers were obviously painted wet-in-wet, i.e
'alla prima'. The shadow was then finished by the application of a brown glaze containin
some black and red ochre (Fig. 10). The middle shadow on John Gay's little finger and the
greenish shadow on Suckling's chin show a two-layer structure, painted wet-in-wet, but no
glaze or other finishing work was found.
John Campbell was mentioned under highlight as showing a two-layer structure in the righ
hand, the undermost layer being a dark greyish underpainting. Only one layer was found
in the reddish shadow.
Lady Caroline Campbell shows a three-layer structure, one layer being incomplete. The
sample from John Gay's middle shadow left cheek differs the most from the others mentioned
above. After the First Painting it would appear that Bardwell left the work and later on
(second sitting?) started by oiling-out before applying another white underpainting or
ground layer. Unfortunately, no X-ray photographs could be taken which might show a
change of composition. On top of this white layer he then added a layer which almost dupli-
cates those painted over. This complicated structure was then finished by a brownish glaze

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. . " ..: ... ' : : e,.:. .S,.!..:f?::._ 9*~lt~%~i;. U '*'"

-A4
--3-2
FIG. 11 Cross-section prepared from sample 707/2, carnation right cheek, James Poole (see note
28 (14)). Magnification 150 x. 1. ground; 2. thin glue layer; 3. ground; 4. lead white, a little red
ochre and yellow pigment; 5. thin orange-coloured glaze, containing the same pigments as the
underlying paint layer; 6. varnish.
in much oil. Neither brown pink nor any organic yellow pigment could be determined
because of the smallness of the sample.
When looking at the paintings, the middle shadow sometimes has a greenish hue. The
greenish effect is due to a mixture of lead white, brown ochre, organic red pigment and black
with at times a little natural ultramarine and yellow pigment added as well. Ultramarine
was found in the Suckling, Gay, and Pomfret portraits. Together with the yellowed varnish,
which at times is up to 26 gl thick, these mixtures could very easily give a greenish effect.
The average thickness of the paint layers in the middle shadow of the flesh is 28 gi (+ 11 g).
Twenty observations were made, discounting Lady Caroline Campbell entirely, and the thin
glazes in Poole and Gay.
Carnation, i.e., red from cheeks

The Pomfret Portrait, Buxton, Dersley, James Phipps, Rogers, Suckling and Gay all show
one layer in the painting of the carnation. All these samples were taken from the cheek,
except for James Phipps. From Phipps the carnation was taken from the chin. Suckling and
Gay give some very slight indication of two layers painted wet-in-wet. The carnations were
composed of mixtures made from lead white, organic red pigment, red ochre and/or
vermilion. At times a yellow pigment was added. These carnation mixtures, as well as the
other mixtures for flesh painting, would of course be adjusted to the sitter's complexion.
A two-layer structure in the carnation can be observed in two pictures. On William Crowe
this two-layer structure is very clear. Both layers contain lead white and vermilion in about
the same quantities. No oil layer was found in between. In Poole a thin orange-brown
'glaze' was found on top of the paint layer. This 'glaze' consists of the same pigments as
the underlying layer (lead white plus red ochre plus yellow), but in much more oil
(Fig. 11).
The average thickness of the paint layers is 42 g (+22 jg). Ten observations were made,
discounting a very thin glaze in Poole.
Deeper Shadow
All samples were taken from the dark shadow under the chin, excepting John Campbell,
James Phipps, and Dersley. On Campbell the sample was taken from the hand, on James

82.27.142.136 on Sat, 27 Nov 2021 16:08:24 UTC
.*..
., ,.? . , , ? - 0 . .
?c~ i?-' ;::...
L . . .. . . . . . ... . . . .. .. .c.?
... . ... . . . .
FIG. 12 Macroph
28 (13)). a. dark
found in the sam
by courtesy of t
Phipps from th
his lower lip. H
round the chin.
of the face (Fig
In five cases out
Pomfret, Suckl
organic red pig
transparent bro
Campbell, Pool
under Highlight
the hand. In Jam
In this 'glaze' som
A similar 'glaze',
larger part of t
of black, red och
identified for the aforesaid reason.
In the sample of the deeper shadow taken from Gay a light underpainting was found, some-
what similar to that under the highlight. This underpainting was 'oiled-out' and again a
light tone was applied. Only after this second light layer was the right shadow tone added,
a very dark and thin layer containing a transparent brown pigment, brown ochre, a little
black and lead white (Fig. 13). The first and second paintings are of a very light tone com-
pared with the final tone. The application of such a thin, dark glaze on top of a thicker
and lighter underpainting creates luminous transparent effects in the deeper flesh tones.
This light underpainting also helps to reflect light much more than a darker one. Bardwell
was obviously aware of this factor when painting the different areas of the face. He cautions
that glazes must be kept thin 'for fear of losing the Hue of the first Painting, the Ground
of which should always appear through the Glazing' (Practice, p. 15).

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--4
-3
--2
-1
,,,al"
FIG. 13 John Gay (see note 28 (11)), cross-section prepared from the sample taken from the dark
reddish-brown shadow on his lower right cheek, sample 706/4. Magnification 150 x. 1. ground;
2. thin glue layer; 3. ground; 4. lead white, organic red pigment, some red ochre; 5. oiling-out;
6. lead white plus a little organic red pigment; 7. transparent brown pigment, brown ochre, lead
white and some black; 8. varnish.
40F-2
V,:
. .. . ........
'N . . ... ...
} !i~ l$i.. ...?l

:. ?. ... ??
X... N.4
.. . "M
FIG. 14 Thin sec

and left eyebro
ochre and Naple
The ground laye
flected light.
The average thi

tions were mad
layer, 60 Lp.

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TABLE 1
ACTUAL STRUCTURE OF FLESH PAINTING
Black Pigment
Picture and the sampled area.
N.B. Pictures arranged Sample Layer Thickness Lead Chalk Ivory Carbon Vermilion
chronologically Number Number(1) in pI White Black Black
John Campbell
Highlight (hand)(2) 742/1 3 c. 25 + + + (3) (+)
2 2
1 16 +++ (+ +)(4)
Reddish shadow (hand) 742/3 1 20 + +?+ (+ +)
Murrey shadow (hand) 742/2 2 30-70 + + (+)
1 2-20 +++
Crowe
Highlight 709/1 2 6 + + (5)
1 64 +++ +
Middle shadow 709/3 1 32 +++ (A)
Carnation 709/2 2 26 +++ + +
1 30 +++ ++
Deep shadow 709/4 1 22 + + + (+ +)
James Phipps
Highlight 743/1 1 c. 25 ++ + (+)+
Carnation 743/2 1 20 +++ +
Deep shadow 743/3 2 20 (+)
1 18 +++
Lips 743/4 1 3-13 + ++
Mary Phipps
Highlight 744/1 1 8-20 + + + (+) +
Middle shadow 744/3 1 20 +++ ) + (8)
Nostril 744/2 2 0-13 +++
1 9 ++A +
Robert Buxton
Highlight 746/1 2 c. 5 + (5)
1 c. 45 +++
Middle shadow 746/3 1 12 + ++ (+)
Carnation 746/2 1 16-50 + +?+
Lips 746/4 1 60 + + + +
Lady Caroline Campbell
Middle shadow 747/2 3 0-13 +++ (A)
2 0-10 +-++
1 15 +++
Lady Elizabeth Stuart Mackenzie

Middle shadow 750/3 2 27 + + + (A)
1 18 +++
Pomfret
Middle shadow 710/3 1 35 + + +
Middle shadow
(another sample) 710/16 1 c. 45 + + +
Carnation 710/6 1 26 + + +
Deep shadow 710/4 1 17 +
Hair 710/17 2 42 (+)
1 9 (+A+)
Studies in Conservation

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Table 1 (continued)
Organic Red Pigment Yellow Pigment Blue Pigment
Cochineal Brasil Red Light Naples Natural Prussian Trans- Umber Brown Oil
Lake Wood Ochre Ochre Yellow Ultra- Blue parent Ochre
Lake marine Brown
(++)
+++
++
+++
++
+(+)+++
+ ()+++
+ +t
(+) (+)
++
+ ++
+ (5)
+
(+) +
+
(++)
+ (8)
+ (8)
+
smalt) +
++++
( ++) +
(+) +
(+) ++ +
+ +++
+++
+-++
Studies in Conservation, 20 (1
3

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Table 1 (continued)
Black Pigment
chronologically Number Number(') in [L White Black Black
Gay
Highlight 706/1 3 65 +++
2 0-3
1 165 +++
Middle shadow 706/3 6 4-13
5 35-60 + + + (+)
4 18 +++ -- +
3 0-6
2 16 +++ (+)
1 14 +++ (+)
Middle shadow (hand) 706/5 2 40 + + (-+)
1 40 +--++ (+)
Carnation 706/2 1 c. 45 + + +
Deep shadow 706/4 4 18 + + (+)
3 10 + + +
2 3-10
1 60 +++
Rogers
Highlight 708/1 1 c. 100 + + +
Middle shadow 708/3 1 c. 25 (+)
Carnation 708/2 1 60 + + + +
Deep shadow 708/4 1 12 + + +
Suckling
Highlight 741/1 1 c. 35 + + +
Middle shadow 741/3 2 20 + ++ (+) +
1 32 +
Carnation 741/2 1 c. 60 + + +
Deep shadow 741/11 1 c. 26 + +
Blue vein on hand 741/15 2 c. 60 + + +
1 18 +++
Poole
Highlight 707/1 1 43 + + +
Highlight (hand) 707/5 2 c. 30 + ++
1 2
Middle shadow 707/3 4 6 (+)(6)
3 0-5 +-++ (9)
2 25 +++ +
1 5 +++
Middle shadow (hand) 707/6 2 7
1 25 + + +
Carnation 707/2 2 5 + (7)
1 30 + +
Deep shadow 707/4 2 7 (+)(6)
1 22 ++ (+)
Eyebrow 707/7 2 4 + ()
1 120 +-++
Dersley
Highlight 745/1 1 28 + + +

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Table 1 (continued)
Organic RedPigment Yellow Pigment Blue Pigment
Lake marine Brown
(+) (+)
+++
+ (+)
+ (6)
(+) (+) + (8) ++
+++
+ (+) (+) ++
+ (+) (+) ++
+
+
+++) + (+)
++ +++
(+)
+++
(+) +
(+) (+)
(+) + ++ +++
(+ +)
++ (+)
+ +
(+) + +++
(+) + -+ ++
(+) + (+)
(+) ++ +
(+) ++
(+)
+ (+)
+ + (8)
+++
+ (6)
(++) +
(+)
+ (6)
++ + (+) (+)
+ (7) (+)
+ (-+)
+ (6)
(++) + (+)
+ (6)
(++) +(8) +
(+) (+)
Studies in C

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Table 1 (continued)
Black Pigment
chronologically Number NumberM) in [L White Black Black
Carnation 745/2 1 c. 50 +++ +

Deep shadow 745/3 1 26 +++ ( )
Lips 745/4 2 20 + - + + +
1 20 ++ +++
(1) Layers are to be

sample, 2 the seco
(2) Samples, when n
(3) + + + main component; + + admixture; + a little.
(4) Organic red, black, yellow or blue pigments not specifically identified are noted by placing a cross in
parentheses.
(5) In much binding medium.
(6) Brown glaze.
(7) Orange-coloured glaze.
(8) After microscopical examination, not further analysed.
(9) Only partially present.
Hair, Vein, Red from Lips and Nostril

A sample taken from Lady Pomfret's hair shows a brown half-glaze over a layer of red
ochre plus black. This brown half-glaze looks similar microscopically to the glazes some-
times found on the shadow in the flesh. However, the glaze used for Lady Pomfret's hair is
thicker (42 jp) and thus will have a darker effect. In James Poole's eyebrow no definite
paint layer indicating the eyebrow can be seen on top of the flesh. The flesh itself is a light
reddish-brown colour in this area, which, in order to indicate the eyebrow, was made a bit
stronger by adding a thin glaze (Fig. 14). Here is a very clear example of Bardwell's inventive
painting technique. At least in this particular painting the eyebrow was applied directly
with the rest of the face, and not later. Poole's eyebrows seem more like shadows than lines.
This example is, of course, not representative for all of Bardwell's paintings.
Three samples (Buxton, Dersley and James Phipps) were taken from lips. In all three cases
they contain vermilion, in Buxton and Dersley mixed with lead white. In Buxton an un-
identified organic red pigment was added to the mixture. In Dersley two layers were
found containing the same pigments; however, in all three cases no flesh colour was found
underneath. This indicates that the lips were painted directly on the ground. The sample
taken from Mary Phipps's nostril shows two layers, vermilion plus cochineal on top of red
ochre plus lead white and cochineal. This shows that certain areas of the flesh were, in
contrast with the examples shown above (lips, eyebrow), deepened by the subsequent
application of accenting pigments. Another example of this is the vein on Maurice Suckling's
hand. The vein was painted on top of the flesh with a mixture of lead white, a yellow pig-
ment and ultramarine. The average thickness of the paint layers is 29 jL (? 22 jL). Twelve
observations were made.
7.2.4. Flesh Painting: Discussion

In Table 1 above the pictures were arranged chronologically to see if any clear development
could be traced concerning layer construction. The diagrams clearly show that in those
pictures sampled, spanning the years 1740-66, Bardwell followed no set system of layer

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Table 1 (continued)
Organic Red Pigment Yellow Pigment Blue Pigment
Lake marine Brown
(+) (+)
(+) ++
application. Som
but in general Ba
construction was
method agrees in
is that Bardwell would have done much of his work wet-in-wet.
As earlier discussed under the written technique, Bardwell's instructions, if followed exactly,
would usually result in at least two paint layers. The painting itself was divided into three
sittings; however, this does not necessarily mean that Bardwell would have gone over the
entire face each time. For instance, if a certain part of the face was successfully painted
during the first sitting no reason would exist for adding to it or changing it in any way.
One would usually expect to find more than one layer in the highlights and shadows where
the paint would either be loaded or glazed over a previous underpainting. In those samples
which show traces of two layers painted wet-in-wet and therefore forming one homogeneous
paint layer, the possibility exists that Bardwell either did this work in one sitting, or in
two with no appreciable time gap between.
Those samples with an oil layer between two paint layers clearly indicate that in some
instances the work was first allowed to dry completely before continuing the painting.
The absence of an oil layer between two distinct paint layers does not necessarily mean that
the work was not first allowed to dry. Bardwell clearly cautions that only a very little
oil is to be used and that all excess must be removed. Then, too, a minute layer of oil
could be completely absorbed by the fresh paint applied over it. Oiling-out may also have
been done only on certain sections of the picture, i.e., those which, when drying, 'sunk-in'.
An example of these various possibilities is John Campbell's hand. An oil layer is found be-
tween the layers of the highlight, but not between those of the deep shadow.
For glazes Bardwell advises that they be applied very thinly. He gives a group of paint
mixtures which he calls 'transparent shadow-colours' (Practice, p. 15). The Shade-Tint
which is used to correct the shadows in the second painting includes lead white. While the
instructions (p. 15) specify that this mixture must be applied 'very stiff and bare', this should

82.27.142.136 on Sat, 27 Nov 2021 16:08:24 UTC
not be confused with a strict glaze. It has been here termed a ha

of an opaque pigment such as lead white. Bardwell's half-gl
than pigment and are applied so thinly that the underpainting s
scopical measurement they are c. 5 g thick. These half-glazes
scumbles, even though they contain opaque pigments. Bardw
between scumbling, which 'is going over the Lights', and glazing
In some cases the shadowing was accomplished directly by t
than by glazing.
The mixtures which are shown in Table 1 show that Bardwell foll
closely. This, of course, can be expected since he used only those
mended and, in addition, smalt. For instance, the carnation in L
composed of lead white and red ochre and an organic red pigmen
This is, no doubt, Bardwell's Light Red Tint with the addition of
to strengthen the colours. Buxton's middle shadow is comp
red pigment, red ochre and black, i.e., Bardwell's Shade Tint.
were mixed together. This could be the result of applying th
over the first painting, or mixing them together on the palette
bilities is the second layer of Suckling's middle shadow. It is
natural ultramarine, lead white, a little organic red pigment
was most probably a red shadow mixture toned down by the Gr
marine in place of Prussian blue.
The portrait of John Gay is the most exceptional of the 15
layer construction in the face. In general, the greatest number
The highlight on the centre of Gay's forehead, composed of
being an almost identical repeat of the first layer, agrees with B
Second Painting (Practice, p. 14) where he advises scumbling the
Teints, or some other of their own Colours'. The middle sha
flesh: middle shadow) could be an example of Bardwell's having e
tion slightly or readjusted the colours to agree with the sitter's
layers, which are identical (perhaps the result of back-and-f
were probably unsuitable, being too brown. After oiling-out, a s
chalk was applied to veil the first two layers. On top of thi
Shade Tint (with some blue and yellow pigment) which, judging
reddish than the first layer. The brown glaze added to correct f
was most probably the Red Shade. The deep shadow, which i
was again most probably adjusted to the sitter's complexion.
which, if present with the other pigments used, would make up
is a light reddish brown. After oiling-out, a somewhat lighter lay
red pigment was added. The actual shadow is composed prima
pigment with the admixture of some brown ochre, black and
as the final layer. Being 18 gi thick, this layer would be semi-tr
The curious addition of the light layer (third layer in Tabl
similar to the veil of lead white and chalk in Gay's middle s
such layer construction as is observed in the middle and deep sh
to create transparency in the flesh, thereby giving a realistic ef
in colour mixtures applied on top of each other to adjust tints t
expected after studying Bardwell's instructions. Furthermore, g
on subtle colour nuances which would obviously result from on-
individual's complexion. Both samples show Bardwell creatively a
His method should never be considered a rigid set of rules,
the would-be painter to improve the colouring as he works.

82.27.142.136 on Sat, 27 Nov 2021 16:08:24 UTC
Possible Touches of Colour 5
Possible Glaze esp. here 4
Lights Gradations Shadows Dark and Warm 3 Finishing

Shadowed Shadows Tints
Side of
Head Lights Gradations Shadows Dark and Warm 2 First
Shadows Lay
Possible Underpainting 1 Under-

painting
FIG. 15 Specimen cross-section of background painting.
spontaneous mixing of tints on the palette and their adjustment on the portrait.
In contrast to the multiple layer construction of the rest of the face, the sample taken from
Gay's carnation (left cheek) shows one layer. The carnation, which contains lead white
and an organic red pigment, is not, strictly speaking, Bardwell's Carmine Tint due to the
admixture of two other pigments. However, Bardwell's use of this tint in one layer shows that
he considered it a finishing colour. Since it was applied directly on the ground it may be
concluded that Bardwell left this area when painting the face. Therefore, in one picture two
different approaches can be observed, 'alla prima' and layer construction with, in some
parts, glazing.
7.3.1. Backgrounds: Written Technique
Backgrounds: General Method

The information for the diagram (Fig. 15) and explanations was drawn from pages 17-20
of Bardwell's Practice. On page 17 a list of colours and eight tints for painting backgrounds
such as 'Walls, Buildings, and the like', is given. 'All the Colours should be laid with drying
Oil only, because they mix and set the better with the Softener.' The 'softener' is a type of
brush used 'In uniting the Lights and Shades' and is 'about the Size of a large Swan's-quill'
(Practice, p. 12). Elsewhere, Bardwell refers to this type of brush as a 'sweetener' (Practice,
pp. 37-38). An underpainting layer is included here since one is specifically mentioned on
page 18.
1 - Underpainting: If the priming is too rough an extra layer of colour is to be applied
between the priming and First Lay. This extra layer should be dry before painting the
background.
2 - First Lay: Begin on the shadowed side of the head and paint lights first. Shadows are
done with the Dark Shade, i.e., black and Indian red, and white. Some of the desired
colour to give the required hue of the background may be added. The dark and warm
shadows are done with the Dark Shade plus umber and are to be put on before the colours
which join them. This work is done by 'driving' the colours, i.e., putting them on thinly.
3 - Finishing Tints: They are applied while the First Lay is still wet, and the lights are again
done first.
4 - A possible glaze with the Dark Shade might be added.
5 - 'On which, with a few light Touches of the Colour that is wanting, we may improve their
(Backgrounds) Hue.'
According to this diagram a total of five layers might be expected. Since layers two and three
are done wet-in-wet they would probably form one homogeneous paint layer, reducing
the total possible number to four. Depending upon whether or not a ground colour was first
applied and on the possible finishing glaze and touches of colour, a sample might show a
variation between one and four layers.

82.27.142.136 on Sat, 27 Nov 2021 16:08:24 UTC
Lights Shadows 2 Finishing Colour
Lights Shadows 1 First Painting
FIG. 16 Specimen cross-section of curtain painting.
7.3.2. Backgrounds: Actual Technique

While a great variety of backgrounds appear in Bardwe
architecture (used as single elements, but most often in
or an overall uniform colour-only architecture and the
here. Two samples from architectural backgrounds were ta
Poole. In the Gay portrait one greyish layer was found
contained lead white, chalk, black and a little umber. Howe
cated layer construction was observed. Over the primi
layer was applied. On top of this a mixture of lead white,
A very thin lighter greyish veil forms the third layer whi
effect of stone. This work was then glazed with a thicker
layer of brown and red pigment was applied. The backg
excepting a small area with part of a dark-green curtain s
One pigment layer was found containing brown ochre,
umber, and a little lead white, applied directly on the gro
7.3.3. Backgrounds: Discussion

In the sample taken from Poole the first three layers mos
painting for the entire architectural background. Unfo
lighter areas in Poole were taken to confirm this assumpti
no doubt,to create the shadowed areas, and the last layer a
for adding any necessary touches of colour. The one layer
well's stone mixture (Practice, p. 17) with the exceptio
Insufficient samples were taken to draw any complete con
of architectural backgrounds.
To the eye the background of the Pomfret Portrait is a ri
to be scumbles done with a pale grey-maroon colour. Ba
'murrey', composed of Indian red, white, and a little black
blending Colour, and of great Use where the Olive is too s
from the mixture in the sample, two possibilities exist
of the murrey colour on the drapery while it was still wet,
colours together on his palette.
7.4. Drapery and Curtain Painting: Written Technique

The section on painting curtains appears under 'Back-
pages 19-20. It is included here along with drapery pain
by 'drapery' is meant clothing.
Curtain Painting: General Method

The method is sufficiently shown in the diagram, Fig. 16.
1 - First Painting: A dead-colouring near the hue of the in
2 - Finishing Colour: Either while the First Painting is we
done.

82.27.142.136 on Sat, 27 Nov 2021 16:08:24 UTC
3 Reflects and
Finishing Tints Reflects Finishing Tints
Highlights Gradations Middle Tint Shadows 2 First Lay
Lights Shades 1 Possible

Dead-colou
FIG. 17 Specimen cross-section of d
Drapery Painting: General Meth

The information for the diagram
of Bardwell's Practice. Specimen
inclusion of them falls beyond th
1 - Possible Dead-colouring for Dr
desired drapery a ground or de
lights and shades are painted in
be kept light. The shades must
2 - First Lay: The drapery is to be
and shade tint. The lights are
should be very near to the gener
between the High Lights and
enough for the general Hue o
3 - Reflects and Finishing Tints
ductions of their own, and are a
Both Reflects and Finishing Tint
dry. If this work is done wet-in-
will mix and become sullied.
A variation between two and three layers can be expected according to the diagram and
instructions.
In all of the following diagrams for curtain and drapery painting the individual samples,
i.e., highlight and the like, should be read from bottom to top.
7.4.1. White Drapery (especially lace)
Actual Technique
A distinction has to be made between the highlights in the large light flat areas of drapery
and the highlights which give the structure of lace. In the latter the highlight consists of
one thick layer of lead white, usually on top of a reddish or greyish first painting. The high-
lights of the lace ruffles, cuffs, and cravats were formed with thick, stiff lead white, sometimes
applied with a dry brush. The thickness of the lead white extends in some cases to 140 g,
e.g., in the Pomfret Portrait. It is visible in relief on the surface of the paintings (Figs. 18, 19).
The sample from William Crowe was taken from the highlight on his white sleeve which has
the appearance of linen. In the cross-section three layers of pure lead white are found with
a very thin layer of oil between the first and second paint layers. The half-shadow is formed
by applying lead white plus a little red ochre after oiling-out.
In comparison to the loaded highlights on the lace, the other white materials do not show
such thicknesses in the highlights, excepting the one found on Suckling's waistcoat where the
paint was dragged on to create the greatest lights. The loaded highlights on lace were used
to create the effect of that material, whereas linen was done by first applying a uniform
thick underlayer of lead white.

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TABLE 2
ACTUAL STRUCTURE OF WHITE DRAPERY
Thickness Highlight Thickness Middle Shadow Thickness Deep Shadow
William Crowe 5 p lead white

(linen)
6 L lead white 8 p lead white, very little
red ochre
0-5 . oil 2 . oil
(1) lead white 70 p. lead white
Sir James Stuart

Mackenzie 15 p. lead white, a little
(cuff) black
130 lead white, a little

black
Lady Elizabeth Stuart

Mackenzie 20 lead white, a little
(lace ruffle) black, very little
vermilion
The Pomfret Portrait 0-140 lead white, chalk 20 p. lead white, chalk, a
(Lord Pomfret's lace little Naples yellow
cuff) and black
25 .J lead white, chalk, a 20 . lead white, chalk, a

little organic red little black
pigment and black
John Gay 60 ?t lead white

(lace cuff)
30 L lead white, a little
organic red pigment
and umber and black
Robert Rogers (1) lead white

(lace cravat)
36 u lead white, organic
red pigment
17 t lead white, red ochre
Maurice Suckling c.
(oyster-coloured 90 P. red
black, lead ochre
white,and
a little 14 I.black
ochre, lead white, brown
pigment, 15-40
black and.t umber, or
waistcoat) organic red pigment lead white a little
red ochre,
4 ? organic red pigment, 9 t umber

brown ochre, black
(thin glaze)
28 L lead white, a little 26 .t lead white, brown

black and red ochre ochre, black
35 . lead white, a little

vermilion
James Poole 20-130 ? lead white

(lace cuff)
9 L cochineal, a little
black (glaze)
3 . lead white, red ochre
7 L lead white, a little

black
(1) Sample was incomplete, very thick layer of lead white.

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FIG. 18 Macrophotograph of Maurice Suckling's (see note 28 (13)) lace cuff.

by applying lead white with great differences in thickness. The thinner parts
brush. Magnification 3 x. Reproduced by courtesy of the Trustees of the
Gallery, London.
FIG. 19 X-ray photograph made from Maurice Suckling's (see note 28 (13)) r
the exceptional thickness of the loaded lead white highlights on the lace. X-
by E. Klusman, reproduced by courtesy of the Trustees of the National Port
50 kV, 2 mA, I min exposure, focal distance 80 cm. Material: Agfa Gevaert
D4, 18/24. Developed 5 minutes in G150 developer, 200C, G.334 fixing.

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,4. Adj - . .. . .----------:------
.4
2
.?I. . o~L,.. ? ~. ? . . . .i?rICCI. .- .-.------II
FIG. 20 Cross-section prepared from sample 741/14, taken from the highlight in the blue, shown
in Fig. 21. Magnification 270 x . 1. ground; 2. Prussian blue mixed with lead white; 3. Prussian
blue; 4. Prussian blue plus lead white; 5. Prussian blue plus more lead white and some ultramarine.
Discussion
In order to paint white satin four tints are necessary for the first lay: (1) white alone for t
lights; (2) first tint made of white plus very little ivory black; (3) middle tint made of wh
plus black plus a little Indian red; (4) shade tint 'the same Colour as the Middle Tein
but with less White' (Practice, p. 25). Bardwell stresses that white draperies should be pain
on thick white 'grounds'. The order of painting is as follows: (1) white alone is applied for th
broader highlights; (2) the first tint is used to 'shape the Lights into Character'; (3)
middle tint is next applied, and on top of this white for the 'little Lights that happen in
Middle Teints and Shadows' is touched on. The middle tint must not cover all of the area
done with the first tint; (4) the shade tint is used to make out the shadows. White drapery
is completed by adding reflects and finishing tints. 'Brown Oker, mixed with the Colou
of the Lights, is the most useful Colour in general for all Reflects in Draperies that are pro
duced from their own colours' (Practice, p. 26). Brown ochre mixed with the shade tin
is used for 'blending the dark Shadows to the mellow tender Hue'. An explanation for the
use of red is given. 'It is the Want of the Red Hue which makes the White Sattins appear so
often like Pewter.' The best comparison between the written and actual technique is offered
by Suckling, since most of the other samples were taken from white lace. Samples from the
highlight, middle shadow and deep shadow were taken from his oyster-coloured waistcoat.
His waistcoat is not entirely white, but the darker colour is due in part to the yellowed var
nish. Bardwell began by painting the broader light areas, leaving the shadows. Two under-
painting layers were used in the highlight, the uppermost of which contains lead white plus
a little black and red ochre, Bardwell's middle tint. This layer is almost identical with the
undermost layer of the middle shadow which has brown in place of red ochre. The reddish-
brown glaze appearing in the cross-section of the highlight is in fact an overlap from the
deep shadow which borders the highlight. The actual highlight was touched over the middle
tint and part of the overlapping deep shadow. Since Suckling's waistcoat is not a pure white,
the addition of other pigments with the white highlight is not surprising. The middle shadow
was finished by a repeat of its underpainting, the mixture of pigments being almost identical
to Bardwell's middle tint. The presence of brown ochre would tend to make an oyster colour
Two layers compose the deep shadow, the undermost being a glaze of umber. Above this a
mixture of Bardwell's middle tint plus umber (probably added for the oyster colour) an
organic red pigment was applied.

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FIG. 21 Macrophotograph made of Maurice Suckling's (see note 28 (13)) dark blue coat. The
lighter blue highlight, pressed into the canvas during relining, can be seen in relief because of its
thickness. Magnification 3 x. Reproduced by courtesy of the Trustees of the National Portrait
Gallery, London.
7.4.2. Blue Drapery
Actual Technique
A total of nine samples was taken from blue drapery. In all cases a mixture of Prussian
blue and lead white was found, to which at times ultramarine was added. In most cases
this mixture was applied in one layer. For example in John Campbell one layer of lead white
plus Prussian blue was found in the highlight, and the same mixture, though with more
Prussian blue added, was identified in the shadow.
The overall tone of Suckling's dark blue coat is a mixture of Prussian blue and lead white
with a thin (2 p) layer of pure Prussian blue on top. Over this layer blue highlights were
applied with a mixture of Prussian blue plus lead white plus ultramarine (Fig. 20). These
highlights have a thickness up to 80 p, and this explains why they can be distinguished in
raking light (Fig. 21).
In the Pomfret Portrait a blue jewel in his chain was painted with the same mixture of Prus-
sian blue and lead white. The Naples yellow of the chain and the blue on top mixed where
the layers touched because they were painted wet-in-wet.
William Crowe's blue neck-band was painted over his red coat. The cross-section shows a
layer of pure Prussian blue on top of vermilion. A contraction occurs in the layer of ver-
milion. This phenomenon was described in the section on the highlight of the flesh.
No diagram is included because all of the samples taken, with the exception of the one from
Suckling, show one layer with the same mixture.
Discussion
'The best Ground for Blue [satin] is White for the Lights, and Black and White for
Shadows' (Practice, p. 27). Three tints are used for the first lay: (1) the light tint is a mi
degree between white and the azure-coloured middle tint; (2) the middle tint is an a
colour; (3) the shade tint is to be dark enough for shadow. The only pigments menti
for these tints are fine white, Prussian blue, and ivory black. First the lights are laid on
shaped with the middle tint. Then the middle tint is added and thereafter the shado
If necessary, shadows may be strengthened when dry with their own colour.

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This method is very direct, and, with the exception of any re-worki
result in one paint layer in each of the different areas. Such was th
taken from John Campbell. Noteworthy is the fact that no local un
Bardwell gives two methods for painting blue velvet, one 'alla p
glazing over an underpainting. The glazing method first requires a
white and ivory black adjusted to the different degrees of light an
dry and then all of the drapery except the highlights is glazed
lights may be glazed with ultramarine, and Bardwell notes that suc
Quantity of that valuable Colour' (Practice, p. 28). The 'alla prima' m
ing 'out the First Lay with the Middle Teint and Shade-Teint; on
High Lights with light Touches, and finish the Shadows as we d
(Practice, p. 27). Suckling's coat was done by the 'alla prima' te
taken from the highlight a clear picture can be had showing how B
coat. The highlight was touched over a dark glaze which in turn
tint (refer to description under Blue Drapery). This agrees in gener
description of the 'alla prima' method.
7.4.3. Red Drapery
Actual Technique
The cross-sections of samples taken from red drapery often sh
painting layer which was allowed to dry before the next painting w
painting an indication was given of the final colour intensity. For e
the underpainting in the middle shadows contains vermilion, while
red ochre plus black plus only a little vermilion was used. In the hi
ture the underpainting was done with vermilion and an organic
construction is clarified in Table 3.
Discussion
Directions are given for painting scarlet- and crimson-coloured draperies; the same metho
serves for both with slight variations. A local underpainting is first applied: (1) ligh
light ochre plus light red plus white; (2) shadows-Indian red; (3) deep shadows-India
red plus very little black.
The second painting is laid over the underpainting: (1) highlight-vermilion and wh
(for satin and velvet), or vermilion alone for cloth; (2) middle tint-vermilion and whi
plus very little lake or Indian red; (3) shade tint-Indian red plus lake; (4) deep shadow
Indian red plus lake plus a little black; (5) reflects-light red plus vermilion. Bardwe
advises driving, i.e., laying thinly, the colours of the second painting, but adds that high-
lights should be painted thickly, sometimes touched on twice. When dry, the work is finish
by glazing with lake, once thinly for scarlet, and twice for crimson. Reflects and shadows
are also to be improved.
The Pomfret Portrait (Fig. 22) offers the best comparison for the method even though th
pigment mixtures often do not agree with Bardwell's instructions. In the underpaint
the mixtures used were adjusted to the different light and shadow areas. Over the under-
painting a second painting was laid in all of the samples except the deep shadow. L
white was touched over the second painting of the highlight, and the work was finish
with a red glaze which was applied over all areas of the drapery. In none of the samp
taken from other pictures was a similar lake glaze found as finishing layer (Figs. 23, 2
Red glazes were found as intermediary layers in Crowe and Rogers. These could have been
applied in an attempt to modify the colour before completing the work.

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TABLE 3
ACTUAL STRUCTURE OF RED DRAPERY
John Campbell 2-14 , red ochre, some black 16 u red ochre, black
William Crowe 22 g vermilion, organic red 10 vermilion, red ochre 10 brown, red ochre,
pigment black
1 I glaze
30 g vermilion, organic red 15 vermilion 13 I red ochre, black, a

pigment littlevermilion
Lady Caroline Campbell 16 g lead white, some

(curtain) vermilion, a very little
black
The Pormfret Portrait 5 g red glaze
6-16 g lead white 6 g red glaze 5 g Brasil 35 g red glaze

wood
lake, a
little red
ochre
20 , vermilion, organic red 25 g vermilion, 6 it red ochre

pigment, lead white organic
red pig-
ment
10-30 g vermilion, red ochre, 12 u red ochre. 20 g red ochre, 20 g red ochre, black,
umber umber a little umber
umber
John Gay 10 umber, some black 15-20 g umber, Indian red,

black
0-3 oil
c. 16 g umber, some black
10-45 g red ochre 10 red ochre, some black 13 g? red ochre, some
black
Robert Rogers 20 I vermilion, organic red 10 1j red ochre, a little
pigment organic red pigment
2 g red glaze 10 red glaze, black
11 .L vermilion, organic red c. 20 g red ochre

pigment
James Poole 8 g red ochre, black

(half glaze)
13 1 red ochre 8 g red ochre, organic red

pigment
John Dersley 10 l vermilion
34 I vermilion, organic red

pigment, a little lead
white
7.4.4. Yellow Drapery and Ornaments
Actual Technique
In the yellow clothing and ornaments the sequence of layers and pigments used shows a
great variety. This variety is logical if one bears in mind the different textural effects aimed at.

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TABLE 4
ACTUAL STRUCTURE OF YELLOW DRAPERY AND ORNAMENTS
Thickness Highlight Thickness Middle Shadow
Crowe 0-15 [1 Naples yellow

(embroidery)
30 [1 lead white, calcite,
Naples yellow, a little
red ochre
Mary Phipps 24 V. organic yellow 4 V. organic yellow pigment, chalk

(mustard-coloured pigment, chalk
dress)
42 ? lead white
60-85 V lead white, Naples (1) lead white, Naples yellow
yellow
15 R lead white
Earl of Dalkeith 15 g? yellow glaze

(gold braid)
40 g? lead white, Naples
yellow
Pomfret Portrait c. 40 [_ lead white, lead 17 g Naples yellow, lead white,

(coat) carbonate, a little lead carbonate, a little
calcite, very little calcite
Naples yellow
c. 12 g? lead white, lead 17 t. lead white, lead carbonate,

carbonate, a little a little calcite, Naples
calcite, Naples yellow, yellow, a little black
a little organic yellow
pigment
Gay 0-60 g? orpiment

(gold chain)
50-100 V orpiment
50 g umber
c. 20 g? bone black, a little

umber
25 ? lead white, a little bone

black, ochre
Rogers 25-60 V. orpiment

(chain)
20 [1 Naples yellow, a little

organic yellow pigment
20 g? Naples yellow, a little

organic yellow pigment
30 g. organic red pigment,

a little red ochre, lead
white
Suckling
(button) 20-80 g? orpiment
c. 35 g? lead white, lead car-

bonate, a little calcite,
Naples yellow, Brasil
wood lake
9 g lead white
Poole 10-35 V. Naples yellow (dark),

(chain) calcite
Studies in Conservation, 20 (197

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TAB LE 4-continued
ACTUAL STRUCTURE OF YELLOW DRAPERY AND ORNAMENTS
Thickness Highlight Middle Shadow
10-28 lead white, organic

red pigment, a little
Indian red
10 E lead white, Indian red
(1) Sample was incomplete.
FIG. 22 Thomas Fermor, Earl of Pomfret and

Henrietta Louisa Jeffreys, Countess of Pomfret (see
note 28 (10)). Collection: The Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford. Photograph Rodney Todd-White and Son,
London, reproduced by courtesy of The Ashmolean
Museum, Oxford.
For instance, the texture of Mary Phipps's fine silk dress cannot be compared with the gold
chains worn by the sheriffs. Her dress was executed very carefully and in soft tones. Judging
from the cross-sections of those samples taken from Mary Phipps's dress, Bardwell carried
out the work in the following manner. For the highlight a layer of lead white was first laid.
Then over both highlight and middle shadow a layer of lead white and Naples yellow was
laid. The highlight was again touched over with lead white, and thereafter Bardwell applied
a glaze of organic yellow pigment plus chalk over both highlight and middle shadow.
The samples taken from Lord Pomfret's coat show that the highlight and middle shadow
were created by varying the paint mixtures. Black was added to the mixture in the under-
painting of the middle shadow. Over this layer another was laid containing much Naples
yellow in proportion to the lead white. The highlight was made by adding organic yellow
pigment in place of black to the basic yellow mixture of the underpainting. A thicker layer
was then laid on containing much more lead white in proportion to the Naples yellow.

4

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FIG. 23 Pomfret Portrait (see note 28 (10)) detai

dress at the left. The red glaze was very well prese
by the frame. Only traces were found on other
Photograph Rodney Todd-White and Son, London, reproduced
by courtesy of The Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.
-6
--- --- --- -------- --
---- ---- -- - --------- - --
-1
FIG. 24 Cross
nification 27
paration, con
glaze, contain
Discussion
The lights in the underpainting are to be yellowish white and the shadows are done
the ochres. Again four tints are used in the first lay: (1) highlights-orpiment; (2) first
light ochre plus a little pearl tint (white plus black plus a little Indian red); (3) middle t
light and brown ochre (mixed with pearl tint); (4) shade tint-brown-pink and br
ochre.
During the second lay, reflects are touched on with light ochre'and sometimes, in the w
est Parts, mixed with a little Light-red: The Shadows are strengthened with Brown
and burnt Umber' (Practice, p. 31). Bardwell's instructions for yellow drapery mak
direct painting. For example, the highlights made from orpiment are to be applied duri
the first painting. In fact almost all of the work is to be carried out during the first la
only the reflects are to be added and shadows deepened, if necessary, during the se
painting.

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Both Mary Phipps and the Pomfret Portrait show a more complicate
in the yellow drapery than would be expected after reading Bardwe
worthy is the use of Naples yellow, which is not mentioned. Also, no or
in the drapery highlights. An explanation for this absence might be Bar
the colours he gives for the mixtures 'will produce a Yellow very like Va
leave the King's Yellow, which is the high Lights only, then it will be on
Yellows' (Practice, p. 31). However, orpiment was found on the highl
sheriffs' chains and on Suckling's button.
7.4.5. Green Curtains and Drapery
Actual Technique
The greens sampled were mixtures made from Prussian blue with N
yellow ochre. Poole affords the best example for showing how Bardwell
areas of the curtains. All three samples from Poole show two layers. An
-done in all three areas using Prussian blue and Naples yellow for the
some umber and very little black was added for the middle and deep
TABLE 5
ACTUAL STRUCTURE OF GREEN CURTAINS AND DRAPERY
Crowe 7 g Prussian blue, lead

white, calcite, some
yellow pigment
7 4 Prussian blue, lead 18 Prussian blue, black,

white, calcite, some some yellow pigment
yellow pigment
Lady Elizabeth Stuart 16 lead white, Prussian

Mackenzie (drapery) blue, a little yellow
ochre
James Phipps 18 Prussian blue, a little

yellow pigment, black
32 4 Prussian blue, yellow

pigment, lead white
The Pomfret Portrait 14 . lead white, Naples

yellow, a little
Prussian blue
14 brown ochre, black 13 Prussian blue, Naples

yellow, umber
0-10 lead white, black, 0-10 .t lead white, a little

Naples yellow, very black
little ultramarine
Rogers 20 g bone black
25 g Pruss
brown ochre
.Poole 9 1. Prussian blue, much 8 L Prussian blue, Naples 15 ji Prussian blue, Naples
Naples yellow dark yellow, a little black yellow, black, umber
15 Prussian blue, Naples c. 15 L Prussian blue, Naples 15-30 L Prussian blue, Naples
yellow yellow, umber, a little yellow, umber, a little
black black
Studies in Con

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light was finished by a yellowish layer made by using far more

blue. This basic green mixture was darkened with a little bla
shadow, and further toned down for the deep shadow by ad
Discussion
Underpainting: (1) lights-light ochre plus a little white plus Prussian blue; (2) shadow
the ochres plus brown pink plus Prussian blue. Four tints are used for painting the draper
(1) highlights-King's yellow and very little Prussian blue; (2) middle tint-King's yello
and more Prussian blue; (3) shade tint-King's yellow plus more Prussian blue and bro
pink; (4) deep shadows-brown pink plus a little Prussian blue.
No specific instructions are given by Bardwell for the different-coloured curtains; therefor
our comparison is based upon his directions for green drapery. The method he descri
is very direct, an underpainting finished by another colour layer. No orpiment was found
in any of the samples taken. Naples yellow, not mentioned by Bardwell for any of his gre
mixtures, was frequently found. A test carried out in the Central Research Laborator
showed that Naples yellow light, and Naples yellow dark mixed with lead white have appro
mately the same hue as orpiment.55 However, the orpiment is a shade brighter. Desp
the slight colour nuances between orpiment and Naples yellow, greens made by mix
either of these pigments with Prussian blue would be about the same colour. Except
the sample taken from the highlight on the Pomfret Portrait, the layer construction in t
other samples is very direct, usually two layers, and in some cases one. In all cases with mor
than one layer the underpainting was allowed to dry before any additions were made.
7.4.6. Changeable, i.e., Shot Silk Drapery
Actual Technique
To get an insight into the technique for painting shot silk, or changeable draperies, samp
were taken from the highlights, middle and deep shadows on four paintings. In gene
the highlights were pinkish, middle shadows greenish, and deep shadows reddish-bro
However, the varnish on all four pictures sampled was badly yellowed and consequen
altered the final colour values.
Discussion
The scheme in Table 6 shows Bardwell's actual mixtures and layer constructions. Whi
Bardwell gives no specific mixtures in his book for changeable drapery, he does spec
how the general tints, i.e., shade tint and the like, are to differ from each other and how th
are to be applied. In John Gay (Fig. 25) Bardwell began by laying a mixture of lead wh
and organic red pigment over the area for the middle shadow. Thereafter, an underpaintin
consisting of lead white and Prussian blue was applied over all the light and shadow areas.
This agrees with his instructions (Practice, p. 32) that one must first determine the middl
tint of the colour of the drapery. The shade tint is 'of the same Hue with the Middle Tein
only darker in the shadows, and one must 'make out the Folds with the Shade Teint, a
then fill them up in the Lights with the Middle Teint'. After this general underpainting w
allowed to dry, Bardwell oiled it out and then glazed all three areas of the drapery, adjusting
the hue of the glaze over the deep shadow by adding black. Bardwell notes, 'The last P
of the Work is the finishing, and strengthening the Shadows with an obscure Teint, a litt
inclining to a mellowish Hue; such as will not catch the Eye, and interrupt the Beaut
55The colour samples were prepared from pigments given by the Doerner Institute, Munich: 29:1
Neapelgelb hell; 30: 1373 Neapelgelb dkl. plus 52:1400 Bleicarbonat; 33:1376 Auripigment mit Realg
von neu Moldowa Ungarn. Bleached linseed oil was used as grinding medium. All samples were paint
out on a ready-prepared canvas with white ground.

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2--
FIG...
FIG. 25b
FIG. 25b
FIG. 25 Cross-sections, showing the structure of shot silk drapery on John Gay (see note 28 (11)).
Magnification 270 x . Bardwell began by applying the underpainting in the middle shadow ( (b)
layer 1). Then, over all the light and shadow parts, lead white with a little Prussian blue was applied
((a) layer 1; (b) layer 2; (c) layer 1). Then he oiled-out ((a) layer 2; (b) layer 3; (c) layer 2), before
glazing all three areas with Brasil wood lake with black added in the deep shadow ((a) layer 3;
(b) layer 4; (c) layer 3). The highlight was touched on with lead white mixed with a little Brasil
wood lake ( (a) layer 4) which also covers part of the middle shadow ( (b) layer 5).

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TABLE 6
ACTUAL STRUCTURE OF SHOT SILK DRAPERY
Crowe (pink) (green) (reddish brown)

16 I lead white, a little 30 g lead white, very little
organic red pigment organic red pigment,
red ochre
c. 22 g lead white, organic 10 g lead white, organic 10 I. red ochre, black

red pigment, a little red pigment, red
Indian red ochre
2 m oil IxV oil 0-4 I oil

14 lead white, Prussian 14 V. lead white, a little 18 g Prussian blue, yellow
blue Prussian blue and red pigment, red ochre
ochre
12 lead white 16 u lead white
Gay (pink) (green) (deep reddish)

24 4 Brasil wood lake,
lead white
6 Brasil wood lake 4 g organic red pigment 19 g organic red pigment,

black
0-10 . oil 0-3 g oil 0-14 oil
18 .t lead white, a little c. 45 gX lead white, a little 29 g lead white, a little

Prussian blue Prussian blue blue (2 layers Prussian
wet-in-wet)
c. 30 p. lead white, organic
red pigment
Rogers (pink) (green) (reddish brown)

40 .x lead white, a little 40 gx lead white, Prussian 10 gx lead white, red ochre
Indian red, organic blue, a little organic
red pigment red pigment
30 x lead white, organic 10-60 u. lead white, red ochre

red pigment, Indian pigment, Prussian blue
red
24 !g lead white, red ochre,

a little black
Poole (pink) (blue green) (purplish brown)

40 i lead white, organic 40 ?t lead white, much 10 l lead white, organic red
red pigment, a little Prussian blue, a pigment, red ochre, a
red ochre little organic red little black
pigment
25 .x lead white, red ochre, 7 . red ochre, lead white

organic red pigment
of the Lights'. The highlight was touched on with a mixture of Brasil wood la
white. To the eye the highlight would appear pinkish and the middle and de
would be varying degrees of a purplish colour. This agrees with Bardwell's statem
the highlights are 'often very different from the Middle Teint'. The highlight in
extremely pink in the cross-section, and the middle shadow a deep blue.
7.4.7. Black Drapery
Actual Technique and Discussion

Only one sample was taken from black drapery, a shadow on James Phipps's gown
layer consists of lead white plus a little red ochre. Over this a layer of bone black

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Third Painting 6
Oiling-out 5
Second Painting 4
First Lay, or Dead-Colouring 3
Sketch 2
'Imprimitura' for Landscapes 1
FIG. 26 Scheme of layer application in landscape painting.
and the work was finished with a glaze of bone black plus a little red ochre a
brown. The reason for using red in the underpainting is given by Bardwell. 'H
observe, the Ground [N.B. of the individual drapery], being Red, will bear out
the Reds, which are used in the finishing Colours' (Practice, p. 33). The u
in the underpainting is curious since Bardwell specifies light red as 'ground' f
and Indian red and black as 'ground' for the shadows. The layer of bone black
used to tone down the underpainting. Bardwell's shade tint for black dra
lake, brown pink, and a very little black. This agrees with the actual mixture
uppermost layer, excepting the use of red ochre for an organic red pigment.
tions that the shade tint must be transparent and adds that only lake and bro
preserve the warm Brilliancy, which is wanting in the Shadows of the Black'
7.5. Landscape Painting
7.5.1. Written Technique

Landscape Painting: General Method. The information for the diagram (Fig
nations was drawn from pages 35-41 of Bardwell's Practice. On page 35 t
tints are given.
1 - 'Imprimitura': An overall colour is applied above the priming, 'a sort of ta
Colour, which is made of Brown Oker, White, and Light-red.'
2 - Sketch: 'This should be done with burnt Umber, drove with drying Oil, an
of Turpentine, in a faint, slight, scumbling, free Manner, as we shade with
and Water; leaving the Colour of the Cloth for the Lights, as we do that of
3 -- First Lay, or Dead-Colouring: Work begins at the top of the picture
and proceeds to the bottom or foreground. Colour for the sky is kept as w
at this stage. The rest of the dead-colouring is also done without any
The Dark Shade, i.e., ivory black and Indian red, with a little lake, and
'serve for the Ground of the Shadows in general, the Sky excepted'. Th
are 'a little changed to the natural Hue of the Objects, and then laid a
drying Oil, in the same Manner as we shade with Indian Ink, which is a scu
of Glazing'. These shadow colours are put on before the lights, and the
subdued.
4 - Second Painting: The sky is finished 'all at once Painting' by first laying 'all the Azure
and Colours of the Horizon'. On top of this the clouds are painted. Work continues
from the horizon through the middle distance and the colours are scumbled or glazed.
The strength and colour of the glazes must be adjusted to the objects and their distance
in the picture. Darkest shadows are then strengthened. The second part of the Second

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Painting involves the application of middle tints 'carefully l

of Lights, in such Manner as not to spoil and cover too
colour is to be put on as stiffly as possible. The foreground
better to let the more distant objects dry before trying to
This caution applies especially for near trees.
5 - Oiling-out: Oiling-out is to be done only when necessary
tions to be painted. All excess must be removed.
6 - Third Painting: Near objects, especially trees, are now finis
'alla prima'. Three paintings are required: (a) the 'First L
(b) 'improving the Middle Teints and Shadows'; (c) 'adding
Colours'. Whatever figures are included are now painted, beg
the foreground, then in the distance, and lastly those in the
Since the painting is allowed to dry between each major div
where it was taken, might be expected to consist of five paint
tura'. Bardwell painted few pure landscapes, and unfortun
samples from any of them; however, a few samples were taken
in his portraits.
7.5.2. TABLE 7
ACTUAL STRUCTURE OF LANDSCAPE PAINTING
John Campbell Thickness Sky Thickness Grass Thickness Leaf

10 V. very fine light green 0-13 t Prussian blue, yellow
pigment, yellow ochre? pigment, brown ochre
3-14 i Prussian blue, lead c. 15 i lead white, Prussian blue

white, a little brown and a little black
ochre and black
Crowe Sky Field Trees

2 . terra verte, lead 1-9 .L lead white
white and calcite
4 . terra verte, lead 1-8 .L terra verte, lead white

white and calcite and calcite
3 ? oil
10 . Prussian blue, lead 10 V. lead white, a little 7 V lead white, very little
white, a little red Prussian blue, red Prussian blue, red ochre
ochre ochre
8 L lead white, black 14 !L lead white, a little 6 lead white, a little black
black
7.5.3. Discussion
Samples from sky and landscape were taken from two pictures, John Campbell and Crowe
In John Campbell the sky was applied in one layer directly on the overall ground of the p
ture. An extra grey local underpainting was observed under the sky in Crowe. Since the bl
of the sky was painted very thinly (average thickness being 9 p), this grey underpainting
would tend to show through. Bardwell states, 'The principal Colours . . . for painti
the Sky, are fine White, Ultramarine, Prussian, Light Oker, Vermilion, Lake, and Ind
Red' (Practice, p. 36). These colours form in various combinations the different sky tints.
The sky mixture in Crowe is composed of Prussian blue and lead white plus a little r
ochre. This mixture was further adjusted to the different areas of the sky, e.g., more Pruss
blue was found in the sample taken from the top of the sky, and much less in the sample

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FIG. 27 Lady Caroline Campbell (see note 28 (7)), detail, showing characteristic b
the face. Photograph reproduced by courtesy of Mr B. M. Drummond Moray.
from the horizon. Approximately the same mixture was found in John Campbe
difference being the addition of black.
In Crowe the sky was first painted in with the correct colour nuances. On top
at the horizon a greenish layer (average thickness only 3 jp) was applied, servi
field and trees. A second lighter layer of the same pigments was painted over
Considering the thinness of the layers and the transparency of terra verte, t
would show through. Bardwell comments, 'The greatest Distances are chie
the Colour of the Sky; and as they grow nearer and darker, we should gl
the Parts very thin, with such glazing Shadow-Colours as come nearest
Hue of the Group the Objects are in' (Practice, p. 38). For the highlight o
exceptionally thin layer of lead white was touched on. The sample taken f
John Campbell shows that Bardwell first painted the sky and thereover a
Most probably, he did not leave any areas for the individual foliage. Amon
landscapes (Practice, p. 35) is a mixture of light ochre and Prussian blue,
mixture only darker. An addition of brown ochre to this mixture (as is seen in
would darken it. A very fine green pigment which could be terra verte, perh
some yellow ochre, was observed in the cross-section of the sample taken fro
John Campbell. As in Crowe, the grass was painted very thinly, the layer being
8. CONCLUSIONS
Some mention should be made concerning Bardwell's technique as observed with the na
eye. The spontaneity of his technique is obvious from the way in which the paint was ap
It must be remembered that such an impromptu handling of the paint was dependent
a well-organized palette with its pre-mixed tints. Characteristic of Bardwell's tec
is the use of impasted paint laid on quickly with a sure hand. Especially in those
where lead white was used, the paint was laid on stiffly. In many of the faces of his por

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FIG. 28 X-ray photograph made from Suckling's (see note 28 (13

nesses of the lead white can be observed and the rough brush-
round the chin. X-ray photograph taken by E. Klusman, Centr
produced by courtesy of the Trustees of the National Portrait G
- min exposure, focal distance 80 cm. Material: Agfa Gevaert R
Developed 5 minutes in G. 150 developer, 20'C, G. 334 fixing.
(Earl of Dalkeith, Robert Buxton, Lady Caroline Campbell, Pom

the brush-marks can be distinctly seen. Bardwell laid on the pai
bristle brushes) and seems to have worked it out with a back a
motion. Noticeable in the aforementioned pictures are the char
ing brush-strokes (Fig. 27). The same method of handling can b
in the X-ray photograph made from Suckling's face (Fig. 2
can be followed and the varying thicknesses of the lead w
differentiated. Also characteristic of Bardwell's technique i
line running along the contour of the face, sometimes from t
around the entire face as though used as an outline. This sh
ately rather than as a later glazing layer, as has been shown
painting: actual technique. However, in some cases a thin fin
on top of this shadow line.
Through the use of impasted paint as well as his method of sh
line, but also the application of glazes in different areas of
relatively subtle modelling in many of his portraits. Such a te
work. Discussing the two main approaches to the application of
which might be termed the 'impasted' and the 'smooth',
'The most conspicuous difference between the two schools of p
period is between those who descend from Kneller and the con
who apply their paint in such a way that it is a pleasure to look
Pond, Knapton, and lesser figures, who descend from the trad
and despise the surface graces.'56 Bardwell was critical of
56WATERHOUSE, ELLIS, Painting in Britain 1530 To 1790, 3rd ed., Ha

1969, p. 114.

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colouring. 'Reily, who was Zoust's Disciple, survived them, [Lely and Zous
the best Colourist we had. Mr Richardson, who died about the Year 1745,
but, in my Opinion, in point of Merit much his Inferior. Reily, I think, decli
Proportion to Zoust, that Zoust did to Rembrandt' (Practice, p. 2). In man
Bardwell was aware of the 'surface graces' and properly appreciated their
However, none of his pictures demonstrate that feeling for texture so con
majority of the works of his most famous contemporary, Sir Joshua Reynold
Although Bardwell followed his own written method, especially regarding the
mixtures to be used, his actual practice is somewhat less complicated than mig
after reading his book. It will be remembered that Bardwell stated his belief
masters did as much of the painting as possible during the first lay of the co
p. 5). That his actual method differed in part from his written-the actual me
direct-is most probably due to his experience as a practising painter. Moreove
is not a mathematical system. It was offered as a guide to technique, not
for creativity.
Exactly why he wrote his book giving such a detailed system can be explained
that in his time no state academy yet existed. Students either learned the
under a master (for instance, Reynolds was apprenticed to Thomas Hudso
or they were left to learn it themselves. With regard to his own attempts to
Bardwell states that 'In the Course of studying this Part of my Art, ... I
Assistance from the Living' (Practice, p. 3). He copied pictures in order to
nique of colouring. 'Athenian' Stuart, the reviewer of The Practice of Pain
that Bardwell must have been self-taught.58 Commenting on his reason for w
treatise, Bardwell says, 'Such as are born with a happy Genius, tho' destit
or Guide, may, from these Instructions, acquire a competent Knowledge
almost without studying' (Practice, p. 4). The Practice of Painting was the
to serve as a technical manual on the art of colouring for those students
proficiency in drawing, but who for one reason or another could not learn su
nique. Despite its obvious importance, technique did not receive that muc
tion. 'None of the later eighteenth-century academies seems to have concerned
teaching of technique; this was left to private masters, and in England they w
able or unwilling to provide instruction.' 59 Bardwell's book was an attempt to
the training of young artists, and its numerous reprints attest the fact that
found it of use.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The success of such an undertaking as the Bardwell Project

wholehearted co-operation of many people over a long perio
idea for a research project on Bardwell's technique arose d
Dr Hessel Miedema, Art History Institute, University of Amste
of the project, numerous people from various disciplines ha
thanks must be expressed to the following: Dr J. R. J. va
Studies in Conservation, Amsterdam, originally showed int
project on Bardwell's technique and helped to introduce the
search Laboratory, Amsterdam. During the writing up of t
hours with the authors going over the first and second dr
57NORTHCOTE, JAMES, The Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1819; rpt. Lon
I, 16. See pp. 16-19 for Northcote's remarks on 'the state of the arts at
58STUART, JAMES 'Athenian', 'Bardwell's Practice of Painting and Persp
Literary Journal, 15 (1756), 170. Stuart's review runs from p. 162 to 17
59GAGE, JOHN, 'Magilphs and Mysteries', p. 38. See footnote 2 above.
Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975)

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support of Ir J. Lodewijks, Director, Central Research Laboratory, A

could not have been carried out. His generous assistance made possib
and Scotland in 1971. Ir J. Lodewijks is also to be thanked for provi
which made the two colour reproductions possible. Miss Joyce P
Officer, National Gallery, London, showed great and untiring
Not only did Miss Plesters assist with securing permission to t
helped to work out a system for taking samples, took samples from
the pictures used in this study, made numerous technical observatio
of the article, offering many valuable suggestions for certain chang
she has been the 'silent partner' and 'guardian angel'. Her c
White, Higher Scientific Officer, National Gallery, London, di
and, apart from his article which follows this one, freely offered t
to us. Professor Sir Ellis K. Waterhouse, formerly Director of St
tre for Studies in British Art (London) Limited, was of invaluab
to locate the whereabouts of pictures by Bardwell and secure per
The attributions to Bardwell were checked by him. Copies of several
books were extremely difficult to locate, and Sir Ellis solved th
xerox copies of Marshall Smith's and Elsum's books. Mr Fran
Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art (London) Limited, mad
into various London libraries tracking down articles, books, and
which he then xeroxed. Mr R. E. Hutchison, Keeper, Scottish Na
Edinburgh, was most helpful in supplying information on the wher
private Scottish collections. Through his good offices our reque
forwarded to Scottish owners. Mr John Hargrave, Picture Resto
ranged to have colour slides taken of the Pomfret Portrait while it
also forwarded us his technical observations made while cleaning the
Without the necessary authorizations to take samples our study wou
To the owners and/or people responsible for granting permission ou
due. Dr Miklos Rajnai, Deputy Director, Castle Museum, Norwi
to sample the Civic Portraits. Miss Marjorie Allthorpe-Guyton, A
Castle Museum, Norwich, kindly informed us when certain of the C
in London for restoration. In preparation for our visit in the fall of
Guyton spent much time in hunting out of storage the remaining B
Museum collection and assembling them for us in the basement o
task. The first-named author (M.K.T.) is especially indebted to
for assisting him with much biographical information on Bardw
Keeper of Western Art, The Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, grante
the Pomfret Portrait. Miss Susan Booth, formerly Assistant K
Museum, Oxford, kindly assisted with the arrangements. Mr A
Bursar, Pembroke College, Oxford, acting on behalf of the Gover
College, granted permission to sample the Phipps portraits. Miss
Bursar, Pembroke College, Oxford, was of great help in arranging to
maintenance staff on hand to remove the portraits from the wall. F
this study Mr John Kerslake, Deputy Keeper, National Portrait G
continuous assistance. Mr Kerslake arranged the necessary permissio
Suckling and Argyll portraits, and he also recommended, acting upo
of the Suckling portrait to the Central Research Laboratory, Amster
proved by Dr Roy Strong, formerly Director, National Portrait G
Strong and Mr Kerslake have exhibited an attitude toward the sc
pictures which hopefully will be followed by other museum curator
Mr and Mrs B. M. Drummond Moray, Perthshire, Scotland, an

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Mackie Campbell, Argyll, Scotland, are to be thanked not only for grantin
what must have seemed a strange request, but also for their personal assist
actual process of sampling. Both authors will long remember the Drum
Mackie Campbells' gracious hospitality, patience, and good humour.
Our deep appreciation must be expressed to the following members of the
Laboratory, Amsterdam, for their generous and untiring assistance on our
alphabetically they are as follows: Mr Wilfred Bokman, formerly Assis
Mr Pieter de Haan, Assistant Photographer; Mr Peter Hallebeek, Tech
Mrs Judith Hofenk-de Graaff, Scientific Officer, Mrs Lieke van 't Hul, fo
Analyst; Miss Willy Janse, formerly Documentation Officer; Mr Erns
Photographer; Mrs Annet Kok, formerly Librarian; Mr V. R. Mehra, Head
Mosk, Head Officer, Analytical Department; Miss Wilma Roelofs, Chem
Kaithe Vesters, Documentation Officer. Mrs W. M. Boeljon-Cramer is
typing the completed manuscript.
The first-named author (M.K.T.) would like to express his very deepest
Mary M. Davis, Executive Vice-President of the Samuel H. Kress Foun
Samuel H. Kress Foundation, whose generous support made possible hi
Bardwell. He also wishes to thank the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in Br
Limited, for two subsidiary grants.
MOST FREQUENTLY CITED REFERENCES
BARDWELL, THOMAS, The Practice of Painting and Perspective Made Easy: In

The Art of Painting in Oil, With the Method of Colouring, London: S. Richar
DOSSIE, ROBERT, The Handmaid To The Arts, 2 vols. London: 1758.
ELSUM, JOHN, The Art of Painting After The Italian Manner. With Practical
Principal Colours. And Directions how to know a Good Picture, London: 1703.
GETTENS, RUTHERFORD J., and STOUT, GEORGE L., Painting Materials: A Sh
1942; rpt. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1966.
HARLEY, R. D., Artists' Pigments c. 1600-1835: A Study in English Documenta
Butterworths, 1970.
NORGATE, EDWARD, Miniatura or The Art of Limning, Ed. Martin Hardie. Ox
Press, 1919.
SALMON, WILLIAM, Polygraphice: Or, The Arts of Drawing, Engraving, Etching
Vernishing, Japaning, Gilding, &c. 8th ed. 2 vols. London: 1701.
SMITH, MARSHALL, The Art of Painting According to the Theory and Practice
French, and Germane Masters, London: 1692.
APPENDIX
ANALYTICAL METHODS APPLIED IN THE INVESTIGATION OF

THE BARDWELL SAMPLES
J. A. MOSK
1. INTRODUCTION
The identification of a paint component (pigment or binding medium) or a var

often occur in different ways. When a sample is analysed with different techniques t
may be identical or complementary to one another. This depends on the sensibility
method for each of the components. It often happens that a component in a s
been identified already, e.g., microscopically or microchemically. While searching f
compounds, the same component may be identified again by other techniques, e.g.,

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spectrophotometry and X-ray diffraction. The same component, the

be identified and recorded four times without any mention of the fact
cations were unintentional.
In the following paragraphs, under each analytical technique, mention is made of the pig-
ments identified by that method.
2. MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE
2.1. Treatment of Samples and Microscopy

In order to compare Bardwell's actual with his written technique cross-sections were made
from most of the samples. A suitable portion of the sample containing all the layers wa
embedded in polyester resin POLY-POL type PS 230.* The hardened plastic blocks were
ground on a Knuth Rotor grinding machinet using Carborundum (silicon carbide) sand-
paper up to no. 600. Water was used as a cooling and lubricating agent. Each block was
ground down to the sample and then carefully polished using AP-Paste N.t In some
cases, thin sections were made. The plastic block, sample side down, was fastened with Aral-
ditet onto a perspex plate. This plate was then fastened into a holder and the plastic block
was ground down to the desired thickness. Using AP-Paste N, the thin sections were also
carefully polished.
The cross-sections were studied under a Leitz Ortholux-Pol microscope? using reflected
light, UV fluorescence, and sometimes polarized light. The thin sections were studied in
transmitted light with and without crossed nicols. A schematic drawing with a written
description of the layer construction and a colour slide were made for each cross-section.
Layer thicknesses were measured in microns.
2.2. Staining Technique on Thin Sections

According to the method described by M.-C. Gay [1] portions of the samples were em-
bedded in Rhodester 1103L I, hardened with a catalyst and accelerator.? Thin sections
-+60 microns thick were made with a Leitz slide-microtome. ? The thin sections were used
to distinguish between oleaginous and resinous binding mediums and protein and gums.
At 180'C oils and resins turn brown whereas sugars and proteins do not. To test for the
presence of protein in paint layers a drop of 1 % fuchsine in water was put on the sample.
This was immediately rinsed over with very dilute acetic acid. If protein is present th
layer or layers will turn pink. Strongly coloured pigments obviously disturb this method
which is best used for white or lightly coloured layers. White layers could be tested for
lead, through the formation of yellow lead iodide, by adding Lugol's solution (a solution of
1% 12 and 1% KI in water).
3. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
3.1. Microchemical Analysis
The tests for copper, lead, iron and chalk have been carried out as described by Broekman-
Bokstijn et al. [2, Section 2.3, p. 372]. By means of a test for inorganic phosphate, bone
black was distinguished from other black pigments. The sample is placed upon filter paper;
a drop of a 5% ammonium molybdate solution in 4 % nitric acid is added and the paper is
*Available at Poly-service, Sumatraplantsoen 1, Amsterdam-O, the Netherlands.

t Manufactured by Struers Scientific Instruments, Copenhagen, Denmark.
IType no. 927540, manufactured by CIBA-GEIGY, Switzerland.
?Manufactured by Ernst Leitz GmbH, Wetzlar, West Germany.
fIManufactured by Soci6t6 des Usines Chimique, Rhone-Poulenc-Paris, 45 Bd. Pasteur, 93 La Courneuve
France.
?Manufactured by Sodemi, 3 rue des Haudriettes, Paris 3e, France.

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dried. This is repeated twice. Then one drop of a solution containing

10 ml acetic acid and 90 ml water is added. A blue colour indicates the
phosphate ions [3, p. 333]. When the presence of vermilion (HgS) or
was to be checked, a test for sulphide was done with the azide reaction
phide is present, nitrogen gas bubbles are formed on the surface of the pi
A first step in recognizing an organic dyestuff is to establish the solubilit
chloroform. Identification was done by thin-layer chromatography (se
in 100% KOH solution organic dyestuffs dissolve in a characteristic way.
During treatment of green paint samples with HC1, a discoloration
occurred in the cases in which the green was made by mixing very finely
blue pigments. The blue pigment in these cases could be identified subsequ
blue (iron(III)-iron(II) cyanide) because it turns dark-brown on treatme
solution due to iron hydroxide. Iron may be tested for after dissolving
HCl with NH4CNS which gives the red iron(III)-thiocyanate. The mat
microchemically, with use made of the microscopical examination, were le
bone black (Bardwell's ivory black), carbon black, vermilion, orpiment
yellow), ultramarine and Prussian blue.
The positive test for iron was common for Indian red, red ochre, light
brown ochre. Differentiation was made with the aid of other techniques.
3.2. Infrared Spectrophotometry

By means of technique IR 3 (1-5 mm cross-section KBr micropellet), descri
Bokstijn et al. [2, p. 378 ], the ground layer of a number of samples w
presence of chalk was shown in every case. Occasional admixtures of
escaped detection.
3.3. Thin-layer Chromatography**

Thin-layer chromatography was used for the identification of proteinaceo
Animal glue was identified by a TLC test for amino acids in the hydr
[2, pp. 377, 378, TLC 4]. The identification of a number of red organic
was done by a modification of technique TLC 5 [2, p. 377]. The paint
in a small two
minutes, test drops
tube with one dropare
of methanol of added,
10%o hydrochloric
the solution acid. The sample
is heated again, is heatedon
spotted for
ana few
acetylated cellulose 300 AC-10 sheet and chromatographed with ethylacetate/tetrahydro-
furan/H20 (6:35:45). The detection first includes observation of the UV fluorescence
(360 nm wavelength). Spraying with an ethanolic solution of KOH causes blue, violet,
purple, orange, and pink spots which can be seen in normal light. Typical standards
were madder, cochineal, kermes, various redwoods, henna, alkanet, and lac dye. Those
materials actually identified were cochineal, Brasil wood lake, and an unspecified redwood.
On a number of yellow and brown samples a TLC technique used for the identification of
dyes such as weld, fustic, fustel, safflower, turmeric, quercetin, quercitron, Persian berries
and sumac was applied. Two sorts of yellow dyestuffs were present, one sort in three samples,
the other sort in five samples. Neither was identical to any of the reference materials.
The analysis is done on Silica Gel TLC sheets. The eluent is toluene/ethylformate/formic
**Surveys of TLC-techniques applied in the investigation of art objects and of the structure and analysis
of natural organic dyestuffs can be found in two reports to the IcoM Committee for Conservation (unpub-
lished):
ROELOFS, W. G. TH., 'An Aid for the Analysis of Binding Materials and Natural Dyestuffs from Works of
Art, ICOM, Madrid 1972.
HOFENK-DE GRAAFF, J. H., Natural Dyestuffs. Origin, Chemical Constitution, Identification, IcoM, Amsterdam
1969.

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acid (5:4:1). The detection is made by spraying with 1 alcohol

ethyldiphenylborate. The spots are observed in UV-light of 36
3.4. Laser Microprobe Analysis

A number of samples were analysed by emission spectrograp
separate paint layer. The apparatus used was the laser micro
of Jenoptik, Jena, DDR. A Carl Zeiss Q24 quartz spectrograph was
of the spectral lines on photographic plate, Agfa-Gevaert 'Scien
(10 x 25 cm) (no longer available). The apparatus has been
Blankenburg and H. Moenke [4]. The Bulgarian investigators
method and the apparatus for similar samples [5].
In comparable circumstances it depends on the sensitivity and
element whether or not its strongest line appears on the plate. Be
excitation conditions between the LMA and the conventional a
of the lines of an element cannot be taken as proof of the pre
major component. More research has to be done on the quantitativ
The results of the spectrographic analyses confirmed the microsco
observations in the cases of lead white, chalk, vermilion, Na
and Prussian blue. In the group of earth pigments (light, red and
and umber as named by Bardwell) differentiation could be m
artificial pigments on the basis of the admixtures found. Umb
from the ochres through its manganese content.
3.5. X-ray Diffraction

The pigment of the ground layer of a number of samples has
diffraction, as well as yellow and green pigment samples. Th
Philips generator, type PW 1011/00 with a copper anode dif
chromatic CuK, radiation (A = 1.542 A) is the only wavelengt
Ni filter. A small Debye-Scherrer camera is used (R = 5.72
material is Ilford Industrial G film.
The identification of compounds was done with the aid of the JCDPS file (Fink Six Entry
Inorganic Index, publication PD 1S-21 i and Index (Inorganic), PD 1S-21 i).
As reference materials, powdered pigments were used which were kindly donated to the
Central Research Laboratory by the Doerner Institute in Munich. Each of these pigments
has a name and in some cases an indication of the origin or the method of manufacture.
The materials encountered in this way were: Chalk (calcite), lead white (hydrocerussite)
with some lead carbonate, barytes (barium sulphate), Naples yellow (lead antimonate) and
terra verte (green earth) identified by its content of cronstedite (4FeO.2Fe2O3.3SiO2.4H20).
In samples identified as Indian red and red ochre, iron(III) oxide (Fe203) was found.
3.6. X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry

When elements were to be expected for which other methods would be less sensitive,
or when the small size of the sample required a non-destructive method, an analysis was
made by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. The sample material is stuck on adhesive tape
and brought into the sample position of the apparatus, the Milliprobe, described by
Banks and Hall [6].
In a yellow sample arsenic was found, which indicates orpiment (King's yellow). Another
example was a yellow paint sample showing the presence of lead, antimony and iron,
which indicates Naples yellow and ochre.
3.7. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

The Perkin Elmer model 303 atomic absorption spectrophotometer with the heated

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graphite atomizer HGA 70 was used to show the presence or absence of Zn in

sample of white paint. Zinc is one of the most sensitive elements in this meth
too small for a certain analysis by any other method available, was placed
furnace by means of a spatula, through the side opening. The absorption
atomization was recorded and compared with the signal of 5 gla of a 1 ppm so
containing 5 ng of Zn. The weight of the sample was estimated as c. 1 Ig
signal was much smaller than the 5 ng signal. It could be concluded that Zn w
as a main component in the sample, which thus contained no zinc white.
A blue sample, in which only tiny fragments of blue pigment bearing a certa
to smalt were present, was tested in a similar manner. The presence of co
therefore the pigment could be assumed to be smalt.
REFERENCES
1 GAY, M.-C., 'Essais d'identification et de localisation des liants pictur

sp6cifiques sur coupes minces', Laboratoire de Recherche des Musdes
1970, 8-24.
2 BROEKMAN-BOKSTIJN, M., VAN ASPEREN DE BOER, J. R. J., VAN 'T
and VERDUYN-GROEN, C. M., 'The Scientific Examination of the Poly
the Herlin Altarpiece', Studies in Conservation, 15 (1970), 370-400.
3 FEIGL, F., 'Spot Tests in Inorganic Analysis', Fifth English edition. Elsev
Amsterdam, London, New York, Princeton 1958.
4 MOENKE-BLANKENBURG, L., and MOENKE, H., 'Der Laser-Mikro-Spe
neues Analysengerit', G-I-T. Fachzeitschriftfiir das Laboratorium, 10 (1
5 PETRAKIEW, A., SAMOW, A., and DIMITROW, G., 'Die Anwendung d
Spektralanalysators LMA 1 fiir die Identifizierung von Pigmente in me
alter Wandmalereien', Jenaer Rundschau, 16 (4) 1971, 250-252.
6 BANKS, M., and HALL, E. T., 'X-ray Fluorescent Analysis in Archaeo
Archaeometry, 6 (1963), 31-36.
7 STAHL, E., and SCHORN, P. J., 'Diinnschichtchromatographie hydroph
ziige', Hoppe-Seyler's Z. Physiol. Chem., 325 (1961), 263-274.
Received 5 November 1973
Received in revised form 11 April 1974
M. KIRBY TALLEY, JR., born 1941; B.A. Trinity College, Hartford; M.A. Rutgers University, New Bruns-
wick, New Jersey; doctoraal University of Amsterdam; Samuel H. Kress Foundation Fellow, 1971-74;
currently reading for Ph.D. Courtauld Institute of Art, University of London.
Author's address: Keizersgracht 31 (le etage), Amsterdam (C.), The Netherlands, and 20 Bloomsbury Square,
London WCIA 2NP, Great Britain.
KARIN GROEN, born 1941; Certificate 'Medical Analyst II' 1960. Worked at the Biochemistry and Bacteri-
ology Department of the St Elisabeth Hospital in Alkmaar, 1960-63, and in the Boerhaave-Kliniek in Amster-
dam, 1963-66. Practical work in several laboratories, 1967-68. Since January 1969 at the Central Research
Laboratory for Objects of Art and Science, Amsterdam. Specializes in microscopic and chemical analysis
of paint samples.
Author's address: Central Research Laboratory for Objects of Art and Science, Gabriel Metsustraat 16,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

4

82.27.142.136 on Sat, 27 Nov 2021 16:08:24 UTC
Abstrait-Thomas Bardwell (1704-67), portraitiste anglais, a 6crit un tr

La Pratique de la Peinture et de la Perspective rendue facile, publi6 e
peinture traite exclusivement la technique de peinture A l'huile et peut
l'une des ceuvres les plus originales du genre, 6crites en Angleterre
6chantillons de peinture, 6manant de quinze tableaux de Bardwell, f
I'6poque la plus active de sa carriere. Des coupes transversales, ain
analyses tir6es de ces 6chantillons de peinture, ont permis de reconstr
qu6s par Bardwell, ce qui ensuite a pu etre compare6 la technique telle
son livre. Le proc6d6 que Bardwell applique est assez conforme t' s
g6n6ral ce proc6d6 s'est r6v61l moins compliqu6.
Kurzfassung-Thomas Bardwell (1704-67), ein englischer Portritmal

nische Abhandlung mit dem Titel The Practice of Painting and Per
Praxis des Malens und die Perspektive leicht gemacht) im Jahre 175
Gemilde handelt ausschliesslich von der Oltechnik und darf als eins der
diesem Gebiet betrachet werden, das je in England verfasst wurde. Insg
den von fiinfzehn Gemilden Bardwells genommen, die er zwischen 17
hat, der besseren Periode seiner kiinstlerischen Laufbahn. Mittels Quersch
Analysen, die von diesen Farbproben gemacht wurden, war es migli
der Praxis angewandte Methode zu rekonstruieren. Dies liess sich auch
fohlenen Technik vergleichen, die in seinem Buch erklirt wird. Bardwe
folgt seiner geschriebenen Empfehlung ziemlich genau; es hat sich
allgemeinen weniger kompliziert war.
Riassunto-Thomas Bardwell (1704-67), ritrattista inglese, scrisse un

titolo The Practice of Painting and Perspective Made Easy, pubblicato
pittura tratta esclusivamente delle tecniche dello stemperamento con
uno degli scritti piui originali del genere in Inghilterra. Un totale di 15
prelevato da quindici pitture del Bardwell databili tra il 1740 ed il 1766,
della sua attivita. Mediante sezioni trasversali, insieme a numerose ana
campioni, era possibile ricostruire la pratica effettiva del Bardwell.
confrontata con le tecniche proposte ed illustrate nel suo libro. La pra
segue in modo abbastanza stretto i suggerimenti messi in iscritto, anc
si scoperse - di carattere meno complicato.
Extracto-Thomas Bardwell (1704-67), un pintor ingl6s de retrato

titulado: La Prdctica de la Pintura y de la Perspectiva hecha fdcil, que
1756. La secci6n de pintura trata exclusivamente de la t6cnica de aceite
como una de las producciones mas originales de su g6nero escritas en
tomaron 153 muestras de pintura de quince cuadros de Bardwell, dat
1766, el periodo mejor de su carrera activa. Mediante secciones tran
numerosos analisis, que se hicieron de estas muestras de pintura, fu
pr ctica efectiva de Bardwell. Y estos datos, a su vez, pudieron com
sugerida, tal como se explica en su libro. La prdctica efectiva de Bar
escritos con bastante exactitud; sin embargo, en general se descubr
plicada.
Studies in Conservation. 20 (1975), 44-108

82.27.142.136 on Sat, 27 Nov 2021 16:08:24 UTC

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Thomas Bardwell and His Practice of Painting: A Comparative Investigation between

Described and Actual Painting Technique

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1505685

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THOMAS BARDWELL AND HIS PRACTICE OF

Abstract-Thomas Bardwell (1704-67), an English portrait painter, wrote a technical treatise

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2. SUMMARY DISCUSSION OF TECHNICAL LITERATURE IN

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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were most commonly executed with an aqueous medium, oil was

6WALPOLE, HORACE, Anecdotes of Painting in England, 3rd ed., ed. by RA

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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technical procedures for limning are often found under directions f

13HARLEY, Artists' Pigments, p. 7.

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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the technical explanations in both books agree as far as pr

3. BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT OF THOMAS BARDWELL

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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considered exceptional. It was customary for an author to sell his book ou

22For accounts of publishing practices in eighteenth-century England the reader is referr

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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4. PRELIMINARY STEPS FOR THE INVESTIGATION

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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due to Bardwell's rank as an artist, secondary, it was possible to take m

(5) Francis Scott, Earl of Dalkeith, 1721-50.

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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FIG. 1 Detail photograph from Maurice Suckling (refer note 28

Coll.: Mr B. M. Drummond Moray, Abercairny, Crieff, Perthshire.

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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size. Photographs of paintings sampled were not always available

5.1. Written Technique

(15) John Dersley, Sheriff of Norwich 1759, Mayor 1764.

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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disintegration.3' A sound method of preparation giving a greyi

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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Lead white mixed with oil 6

Application of whiting possibly repeated one or two 5 Ground, or

Whiting (chalk with or with

Size and a little honey 2

FIG. 3 Norgate-Salmon Method, 1648-50 to 1748.

Possible 'Imprimitura' consisting of lead white and 4

FIG. 4 Chambers Method, 1743.

5.2. Actual Technique

37Rogers: warp 10 mm; weft 30 mm

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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those readings made show the following numbers:

Studies in Conservation, 20 (1975), 44-108

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6.1. Information from Bardwell and Dossie

Thomas Bardwell & His Practice of Painting Article

Thomas Bardwell & His Practice of Painting Article

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