UNIT-2

Data Collection
 Data Collection

• Compilation and interpretation of primary and

secondary sources of information.

• The integration of different sources will

consolidate the write up of the report.
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Primary Source Secondary Source

•Data is collected by •Data collected,
researcher himself compiled or
written by other
•Data is gathered researchers eg. books,
through questionnaire, journals, newspapers
interviews, •Any reference must
observations etc. be acknowledged
 STEPS TO COLLECT DATA
REVIEW & COMPILE SECONDARY SOURCE INFORMATION
(Referred to in the BACKGROUND/ INTRODUCTION section of report)

PLAN & DESIGN DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

TO GATHER PRIMARY INFORMATION
(Referred to in the FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS &
RECOMMENDATIONS sections of report)

DATA COLLECTION

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

 METHODS USED TO COLLECT
PRIMARY SOURCE DATA

1. Interviews
2. Questionnaires
3. Survey
4. Experimentation
5. Case Study
6. Observation

However, for a small-scale study, the most commonly used

methods are interviews, survey questionnaires and observations.
Effective way Involves verbal
of gathering and non-verbal
information communications

INTERVIEW

Can be conducted
face to face, by telephone,
online or through mail
 Steps To An Effective Interview
Prepare your interview schedule

Select your subjects/ key informants

Conduct the interview

Analyze and interpret data collected from the interview

The most common Useful to collect
data collection instrument quantitative and qualitative
information

Survey
Questionnaire

Should contain 3 elements:

1. Introduction – to explain the objectives
2. Instructions – must be clear, simple language & short
3. User-friendly – avoid difficult or ambiguous questions
2 Basic Types of survey questions:

1. Open-ended Questions 2. Close-ended Questions

• Free-response • Multiple-choice
(Text Open End) • Rank
• Fill-in relevant • Scale
information • Categorical
• Numerical

Note: For specific examples and students’ activities on each question style,
please refer to the notes on Data Collection in the e-learning.
 Steps To An Effective Survey Questionnaire
Prepare your survey questions
(Formulate & choose types of questions, order them, write instructions, make copies)

Select your respondents/sampling

Random/Selected

Administer the survey questionnaire

(date, venue, time )

Tabulate data collected

(Statistical analysis-frequency/mean/correlation/% )

Analyze and interpret data collected

A sample of complete survey questionnaire
http://www.custominsight.com/demo/form_widgets.rtf
Observe verbal &
non-verbal communication, Need to keep
surrounding atmosphere, meticulous records of
culture & situation the observations

Observations

Can be done through discussions,

observations of habits, rituals,
review of documentation,
experiments
Steps To An Effective Observation
Determine what needs to be observed
(Plan, prepare checklist, how to record data)

Select your participants

Random/Selected

Conduct the observation

(venue, duration, recording materials, take photographs )

Compile data collected

Analyze and interpret data collected

 DATA ANALYSIS
Summary sheet

1. To analyse data from interviews and observation, use

Checklist
Manually
2. To analyse data from questionnaires, use

SPSS
3. In a small scale study, the most common forms of statistical
analysis presented are:
•Frequency
•Mean
•Percentage
 DATA INTERPRETATION
1. It involves 2 terms
• ‘Results’ – presentation of data/findings (statistics)
• ‘Discussion’ – interpretation of data/findings

2. Things to consider when interpreting your data:

• Interpret findings based on the purpose and
objectives of your study
• Relate the findings to real life context
• Use persuasive language to convince your readers
to see the research from your point of view.
• Order your interpretation to highlight the most important
findings
• Include limitations to your research.
• Use simple, clear language
Thank You

15
 UNIT-2
Data Collection Methods
 Where do data come from?

• How do we collect / find data?

• Secondary data
• Primary data
 Secondary Data
• Secondary data – data someone else has collected
• This is what you were looking for in your assignment.
Secondary Data – Examples of Sources
• Health departments
• Vital Statistics – birth, death certificates
• Hospital, clinic, school nurse records
• Private and foundation databases
• Governments
• Surveillance data from state government programs
• XYZ agency statistics - Census etc.
Secondary Data – Limitations
• What did you find that data is not much relevant
Secondary Data – Limitations
• When was it collected? For how long?
• May be out of date for what you want to analyze.
• May not have been collected long enough for detecting trends.
Secondary Data – Limitations
• Is the data set complete?
• There may be missing information on some observations
• Unless such missing information is caught and corrected for, analysis will be
biased.
Secondary Data – Limitations
• Are there confounding problems?
• Sample selection bias?
• Source choice bias?
Secondary Data – Limitations
• Are the data consistent/reliable?
• Did variables drop out over time?
• Did variables change in definition over time?
• E.g. number of years of education versus highest degree obtained.
Secondary Data – Limitations
• Is the information exactly what you need?
• In some cases, may have to use “proxy variables” – variables that may
approximate something you really wanted to measure. Are they reliable? Is
there correlation to what you actually want to measure?
Secondary Data – Advantages
• No need to reinvent the wheel.
• If someone has already found the data, take advantage of it.
Secondary Data – Advantages
• It will save you money.
• Even if you have to pay for access, often it is cheaper in terms of money than
collecting your own data.
Secondary Data – Advantages
• It will save you time.
• Primary data collection is very time consuming.
Secondary Data – Advantages
• It may be very accurate.
• When especially a government agency has collected the data, incredible
amounts of time and money went into it. It’s probably highly accurate.
Secondary Data – Advantages
• It has great exploratory value
• Exploring research questions and formulating hypothesis to test.
Primary Data
• Primary data – data you collect
Primary Data - Examples
• Surveys
• Focus groups
• Questionnaires
• Personal interviews
• Experiments and observational study
Primary Data - Limitations
• Do you have the time and money for:
• Designing your collection instrument?
• Selecting your population or sample?
• Administration of the instrument?
• Entry/collation of data?
Primary Data - Limitations
• Uniqueness
• May not be able to compare to other populations
Primary Data - Limitations
• Researcher error
• Sample bias
• Other confounding factors
Data collection choice
• What you must ask yourself:
• Will the data answer my research question?
Data collection choice
• To answer that
• You much first decide what your research question is
• Then you need to decide what data/variables are needed to scientifically
answer the question
Data collection choice
• If that data exist in secondary form, then use them to the extent you
can, keeping in mind limitations.
• But if it does not, and you are able to fund primary collection, then it
is the method of choice.
Thank You
Thank You

25
 UNIT-2
Descriptive Research Design: Survey
 Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in
Descriptive Research

Quantitative Descriptive
Research

SURVEY OBSERVATION
Information Obtained Information Obtained
by Questioning Respondents by Observing Behavior or
Phenomena
 A Classification of Survey Methods
Survey
Methods

Telephone Personal Mail Electronic

In-Home Mall Computer-Assisted Internet

E-mail
Intercept Personal
Interviewing

Traditional Computer-Assisted
Mail Mail
Telephone Telephone
Interview Panel
Interviewing
 Advantages of Survey Research

• Ease: Questionnaires are relatively easy to administer.

• Reliability: Using fixed-response (multiple-choice) questions reduces

variability in the results that may be caused by differences in
interviewers and enhances reliability of the responses.

• Simplicity: It also simplifies coding, analysis, and interpretation of

data.
 Disadvantages of Survey Research

• Respondents may be unable or unwilling to provide

the desired information.

• Structured data collection involving a questionnaire

with fixed-response choices may result in loss of
validity for certain types of data, such as beliefs and
feelings.

• Properly wording questions is not easy.

 TABLE 7.1

Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Telephone Fast No use of physical stimuli

High sample control Limited to simple questions
Good control of field force Quantity of data is low
Good response rate
Moderate cost

In-Home Complex questions can be asked Low control of field force

Good for physical stimuli High social desirability
Very good sample control Potential for interviewer bias
High quantity of data Most expensive
Very good response rate

Mall-Intercept Complex questions can be asked High social desirability

Very good for physical stimuli Potential for interviewer bias
Very good control of environment Quantity of data is moderate
Very good response rate High cost
________________________________________________________________________________
 TABLE 7.1 (Cont.)

Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods

________________________________________________________________________________
METHOD ADVANATAGES DISADVANTAGES

CAPI Complex questions can be asked High social desirability

Very good for physical stimuli Quantity of data is moderate
Very good control of environment High cost
Very good response rate
Low potential for interviewer bias

Mail No field force problems Limited to simple questions

No interviewer bias Low sample control for cold mail
Moderate/High quantity of data No control of environment
Social desirability is low Low response rate for cold mail
Low/moderate cost Low speed

Electronic No field force problems Limited to simple questions

No interviewer bias Low sample control
Low cost No control of environment
Social desirability is low Low response rate
High speed Moderate quantity of data
________________________________________________________________________________
 Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods

Flexibility of Data Collection

• The flexibility of data collection is determined primarily by the extent to which the respondent
can interact with the interviewer and the survey questionnaire.

Diversity of Questions
• The diversity of questions that can be asked in a survey depends upon the degree of interaction
the respondent has with the interviewer and the questionnaire, as well as the ability to actually
see the questions.

Use of Physical Stimuli

• The ability to use physical stimuli such as the product, a product prototype, commercials, or
promotional displays during the interview.
 Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods

Sample Control
• Sample control is the ability of the survey mode to reach the units specified in the sample effectively
and efficiently.

Control of the Data Collection Environment

• The degree of control a researcher has over the environment in which the respondent answers the
questionnaire.

Control of Field Force

• The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors involved in data collection.

Quantity of Data
• The ability to collect large amounts of data.
 Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods

Response Rate
• Survey response rate is broadly defined as the percentage of the total attempted interviews that
are completed.

Perceived Anonymity
• Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents' perceptions that their identities will not be
discerned by the interviewer or the researcher.

Social Desirability/Sensitive Information

• Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to give answers that are socially acceptable,
whether or not they are true.
 Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods

Speed
• The total time taken for administering the survey to the entire sample.

Cost
• The total cost of administering the survey and collecting the data.
 A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods
Table 6.2
Mall-
Criteria Phone/ In-Home Intercept Mail Mail
CATI Interviews Interviews CAPI Surveys Panels E-Mail Internet

Flexibility of data Moderate High High Moderate Low Low Low Moderate
collection to high to high to high
Diversity of questions Low High High High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
to high
Use of physical stimuli Low Moderate High High Moderate Moderate Low Moderate
to high
Sample control Moderate Potentially Moderate Moderate Low Moderate Low Low to
to high high to high moderate
Control of data collection Moderate Moderate High High Low Low Low Low
environment to high
Control of field force Moderate Low Moderate Moderate High High High High
Quantity of data Low High Moderate Moderate Moderate High Moderate Moderate
Response rate Moderate High High High Low Moderate Low Very
Low
Perceived anonymity of Moderate Low Low Low High High Moderate High
the respondent
Social desirability Moderate High High Moderate Low Low Moderate Low
to High
Obtaining sensitive High Low Low Low to High Moderate Moderate High
information moderate to High
Potential for interviewer Moderate High High Low None None None None
bias
Speed High Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Low to High Very
to high to high moderate high
Cost Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Low to Low Low
to high to high moderate
 Improving Response Rates

Methods of Improving Response Rates

Prior Other
Incentives Follow-up
Notification Facilitators

Monetary Nonmonetary

Prepaid Promised
 Improving Survey Response Rates

• Prior notification consists of sending a letter or e-mail, or making a telephone call

to potential respondents, thereby notifying them of the imminent mail,
telephone, personal, or electronic survey.
• Offering monetary as well as nonmonetary incentives to potential respondents
can increase response rates. The prepaid incentive is included with the survey or
questionnaire.
• The promised incentive is sent to only those respondents who complete the
survey.
• Prepaid incentives have been shown to increase response rates to a greater
extent than promised incentives.
• Follow-up, or contacting the nonrespondents periodically after the initial
contact, is particularly effective in decreasing refusals in mail surveys.

• Follow-up can also be done by telephone, e-mail, or personal contact.

• Personalization, or sending letters addressed to specific individuals, is effective

in increasing response rates.
Thank You

16
 UNIT-2
Data Collection: Survey Method
 Introduction
The survey is a non-experimental, descriptive research method.
Surveys can be useful when a researcher wants to collect data on
phenomena that cannot be directly observed (such as opinions on
library services).

In a survey, researchers sample a population.

Survey Method
The Survey method is the technique of gathering data by
asking questions to people who are thought to have desired
information. A formal list of questionnaire is prepared. Generally a
non disguised approach is used. The respondents are asked
questions on their demographic interest opinion.
 Types of Surveys

Data are usually collected through the use of

questionnaires, although sometimes researchers directly
interview subjects. Surveys can use qualitative (e.g. ask open-
ended questions) or quantitative (e.g. use forced-choice
questions) measures. There are two basic types of surveys:
cross-sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys.

• (1) Cross-Sectional Surveys.

• (2) Longitudinal Surveys.

• Cross-Sectional Surveys
Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather information on a population
at a single point in time. An example of a cross sectional survey would
be a questionnaire that collects data on how parents feel about
Internet filtering, as of March of 1999. A different cross-sectional
survey questionnaire might try to determine the relationship between
two factors, like religiousness of parents and views on Internet filtering.

• Longitudinal Surveys
Longitudinal surveys gather data over a period of time. The researcher
may then analyze changes in the population and attempt to describe
and/or explain them.
 Sample surveys

 As in sample study few units are to be examined detailed study of the survey can be
done.

 As few units are to be examined the survey work requires less time. Thus in this way
sample survey saves time.

 As few units are to be examined the survey work requires less money. Thus in this way
sample survey saves lots of money.

 In sample survey few persons are required for the survey work so experts can be
appointed for the survey. This will increase the reliability of the survey results.

 When the test is of destructive nature, sampling is only the way out.
• A large area can be covered under survey in the available time and money.

• Sample survey is also used to check the accuracy of the census data
(population survey).

• Surveys are an efficient way of collecting information from a large number of

respondents. Very large samplings are possible. Statistical techniques can be
used to determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance.
 Advantages of Surveys

• Standardization
• Ease of administration
• Ability to tap the “unseen”
• Suitability to tabulation and statistical analysis
• Sensitivity to subgroup differences

7
 Disadvantages of Survey Method

 A methodology relying on standardization forces the researcher to develop questions

general enough to be minimally appropriate for all respondents, possibly missing what
is most appropriate to many respondents.

 Surveys are inflexible in that they require the initial study design (the tool and
administration of the tool) to remain unchanged throughout the data collection.

 The researcher must ensure that a large number of the selected sample will reply.

 It may be hard for participants to recall information or to tell the truth about a
controversial question.

 As opposed to direct observation, survey research (excluding some interview

approaches) can seldom deal with "context."
 Surveys Methods

• Four basic survey methods:

• Person-administered surveys
• Computer-assisted surveys
• Self-administered surveys
• Mixed-mode (hybrid) surveys

9
 Four Alternative Data Collection
Modes
• Person-administered: an interviewer reads questions, either face-to-
face or over the telephone, to the respondent and records his or her
answers
• Computer-administered: computer technology plays an essential role
in the interview work

10
 Four Alternative Data Collection
Modes
• Self-administered: the respondent completes the survey on his or her
own
• Mixed Mode: a combination of two or more methods

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 Person-Administered Surveys
(Without Computer Assistance)
• Advantages:
• Feedback
• Quality control
• Adaptability

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 Person-Administered Surveys
(Without Computer Assistance)
• Disadvantages:
• Slow speed
• High cost

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 Computer-Administered Surveys

• A computer-assisted survey is one in which computer technology

plays an essential role in the interview work.

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 Computer-Administered Surveys

• Advantages:
• Speed
• Error-free interviews
• Use of pictures, videos, and graphics
• Real-time capture of data
• Reduction of “interview evaluation” concern in
respondents

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 Computer-Administered Surveys

• Disadvantages:
• Technical skills required
• High set-up costs

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 Self-Administered Surveys

• A self-administered survey is one in which the respondent completes

the survey on his or her own.
• Traditional “paper & pencil” survey

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 Self-Administered Surveys

• Advantages:
• Reduced cost
• Respondents control pace at which they answer

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 Self-Administered Surveys

• Disadvantages:
• Respondent controls the survey; do not send in on time
• Lack of monitoring: no one to explain or encourage
respondents
• High questionnaire requirements…it must be perfect!

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 Mixed-Mode (Hybrid) Surveys

• Mixed-mode surveys use multiple data collection methods.

• It has become increasingly popular to use mixed-mode surveys in
recent years.

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 Mixed-Mode (Hybrid) Surveys

• Advantages:
• Multiple advantages to achieve data collection goal…
• Example: May use online surveys to quickly reach portion
of population with Internet access and may use telephone
calling to reach those without Internet access.

21
 Mixed-Mode (Hybrid) Surveys

• Disadvantages:
• Mode affects response?
• Additional complexity.

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Ways to Gather Data

23
Person-Administered Surveys
In-Home Interview
• Key Advantages:
• Conducted in the privacy of the home

24
 Person-Administered Surveys
In-Home Interview
• Key Disadvantages:
• Cost per interview can be high
• Interviewers must travel to respondent’s home
• Comment:
• Often much information per interview is gathered

25
 Person-Administered Surveys
Mall-Intercept Interview
• Key Advantage:
• Fast and convenient data collection
method

26
Person-Administered Surveys
Mall-Intercept Interview

• Key Disadvantages:
• Only mall patrons are interviewed
• Respondents may feel uncomfortable
answering the questions in the mall

27
 Person-Administered Surveys
In-Office Interview

• Key Advantage:
• Useful for interviewing busy executives

28
 Person-Administered Surveys
In-Office Interview
• Key Disadvantages:
• Relatively high cost per interview
• Gaining access is sometimes difficult
• Comment:
• Useful when respondents must examine
prototypes or samples of products

29
Person-Administered Surveys
Central Location Telephone Interview
• Key Advantages:
• Fast turnaround
• Good quality control
• Reasonable cost

30
Person-Administered Surveys
Central Location Telephone Interview
• Key Disadvantage:
• Restricted to telephone communication
• Comment:
• Long-distance calling is not a problem

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Computer-Administered Surveys
CATI (Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing)

• Key Advantages:
• Computer eliminates human interviewer
error
• Simultaneous data input to computer
file
• Good quality control

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Computer-Administered Surveys
CATI

• Key Disadvantage:
• Setup costs can be high

33
Fully Computerized Surveys
(not online)

• Key Advantages:
• Respondent responds at his or her own
pace
• Computer data file results

34
Fully Computerized Surveys
(not online)

• Key Disadvantage:
• Respondent must have access to a
computer or be computer literate

35
Fully Computerized Surveys
Online Questionnaire
• Key Advantages:
• Ease of creating and posting
• Fast turnaround
• Computer data file results

36
Fully Computerized Surveys
Online Questionnaire

• Key Disadvantage:
• Respondent must have access to the
Internet
• Comment:
• Fastest growing data collection method;
very flexible; online; analysis available

37
Self-Administered Surveys
Group Self-Administered Survey

• Key Advantages:
• Cost of interviewer eliminated
• Economical for assembled groups of
respondents

38
Self-Administered Surveys
Group Self-Administered Survey

• Key Disadvantage:
• Must find groups and secure permission
to conduct the survey

39
Self-Administered Surveys
Mail Survey
• Key Disadvantages:
• Low response rates
• Self-selection bias
• Slow
• Comment:
• Many strategies to increase response
rate exist

40
Advantages and Disadvantages of Data-Collection
Methods

41
 Choice of Survey Method

• In selecting a data collection mode, the researcher balances quality

against:
• The survey data collection time horizon:
• telephone, online, mall intercept
• The survey data collection budget: mail & online

42
 Choice of Survey Method

• In selecting a data collection mode, the researcher balances quality

against:
• Incidence rate: Screen by online or telephone
• Cultural/infrastructure considerations: Scandinavia; dislike
strangers in homes. Canada is more open. In India, <10%
respond over phone phones

43
 Choice of Survey Method

• In selecting a data collection mode, the researcher balances quality

against:
• Type of respondent interaction required: verbal only:
telephone; static stimulus then can use mail or online;
nonstatic; online/mall/personal

44
Thank You

45