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Systematic Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology-1
Systematic Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology-1
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Firmicutes
Class Bacilli
Order Lactobacillales
Family Streptococcaceae
Genus Streptococcus
Species S. agalactiae, S.dysgalactiae, S. equi subsp zooepidemicus, S.uberis,
S. equi subsp equi, S. canis, S.suis, S. pyogenes(human)
HISTORY
Rivolta (1873) described chain forming organisms in pus from a case of strangles in
horses.
In 1878-79, Pasteur recognized this organism as a pus-forming agent.
In 1903, Hugo Schottmuller introduced blood to differentiate various types of
hemolysis.
In 1928, Rebecca Lancefield reported a serological method of grouping streptococci.
HABITAT
MORPHOLOGY
Streptococci are Gram positive, spherical or ovoid cells, arranged in chains or pairs.
Chain formation is due to the cocci dividing in one plane only and the daughter cells
failing to separate completely. Each coccus is about 1 mm in diameter.
They are facultative anaerobes, catalase negative, oxidase-negative, and non-spore
forming and non-motile with exception of some of the enterococci.
Capsulation is not a regular feature of streptococci but some strains
of S.pyogenes and some group C strains have capsules composed of hyaluronic acid
while polysaccharide capsules are encountered in members of group B and D.
Protoplasts (L-forms) may be induced by penicillin or phage associated lysine and
may be propagated on hyper tonic media.
CLASSIFICATION
Group Examples
Pyogenic Streptococci S. pneumoniae, S.pyogenes, S.equi, S. dysgalactiae
Oral Streptococci S.salivarius
Enterococci S.faecalis, S.avium, S. gallinarum
Lactic acid Streptococci S.lactis
Anaerobic Streptococci S. monbillorum
Other Streptococci S.bovis, S.uberis, S.equi subsp zooepidemicus
The aerobic and facultative anaerobic streptococci are classified, based on their
haemolytic properties.
Brown (1919) established this method by employing meat infusion peptone agar with
5% horse blood. He recognized three types of reactions.
o alpha - haemolytic streptococci: They produce a greenish discolouration with
partial haemolysis around the colonies.
o The zone of lysis is small (1or2 mm wide), within which the unlysed
erythrocytes are seen.
o These ά - streptococci are generally commensals in the throat. Because of the
distinctive green color, they produce; they are called as greening or viridans
streptococci. Eg. S.pneumoniae
o Beta haemolytic streptococci produces a sharply defined, clear, colourless
zone of haemolysis, 2 or 4mm wide, within which the red cells are completely
lysed.
o Most of the pathogenic streptococci fall into the beta group and are called as
the haemolytic streptococci.
o Gamma or non-haemolytic streptococci produces no change in the medium.
o The gamma streptococci includes the faecal streptococci ( S. faecalis) and
related species. They are called the enterococcus or indifferent streptococci.
Anotherimportant way in which the beta haemolytic streptococci were classified by
Rebecca lancefield (1933) was based on the nature of a carbohydrate (C) antigen on
the cell wall. They are known as Lancefield groups, 19 of which have been identified
so far and named by the capital letters A-U (without I and J)
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Streptococci are catalase and oxidase negative . (Click here for visual - catalse test)
Ferment several sugars producing acid but no gas.
They ferment sorbitol, trehalose, lactose, maltose, dextrin, and mannitol.
Gelatin not liquified.
Nitrates not reduced.
Indole is negative.
They are not soluble in 10% bile unlike pneumococci
RESISTANCE
ANTIGENECITY
Streptococci form several exotoxins and enzymes, which contribute to its virulence.
Hemolysins
Streptolysins O and S are produced by groups A, C and G.
Streptolysin O
Streptolysin S
It is an oxygen stable haemolysin and so is responsible for the beta haemolysis seen
around streptococcal colonies on the surface of blood agar plates.
It is called Streptolysin S since it is soluble in serum. Addition of serum to broth
increased the yield of haemolysin.
It is protein but not antigenic. It has been shown experimentally to be nephrotoxic.
Erythrogenic toxin (Streptococcal pyogenic exotoxins/ Dick toxin)
Four erythrogenic toxins are known and most strains of S. pyogenes produce one or
more. They are pyogenic andenhance susceptibility to lethal shock by endotoxin.
The toxin is thermostable and antigenic. The intradermal injection in rats leads to
development of erythema.
This reaction is called as ―Dick test‖ or Schultz-charlton reaction and it is useful for
diagnosis of scarlet fever.
Enzymes
PATHOGENESIS
The natural habitat of the species of streptococci are skin, nose, throat, digestive and
urogenital tracts of man and animals.
S.pyogenes are present in human nose and throat without causing any disease,
while S.agalactiae and S.uberis can exist in bovine udder without causing mastitis.
PATHOGENECITY
Horse
S. equi and S. equisimilis are the main causes of strangles in young horses.
It is characterized by a catarrhal discharge, with inflamation of the nasal mucous
membranes, followed by swelling of pharyngeal LN‘s in which abscesses
develop.
The infection spreads through lymph channels. It also causes metritis and
cervicitis in horses.
Purpura haemorrhagica, considered to be an immune mediated disease, occur in
horses 1 to 3 weeks after illness.
Bastard strangles – in which abscesses developed in many organs. It is a very
serious complication.
Chicken
Dogs
Pigs
S. suis causes porcine cervical lymphadenitis and also isolated from pneumonia,
septicaemia, arthritis, endocarditis, meningitis and reproductive tract infections.
It also causes erosive arthritis in young pigs.
DIAGNOSIS
Clinical examination
Microscopical examination
When long chains of organisms are detected in milk samples from chronic mastitis, it
is caused by S. agalactiae.
When 0.1 ml of secretions inoculated on Edward‘s medium (blood agar, crystal violet
and aesculin) S.agalactiae produces bluish-grey colonies and S.uberis produces dark
color colonies.
CAMP test (Christie, Atkins, Munch and Peterson, 1944)
o This test is based on the observation that ruminant red blood cells lysed by
the beta toxin of staphylococci at 370C are completely lysed in the presence
of S.agalactiae (group B).
o Differentiation between the pneumococcus and S.viridans organisms can be
achieved by bile solubility and the optochin test.
Bile solubility test
o Autolysis of pneumococcal cultures takes place within 15 minutes at 370C in
the presence of 10 per cent sodium deoxycholate.
o These substances have no effect on S. viridans organisms.
The optochin test
o The majority of pneumococcal strains are sensitive to optochin (Ethyl
hydrocuprein hydrochloride). Whereas S.viridans organisms are not.
o This test consists of placing a small circular piece of filter paper, impregnated
with 1:4000 aqueous solution of optochin, in the center of a blood agar plate
after inoculating the test cultures in streaks across the full width of the
medium.
o The growth of pneumococcal strains will be inhibited to a distance of some 5
mm from the circumference of the filter paper.
CHAPTER-3: STAPHYLOCOCCI
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
First discovered by Scottish surgeon Sir Alexander ogston (1880) in infected
tissues. He named it as staphylococcus (Greek staphyle, bunch of grapes; KOKKAS,
berry).
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Firmicutes
Class Bacilli
Order Bacillales
Family Staphylococcaceae
Genus Staphylococcus
Species S. intermedius.
S. hyicus.
HISTORY
First discovered by Scottish surgeon sir Alexander ogston (1880) in infected tissues.
He named it as staphylococcus‖ (Greek staphyle, bunch of grapes; KOKKAS, berry).
HABITAT
MORPHOLOGY
Spherical cells, 0.8 to 1 micrometer in diameter, on agar media the cocci are arranged
in grape like clusters.
In broth they occur as small groups, pairs, short chains of not more than four
members.
They are Gram positive, non-motile, non-acid fast, non-spore forming and have no
flagella.
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
In Nutrient agar plate the colonies are round, smooth, glistening, opaque, low,
convex, edge, entire end of a golden yellow or white colour.
In nutrient broth an uniform turbidity is present with powdery sediment.
Phenolpthaline diphosphate or tellurite agar selectively inhibits non-pathogenic
strains.
Haemolysis on blood agar. Capable of liberating ‗V‘ factor into the medium, which
favours the growth of Haemophilus organism.
Purple agar, containing bromocresol purple as a pH indicator and 1% maltose, is used
to differentiate S. aureus and S. intermedius.
Most strains form pigments, hence previously classified as per the colour of the
pigment produced.
o S. aureus – yellowish or golden orange pigment.
o S. albus - white colonies.
o S. citreus - lemon yellow colour pigment
Later on it was found that pigment formation was variable. Hence such classification
was no longer followed.
In sheep or rabbit blood agar plate ―double haemolysis‖ around colonies are formed
with incubation at 37°C it produces an incomplete haemolysis, which develops into a
complete haemolysis when held at 4°C. This is called as hot cold lysis phenomenon.
BIO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Staphylococcus aureus produces acid from glucose, maltose, mannitol, lactose, and
sucrose and not from salicin, raffinose & inulin.
The organism is indole negative, positive for NH3, methyl red and Voges - Proskauer
and catalase.
Hydrolyses gelatin and coagulates serum. Negative for oxidase and H2S production.
RESISTANCE
ANTIGENICITY
It consists of
Group antigen
Carbohydrates
o The cell wall of S. aureus contains ribitol teichoic acid.
o S. intermedius contains glycerol teichoic acid.
Protein A - Present only in S. aureus .
Type antigen
Exotoxins
o Hemolysin
Four antigenically distinct hemolysins causes hemolysis of
erythrocytes. They are Alpha, Beta, delta and Epsilon toxin, which
produce partial hemolysis (hot – cold hemolysis). The alpha toxin is
the major toxin in gangrenous mastitis. It causes spasm of smooth
muscle and is necrotizing and potentially lethal.
o Leukotoxin
It has the leukocidal activity and includes a and d toxins. By doing so,
the organisms may spread more easily to other parts where they
develop secondary lesions.
o Enterotoxin
It is seldom produced by animal strains. There are several
antigenically distinct types of heat stable enterotoxins. They are not
destroyed at 100°C for 80 minutes. They are responsible for food
poisoning in man.
o Exfoliative or Dermonecrotoxin
This toxin causes necrosis of skin by exfoliation and intraepidermal
seperation.
o Toxic shock syndrome toxin (TSST)
Induce excessive lymphokine production and results in tissue damage.
Bovine and human strains of Sta. aureus produce TSST.
Extracellular enzymes
o Coagulase
On their ability to coagulate plasma they are classified as coagulase
positive staph. (CPS) and coagulase negative staph. CPS are
considered to be significant pathogens. They are resistant to heat. The
coagulation of plasma produces a fibrin film on the surface of the
organisms, which allows multiplying.
o Hyaluronidase
It hydrolyses hyaluronic acid, the mucoid ground substance of
connective tissue.
o Nucleases
Deoxyribonucleases (DNAase) hydrolyze DNA and Ribonucleases
hydrolyze RNA.
o Fibrinolysin
Fibrinolysin is commonly referred to as staphylokinase, is an activator
of the plasma system leading to the breakdown of fibrin.
o Lipases and esterases - They hydrolyze lipids.
o Lysozyme - Hydrolyses the peptidoglycan in the cell wall of many bacteria
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENICITY
Pathogenicity test
Phage typing
TREATMENT
CHAPTER-4: BACILLUS
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Firmicutes
Class Bacilli
Order Bacilliales
Family Bacilliaceae
Genus Bacillus
Species B.anthracis, B.cereus, B.subtilis, B.mycoides, B.megaterium,
B.mesentricus
B.anthracis causes Anthrax in animals and Wool sorter‘s disease, hide porter‘s
disease, Malignant Pustule in humans.
B.cereus causes food poisoning in humans.
Other bacilli in this group are non-pathogenic and they are called as anthracoids.
B.licheniformis is an emerging pathogen and it is implicated in sporadic abortions in
cattle and sheep.
HISTORY
Discovery of the anthrax bacillus is credited to Davaine and Rayer (1863 –1868).
Considerable historic interest is attached to anthrax bacilli.
Pollender 1849 – Anthrax bacillus was the first pathogenic bacterium observed under
the Microscope
Davaine 1850 – first communicable disease shown to be transmitted by inoculation
of infected blood
Koch 1863 – first bacillus to be isolated in pure culture
Pasteur 1881 – used for the preparation of attenuated vaccine.
HABITAT
Bacillus anthracis spores remain viable for many years in soil, water and animal
hides and products.
Spores have been isolated from naturally infected soil as long as 60 years.
MORPHOLOGY
Members of the family are Gram +ve large rods, aerobic (facultative anaerobic),
endospore forming, capsulated, mostly catalase positive and fermentative organisms.
They are motile by peritrichous flagella.
The anthrax bacillus is one of the largest pathogenic bacteria. They are Gram +ve,
straight, rod shaped, non-motile organisms measuring 4-8 μm x 1-1.5 μm.
In cultures the bacilli are arranged end to end in long chains. The ends of the bacilli
are truncated or often concave and somewhat swollen.
Chain of bacilli presents a bamboo stick appearance (and also called as Box car
bacillus - looks like linked rail carriages).
In tissues or in blood smear, it is found singly, in pairs or in short chains, the entire
bacilli being surrounded by capsule.
The capsule is polypeptide in nature, being composed of a polymer of d-glutamic
acid.
Capsules are not formed under ordinary conditions of culture, but only if the media
contains serum, albumen, charcoal, starch or bicarbonates with reduced partial
pressure of carbon dioxide.
When blood films containing bacilli are stained with polychrome methylene blue for a
few seconds and examined under the microscope, an amorphous purplish material is
noticed around the bacilli. This represents the capsular material and is characteristic
of the anthrax bacilli. This is called asreaction. This reaction depends on the degree of
heat employed for fixation of a blood film.
Sporulation occurs readily outside the body in the presence of oxygen. Spores are
formed in culture or in the soil, but never in the animal body during life.
Sporulation occurs under unfavourable conditions for growth and is encouraged by
distilled water, 2% NaCl or growth in oxalated agar. Sporulation takes place at an
optimum temperature of 25-30°C and in atmosphere containing low partial pressure
of oxygen. Sporulation is inhibited by anaerobic conditions and by CaCl2
Spores are central, elliptical or oval in shape and are of the same width as the
bacillary body. So that they do not cause bulging of the vegetative cell. The spores do
not stain by ordinary methods. But can be stained with Sudan black B.
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
RESISTANCE
The vegetative bacilli are destroyed at 60°C in 30mts.
In the carcases of animals, the bacilli remain viable in the bone marrow for a week
and in the skin for two weeks.
Normal heat fixation of smears may not kill the bacilli in blood film.
The spores are highly resistant to drying, heat, cold and disinfectants. Spores remain
viable for many years in soil, water and animal hides and products.
Spores have been isolated from naturally infected soil as long as 60years.
They resists dry heat at 140°C for 2-3hrs and boiling for 10mts.
They survive in 5% phenol for weeks. Spores can be killed at 120°C for 10min and 4%
KMnO4 treatment for 15mts.
Destruction of the spores in animal products is achieved by HCHO.
Treat 2% solution of HCHO at 39-40°C for 20mts for disinfection of wool and as
0.25% at 60°C for 6 hrs for animal hair and bristles. This process is called as
duckering.
The anthrax bacillus is susceptible to sulphonamides, penicillin, erythromycin,
streptomycin, tetracycline and chloramphenicol.
ANTIGENICITY
PATHOGENESIS OF BACILLUS
Anthrax can occur in virtually all mammalian species but birds are highly resistant.
The main routes of entry of endospores are by ingestion, from soil when grazing or in
contaminated food, and by infection of wounds.
Inhalation of spores occurs in man, but to a lesser extent in animals.
Transmission by biting insects may beimportant , especially during an outbreak of
anthrax.
Cattle, sheep and goats are most susceptible to infection, while horses and humans
occupy an intermediate position and pigs and carnivores are comparatively resistant,
but can succumb if the infective dose is high.
PATHOGENICITY
CLASSIFICATION
Symptoms
Horses
Acute form is very common and death may take place one day after edematous
swelling of the throat and neck region.
There may be symptoms of colic. In less acute, oedmatous swelling become
generalized and death occurs after 2-3 days.
Cattle
Bulls are more susceptible than cows. They have a mortality rate of 90%.
There are three clinical causes of bovine anthrax.
In peracute sepeticemia death occurs within 2 hours after animal collapsing with
convulsions, sudden death in animals that appeared normal is common.
In acute septicemia death occurs within 48 to 96 hours clinical signs include fever,
anorexia, ruminal stasis, hematuria and blood tinged diarrhea.
Pregnant animals may abort and milk production often abruptly decreases.
Terminal signs include severe depression, respiratory distress and convulsions.
In chronic cases, clinical signs are manifested for more than 6 days and are rare.
B.licheniformis infection is associated with the feeding of contaminated silage and is
responsible for abortion in cattle and sheep.
Sheep
Pigs
Dogs
Lesions
The carcass of animals will putrify rapidly and develop incomplete rigor mortis.
The blood is dark,(tarry colored), clots poorly & exudes from the natural orifices.
The spleen is greatly enlarged, dark and friable. The spleen reveals black cherry jam
consistency.
The LN (lymph node) at the region of initial infection site is hemorrhagic and
edematous.
Ecchymotic hemorrhages on the serosal surface of the abdomen, thorax, epicardium
and endocardium are common.
Subcutaneous edematous swellings are present on the ventral aspect of the neck
Note
When suspected for anthrax care should be taken not to open the carcass. Muzzle
piece or ear piece is usually sent for examination.
DIAGNOSIS
Clinical symptoms
Blood films from dead animals made by puncturing the superficial vein of the ear or
in the region of the foot.
Care should be taken to seal the injection site by placing cotton soaked in alcohol and
ignited.
The smears are heat fixed and stained by Wright's or Giemsa‘s stain to reveal B.
anthracis as large blue rods with characteristic dark pink or purple coloured
capsules.
In case of horses and pigs since peripheral blood contains fewer organisms, smears
should be made from the edematous fluid or LN‘s.
Cultural examination
Swabs from blood are inoculated on to blood agar plates and incubated at 37°C for 24
hrs and examined for their typical growth.
Swabs are inoculated in agar enriched with blood or serum and incubated for 6 hrs at
37°C and examined by stained smears.
Bacteriological examination of hair, wool, hide, bone, bone meal & others
Samples are added to cold saline and shaken intermittently for 3 hours.
The supernatant fluid is then heated to 70°C for 10 minutes.
Then they are filtered through two layers of muslin cloth, added to melted agar, and
poured into petridishes, allowed to set and incubated at 37°C.
After 12 hours incubation, plates are to be examined for characteristic colony
morphology.
Grind up the organ or blood of suspected animal and suspend in 5-10 parts of saline
and boil for 15 minutes.
Filter through filter paper and allow it to cool. Place 0.5 ml of anti-anthrax serum
(1:50) in a small test tube and overlay with 0.5 ml of clear filtrate.
Stand at room temperature for 15 minutes. A white ring of precipitation indicates a
positive reaction.
B.anthracis produces swollen round cells in chains (string of pearls) when incubated
for 3-6 hrs on tryptose agar containing 0.05 –0.5 I.U of penicillin/ml.
To 100ml of molten nutrient agar, add required Sodium beznyl penicillin and mix
carefully.
Pour into petridishes and allow to set. With a scalpel cut a block about 1.6 cm 2 from
the penicillin agar plate and place it on a microscopic slide in a petridish containing a
small piece of moistened absorbent cotton wool to prevent the agar drying out.
Use a young colony to streak the center of the agar block.
Place a clean cover slip on the agar block and incubate the petridish at 370C.
After 2 hrs, remove the slide and examine the inoculum microscopically by oil
immersion for the string of pearls growth.
Differentiation from non-pathogenic Bacillus sp. It is considered reliable but needs
experience.
Cherry gamma phage is used. It can be propagated on B. anthracis strain 14, which
makes a suitable control.
On one half of blood agar plate, streak B. anthracis strain 14 culture as control and
on the other half streak the culture to be identified.
Add drops of phage preparation (1:10 dilution) on both halves. Incubate the plates in
the upright position for 8-12 hrs.
Zones of clearing will be seen on control culture and on the suspected half if it is B.
anthracis.
Animal Inoculation
Guinea pigs & mice are highly susceptible. Materials are inoculated by dermal
scarification, subcutaneous or intramuscular.
Death occurs in 2-3 days and the organisms will be readily identified in the blood &
tissues.
Apart from this laser pyrolysis, gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry
are used for detection of anthrax toxin productions.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
B. anthracis Anthracoid
Dark pink or Purple coloured capsules No capsule
Organism rod stained blue Organism rod stained blue
Ends truncated Ends bulged and rounded
Single, pair or short chain Usually long chain
Absence of spores Spores may be present
TREATMENT, IMMUNITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH
ASPECTS
Treatment
Immunity
CHAPTER-5: CLOSTRIDIUM
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Firmicutes
Class Clostridia
Order Clostridiales
Family Clostridiaceae
Genus Clostridium
CLASSIFIACTION
The clostridia can be divided into four major groups according to the kind of disease
they produce. They are as follows.
The Histotoxic clostridia causes a variety of tissue (often muscle) infections
frequently following wounds or other trauma (eg).
Hepatotoxic clostridia produces their toxins in the liver, thus resulting in the disease
Bacillary haemoglobinuria and Black disease (Eg.).
The Neurotoxic clostridia cause the disease by the production of the potent exotoxins
(Neurotoxins) (eg.)
C. tetani Tetanus
C. botulinum Botulism
FAMILY CHARACTERS
Classification
They are pleomorphic, rod shaped; long filaments and involution forms are common.
Spore formation occurs with varying frequency in different species.
The shape and position of the spores vary in different species.
The clostridia are motile with peritrichous flagella
except C.welchii and C.tetani typeVI. C.welchii is capsulated, while others are not.
Clostridia are anaerobic. C.odematiens are strict anaerobes and die on exposure to
oxygen.
C.histolyticum and C.welchii are aerotolerent and may even grow aerobically.
The clostridia are fermentative, oxidase negative and catalase negative organisms.
A very useful media for isolation of clostridia is Robertson‘s cooked meat broth.
Clostridia grow in the medium, rendering the broth turbid most species produces gas.
Saccharolytic species turn the meat pink – C.odematiens, C.septicum,
C.chauvoei and C.welchii.
Proteolytic species turn the meat black and produce foul and pervasive odour -
C.tetani, C. botulinum, C.haemolyticum.
In litmus milk medium, the production of acid, clot and gas can be detected
HISTORY
Tetanus has been known from very early times, having been described by
Hippocrates.
But the knowledge of the disease was achieved only in 1884.
Rosenbach –1886 - demonstrated a slender bacillus with round terminal spores in a
case of tetanus.
Kitasato –1889 – isolated C.tetani in pure culture and reproduced the disease in
animals by inoculation of pure culture.
The Greek term ―tetanus‖ which means ‗contracture‘ has been taken from the Latin
medicine ―rigor‖.
HABITAT
MORPHOLOGY
Cultural characters
C.tetani has feeble proteolytic property, so it does not ferment any sugars.
It forms indole. It is MR and VP negative, nitrates not reduced.
RESISTANCE
The endospores are highly resistant and while boiling kills the spores of most strains
in 15mts.
Autoclaving at 121ºC for 15mts and dry heat temp of 150ºC for more than one hour is
completely sporicidal.
Spores are able to survive in soil for years and they are resistant to most antiseptics.
They are not destroyed by 5% phenol or 0.1% mercuric chloride solution in two weeks
or more.
Iodine (1% aqueous solution) and H2O2 kill the spores within a few hours.
ANTIGENICITY
Ten serological types have been recognized based on the flagellar antigen
(types I to X). Type VI contains non flagellated strains.
All types produce the same neurotoxin- tetanospasmin. Which can be
neutralized by one common antitoxin.
They have a common heat stable somatic antigen shared by all types.
A second somatic antigen is shared by type II, IV, V and X.
TOXINS
Tetanolysin
Tetanospamin
PATHOGENESIS
C.tetani has little invasive power. The endospores enter traumatized tissue or surgical
wounds, especially after castration or docking, via the umbilicus or into the uterus,
following dystocia in cattle and sheep.
The spore implanted in a wound can germinate and multiply only if the conditions
are favourable.
Destruction and necrosis of tissue, lack of drainage in the area, presence of
extraneous matter especially of soil, all create anaerobic conditions and favour
germination of C.tetani spores.
The resultant vegetative cells multiply at the site and produce the potent
tetanospasmin.
This travels via peripheral nerves or blood stream to ganglioside receptors of the
motor nerve terminals and eventually to cells of the ventral horn of the spinal cord,
thus affecting many groups of muscles at various levels.
The toxin acts presynaptically on motor neurons, blocking synaptic inhibition and
causing a spastic paralysis and the characteristic tetanic spasms.
Tetanospasmin binds specifically to gangliosides in nerve tissue and once bound
cannot be neutralized by antitoxin.
When toxin travels up to a regional motor nerve in a limb, tetanus first develops in
the muscles of that limb, then spreads to the opposite limb and moves upwards.
This is known as ascending tetanus and is usually seen only in the less susceptible
animals such as dogs and cats.
Descending (generalized) tetanus is the common form in susceptible species such as
human and horses.
In this form toxin circulating in the blood stream affects the susceptible motor nerve
centers that serve the head and neck first and later the limbs. Once established, signs
of tetanus are similar in all animals.
PATHOGENICITY
Symptoms
It is influenced by several factors, such as the site and nature of the wound, the dose
and toxigenicity of the contaminating organism.
The incubation period is variable from 2 days to several weeks but is commonly 6-12
days.
Initial symptoms include mild stiffness and unwillingness to move. This may proceed
to with head, neck and tail becoming rigid.
Mild twitching of muscles develops into obvious spasms of muscles, which can occur
in response to sudden noises, animal fall over to one side and unable to rise.
In the terminal stages the rigidity of muscles extend from the limbs to the trunk,
nostrils get dilated, earserect , nictitating membrane protruded and mastication
becomes impossible because the mouth cannot be opened – hence called Locked Jaw.
Respiration becomes shallow and rapid before final respiratory failure.
Lesions::No characteristic lesion for this disease but there may be a superficial wound
which has developed from accidental injury or from surgery.
DIAGNOSIS
Direct microscopy
Isolation
Necrotic tissue from a wound or wound exudates can be heated to 800C for 20mts
and used to inoculate a blood agar plate and another blood agar plate containing stiff
agar.
A tube of thioglycollate medium or cooked meat broth could also be inoculated and
sub cultured into blood agar.
The plates are to be incubated anaerobically for 2-3 days. Growth is noticed using a
hand lens as a filamentous growth spreading through out the medium.
The edges of this growth give pure culture on sub cultivation.
Confirmation is done by identification of toxin.
The toxin present in animal‘s serum or in filtrate from cooked meat broth or
thioglycolate medium can be inoculated in to mice S/C or I/M-ly and identified by
neutralization or protection tests using specific antitoxin.
The disease is due to the action of the toxin, and hence, the obvious and most
dependable method of prevention is to build up antitoxic immunity by active
immunization.
Theavailable methods of prophylaxis are
o Surgical attention
o Antibiotics
o Immunization – passive, active or combined.
Surgical attention aims at removal of foreign bodies, necrotic tissue and blood clots,
inorder that an anerobic environment favourable for the tetanus bacillus is not
provided.
Flushing with hydrogen peroxide in the wound area is produces aerobic conditions.
Tetanus can be prevented by antibiotics (Large doses of penicillin) when
administered 4hrs after infection but not after eight hrs. Hence, prompt
administration is essential.
Bacitracin or neomycin may be applied locally.
Penicillin can be given as both injections and orally till healing is established.
Antibiotics have no action on the toxin.
Antitoxin should be administered promptly, either i/vly or into the sub arachnoid
space, on three consecutive days to neutralize unbound toxin.
Toxoid may be given subcutaneously topromote an active immune response even on
those animals, which have received antitoxin.
For prevention, the farm animals should be vaccinated routinely with tetanus toxoid.
HISTORY
The name botulism is derived from sausage (botulus, latin for sausage), an article of
food that used to be associated with the type of food poisoning.
C.botulinum was first isolated by Van Ermengam (1896) from a piece of ham that
caused an outbreak of botulism.
C. botulinum denotes a group of bacteria that produce extremely potent neurotoxins.
These toxins cause botulism , a disease characterized by flaccid paralysis in many
animals and humans.
Botulism is most common in water birds, ruminants, horses, mink and poultry.
Botulism in animals has been called by a variety of names,
o Horses: Spinal typhus / Shaker foal syndrome
o Cattle: Lamsiekte, loin disease and contagious bulbar paralysis
o Water fowl: Limber neck, alkali poisoning and western duck sickness
Botulism is rare in domestic cats. Pigs and dogs are relatively resistant.
HABITAT
The endospores are widely distributed in soils and aquatic environment through out
the world.
The disease botulism is mainly due to the ingestion of preformed toxin.
Germination of the endospores, with growth of vegetative cells and production of
toxin, occurs in anaerobic situations such as contaminated cans of meat, fish or
vegetables, carcases of invertebrate and vertebrate animals, rotting vegetation and
baled silage.
MORPHOLOGY
RESISTANCE
Clostridium botulinum spores are highly resistant, surviving several hours at 1000C
and for upto 10mts at 1200C.
But spores can be killed at 1210C for 15mts, while the toxins are destroyed at 1000C
for 20mts.
ANTIGENS AND TOXINS
The toxins differ from other exotoxins in that it is not released during the life of the
organism.
It is appears in the medium only on the death and autolysis of the cell.
It is believed to be synthesized initially as a nontoxic protoxin or progenitor toxin.
Trypsin and other enzymes activate progenitor toxin to active toxin.
The toxin is heat labile and its mol.wt. is 70,000.
One mg of neurotoxins contains more than 120 million mouse lethal doses.
The lethal dose for human is 1-2μg. This toxin acts slowly taking several hours to kill.
C.tetani C.botulinum
Antigenic types Tetanospasmin (one Eight different toxins produced by types A-G
of toxin antigenic type)
PATHOGENESIS
C.botulinum is non invasive and virtually non infectious. Botulism is of three types.
Wound botulism
Infant botulism
It occurs when spores are ingested in food and get germinate in the intestines when
the normal flora has not been fully established.
This form is seen in human infants (Floppy baby syndrome) and as rare epidemics of
type C in broiler chickens and turkey poults.
PATHOGENICITY
Symptoms
In cattle, the incubation period varies between 2-10 days depending upon the dose of
toxin ingested.
Initially there will be excitation, followed by incoordination and paralysis of the hind
limbs.
There will be paralysis of muscles in the mouth, pharynx and neck, resulting in the
animal being unable to swallow and the tongue protruding from the mouth. This is
followed by death.
In South Africa this condition is termed as lamsiekte in cattle caused by type D,
especially in the phosphorus deficient animals.
In poultry it results with the ingestion of type C toxin and the disease is known as
duck sickness or western duck disease and Limberneck in chicken.
The symptoms include paralysis of the wings, legs and neck, protrusion of nictitating
membrane, diarrhoea and comatase before recovering in 5-6 days time.
Lesions
Pathological changes are noticed in the CNS, especially the brain stem and
3rd ventricle, catarrhal gastroenteritis, hepatitis and nephrosis
DIAGNOSIS
The diagnosis of botulism is based on history, clinical signs and demonstration and
identification of toxin in serum of moribund or recently dead animals as well as the
detection of toxin and /or C.botulinum in the suspected foodstuff.
Toxin demonstration
Serum or centrifiuged serum exudates from animals can be directly inoculated i/v ly
(0.3ml) or i/p ly (0.5ml) into mice.
If toxin is present the characteristic wasp waist appearance in the mice will be seen in
a few hrs or upto 5 days.
The appearance is due to abdominal breathing because of paralysis of respiratory
muscles.
Extraction of toxin in foodstuffs is accomplished by grinding the material in saline.
The suspension is centrifuged and the supernatant is filtered through a 0.45μm filter.
As the toxin can be in a protoxin form 9 parts of filtrate are treated with one part of
1% trypsin solution and incubated at 370C for 45mts.
Mice or guinea pigs are inoculated intra-peritoneally.
Toxin identification
Mouse (or guinea pig) neutralization tests using a polyvalent antitoxin initially,
followed by monovalent antitoxin.
Learning objectives
Classificaiton of Cl.perfringens
Diseases caused by Clostridium perfringens in domestic animals and poultry
Morphology cultural and biochemical characteristics of Clostridium perfringens
Stormy fermentation and Nagler's reaction
Enterotoxaemias, struck, pulpy kidney disease and necrotic enteritis
General approaches used to demonstrate and identify toxins of enterotoxigenic
clostridia
HISTORY
Clostridial enterotoxaemias are acute, highly fatal intoxications that affect sheep,
lambs, calves, piglets and occasionally foals.
The diseases are caused by the major exotoxins (enterotoxins) of Clostridium
perfringens types B, C, D and occasionally types A and E.
The bacillus was originally cultivated by Achalme (1891), but it was first described in
detail by Welch and Nuttal (1892)-who isolated it from the blood and organs of
cadaver.
HABITAT
MORPHOLOGY
Gram +ve, bacillus, straight, parallel sides, rounded or truncated ends, occur either
singly or in chains or small bundles.
All the types of C.perfringens produce the alpha toxin, that is a lecithinase.
On the half of the plate without the antitoxin, the lecithin in the medium is attacked
causing opalescence around the streak.
The lecithinase reaction is neutralized on the other half of the plate with the antitoxin
but the growth of C.perfringens is unaffected.
C.welchii ferments several sugars (glucose, maltose, lactose and sucrose) and
produces acid and gas. Indole –ve, MR +ve, VP-ve, H2S +ve.
RESISTANCE
Spores are usually destroyed within 5 minutes by boiling, but those of the food
poisoning strains of type A and type C resist boiling for 1-3 hrs.
Autoclaving temp is lethal.
TOXINS
Classification
PATHOGENECITY
Food poisoning Sudden onset, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and nausea. But vomiting is
uncommon. Short course and rarely fatal
Enterotoxaemic jaundice Depression, anaemia, icterus, haemoglobinuria and lambs die within 6-12hrs
of first signs known as the yellows or yellow lamb disease
Lamb dysentry A haemorrhagic and rapidly fatal enterotoxaemia. Lambs are often found
dead
Haemorrhagic enterotoxaemia Dysentery, collapse and death. Small intestine is dark red and has gas
(Clostridial enteritis) bubbles in mucosa
Necrotic enteritis in broilers Depression, diarrhoea, death in a few hrs. Mortality 2-50%. Mucosa of small
intestine has a brown psuedomembrane. Most common in deep litter units.
Pulpy kidney disease (Over Odema of brain, glycosuria, sudden death. Excess fluid in body cavity, focal
eating disease) symmetrical encephalomalacia occurs in well-grown lambs.
DIAGNOSIS
Gram stained smears can be made from the mucosa of the small intestine of a
recently dead animal.
Large numbers of Gram-positive rods are suggestive of C.welchii.
Saccharolytic in Robertson's cooked meat media, opalescence in egg yolk agar,
haemolysis on blood agar, stormy clot fermentation and sugar fermentation tests are
helpful for identification.
Histopathology on brain sections helps to demonstrate focal symmetrical
encephalomalacia in pulpy kidney disease.
Rapid kidney autolysis, pulpy cortical softening and Glucosuria are suggestive of
pulpy kidney disease.
Collect 20-30ml of ileal contents from a recently dead animal and send it to the
laboratory as soon as possible.
The ileal contents are centrifuged and the clear supernatant is tested for toxin.
In ileal contents, the epsilon and iota toxins are usually in the active form.
To demonstrate the toxin 0.4ml of the clarified ileal content can be inoculated i/v ly
into mice.
If mouse dies within 5 mts this is probably due to shock. Death from toxin usually
occurs within 10hrs.
Identification of toxin in the clarified ileal content is carried out by a neutralization
test by using suitable antitoxin.
Before the lambing season the ewes are vaccinated with formalised whole culture or
alum precipitated vaccine.
The resulting passive immunity, with unweaned lambs, derived from colostrum
protect lambs for first 3 weeks of life.
Similarly alum precipitated trypsin –treated toxoid is also satisfactory.
Lambs can also be vaccinated by giving the first dose within 72 hrs of birth and
repeated at 4 weeks of age.
Immunity may not last more than 6-12 months unless booster dose is given.
Learning objectives
HABITAT
Large, pleomorphic, Gram+ve rods with oval to cylindrical subterminal spores are
characteristic.
There is little or no swelling of the mother cell, non-capsulated, motile by
peritrichous flagella.
Clostridium novyi type B and C.haemolyticum are very demanding in both their
anaerobic and nutritional requirements.
Very strict anaerobic procedures are necessary and media containing cysteine should
be used. These clostridia can die within 15mts of being exposed to atmospheric O2 .
These organisms are difficult to grow on primary culture and the growth isenhanced
by agar enriched with glucose or freshly prepared blood or fresh brain infusions.
On blood agar C.novyi produces characteristic large, irregular colonies with a rhizoid
edge and a large zone of clear haemolysis.
On moist surface of solid media after 3-4 days of incubation colonial motility
develops which is characterized by the movement of daughter colonies moving away
from parent colonies in spirals or arc and few return and fuse to the parent colony.
In horse blood agar, the colonies are haemolytic, small and usually rhizoidal in
nature.
Areas of hemolysis develop beneath the colonies and develop into wider zone after
48-72hrs incubation.
In Sheep blood agar very slight haemolysis develop. In Robertson‘s cooked meat
medium C.novyi type D is very strongly proteolytic.
Type A, B and C are saccharolytic. The lecithinase activity of beta toxin of type B and
D, and Gamma toxin of type A produces quite distinct opacity changes on egg-yolk
agar.
C.novyi type A exhibits lipase activity on egg-yolk agar.
It will produce characteristic iridescent pearly layer on the surface of the colonies,
extending on to the surface of the medium immediately surrounding them.
C.novyi type A is the only species among clostridia that produces both a lecithinase
and a lipase.
Saccharolytic type ferment glucose and maltose but not lactose.
RESISTANCE
Spores of most strains survive heating to 950C for 15mts. But are killed at
autoclaving.
Spores are resistant to 5% phenol, 10% formalin or 0.1% merthiolate.
They are killed rapidly by exposure to hypochlorite.
Spores remain viable for years in soil.
TOXINS
C.novyi possess several somatic and flagellar antigens, which are not of
muchimportance .
Based on toxin production C.novyi is classified into 4 types.
C.novyi synthesizes five major toxins, α, β, γ, δ and ε.
Alpha Beta
C. novyi type A + -
Type B + +
Type C - -
Type A produces all toxins except beta. Type C isolates are non toxigenic.
In addition to this type B also produce zeta, eta and theta toxin.
o Alpha toxin produced by type A and B is lethal, necrotizing, causes increased
capillary permeability, and is toxic to several tissues including muscle, heart
and liver.
o Beta toxin is a lecithinase and produced by type B and by C.haemolyticum in
greater amounts.
o This may account for the haemolytic crisis and death in bacillary
haemoglobinuria.
o Gamma toxin is a necrotising phospholipase D.
o Delta toxin is an oxygen labile haemolysin.
o Epsilon toxin is a lipolytic enzyme.
o Zeta toxin is partly haemolytic.
o Theta toxin is a lipase.
o Eta toxin is a tropomyosinase, which degrades tropomyosin and myosin and
may play a role in destruction of infected muscles.
PATHOGENESIS
In black disease and bacillary haemoglobinuria, the spores, normally present in the
intestine, may reach the liver and remain dormant in the kupffer cells.
Any destruction of liver tissue could be the initiating factor.
The tissue damage is usually due to migration of immature liver fluke
(Fasciola hepatica), and anaerobic conditions permits germination of spores, growth
of vegetative cells and subsequent production of toxin.
Alpha toxin produced in the local area of necrosis and in the liver is adsorbed into the
circulation and results in systemic effects.
In case of bacillary haemoglobinuria the dominant toxin is beta toxin.
Big head in rams develop when sub cutaneous tissues traumatized during fights are
subsequently invaded by C.novyi type A.
The oedema is the result of vascular damage inflicted by the alpha toxin.
PATHOGENECITY
Symptoms
Big head
o Odematous swelling occurs in head, face and neck.
o It will be followed by collapse and death of animals.
o The mortality rate may be more than 90%.
Black disease
o Acute toxaemia leads to sudden death.
o The signs include rapidly decreasing ability to move, unsteady gait and
collapse.
Bacillary haemoglobinuria
o Common in summer months, affected animals suffer from fever, abdominal
pain, port-wine coloured urine , diarrhoea and haemoglobinuria. The
mortality rate is 90%.
Lesions
Black disease
o Number of clearly defined gray-yellow foci (necrotic areas) in the liver.
o The lesion consists of a central core of necrosis surrounded by a zone of
leucocytes in which there will be masses of C.novyi. Excess fluid in body
cavities.
o Straw-coloured exudates will be present in pericardial and peritoneal cavities.
o Extensive subcutaneous and bloodstained odema can be noticed in the
carcass.
o Venous congestion occurs that darkens the skin(Black disease).
Bacillary haemoglobinuria:
o Number of typical anaemic infarcts in the liver.
o Pale and raised areas surrounded by a blue-red zone.
o There will be blood stained intestinal contents, dark colored urine in the
bladder, marked icterus of the carcass, widespread odema and haemorrhages
in the myocardium
Based on history
Direct Gram stained smears
o Presence of characteristic liver lesions together with large number of Gram
+ve rods in liver impression smears from a recently dead animal is suggestive
of the disease.
Flourescence Antibody Test is useful for the identification of C.novyi type B
and C.haemolyticum in acetone fixed liver impression smears.
Isolation of organism from affected tissue (as like other clostridial infections) and by
characteristic cultural characters.
Animal inoculation
o Toxin in the liver can be demonstrated by intra muscular injection of
homogenates into guinea pigs.
o The pathogenicity isenhanced if the homogenate is added to an equal
amount of 5% CaCl2 solution before inoculation.
o The guinea pigs die in 1-2 days with very extensive subcutaneous edema.
Specific antitoxin is not readilyavailable for neutralization tests.
Gram +ve, highly pleomorphic, chracteristic long filamentous forms are seen in
stained smears of affected muscle.
Cigar shaped rods and citron forms are more common. Spores are oval, central or
subterminal. Non-capsulated, motile by peritrichous flagella.
Strict anaerobe, growth at an opt.temp of 370C, growth ispromoted by glucose.
On ordinary media, the colonies are irregular and transparent initially, turning
opaque (large, grayish white on continued incubation).
The colonies are swarming and spreading over the entire surface.
On stiff agar, the colonies are irregular with a rhizoid edge. Some strains produce
smooth, round colonies.
In cooked meat medium meat turns pink with rancid odour, and produces abundant
gas (because, it is saccharolytic).
Like, C.perfringens, the C.septicum inoculated into litmus milk produces the classical
stormy clot or stormy fermentation reaction.
Ferment glucose, lactose, maltose and salicin but not sucrose. Acid and gas are not
produced.
Six groups have been recognized, based on somatic and flagellar antigens.
Clostridum septicum produces at least four distinct toxins and fibrinolysin.
o The α toxin is oxygen stable haemolysin, dermonecrotic and lethal.
o The β toxin is leucotoxic and DNAse.
o The γ toxin is a hyaluronidase.
o The δ toxin is an oxygen labile haemolysin.
α toxin has direct effect on cardiac muscle and is capable of causing capillary damage.
Iron is required both for growth of bacteria and for production of α toxin.
PATHOGENESIS
Braxy in sheep
In this exogenous gas gangrene infection, spores are introduced into wounds where
they may germinate in the anaerobic necrotic material and toxin is produced by the
vegetative cells.
PATHOGENECITY
Symptoms
Braxy usually occurs in well-nourished one-year-old sheep, ailing animals show signs
of abdominal pain and diarrhoea. Death occurs within few hours.
In malignat odema, infected wound, become gas gangrenous.
Fever, soft swelling around wound spreading to muscles.
Swelling odematous and wet with much exudates and gas. Muscles appear dark red to
black color.
Lesions
In braxy, the lesion may be confined to the abomasum; there will be the characteristic
area of haemorrhagic inflammation in the wall of the abomasum.
There will be an extensive quantity of blood stained fluid in the peritoneal cavity.
Classification
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENECITY
Symptoms
The disease usually occurs in young cattle of 6 months to about 2-3 years of age.
The most obvious sign is crepitating swelling particularly in the hind or fore quarter
which rackels when rubbed with the fingers as a result of gas production.
The affected animal will become lame and the affected muscles shows trembling with
violent twitching. Death usually occurs within 24 hours.
In sheep an acute febrile condition develops within 1-2 days following aninjury and
a typical black quarter lesion can be observed at the site. Death occurs suddenly
Lesion
In the central part of the lesion there is usually a well-defined area of muscle, which is
dark red in colour, dry, necrotic and filled with small gas bubbles, which give a
swollen appearance to the muscles.
The lesion has a characteristic rancid odour. Surrounded this area of muscle there
will be yellowish or blood stained oedematous fluid.
In ewes there will be necrosis of the vaginal mucosa and skin with extensive oedema
involving the hind limbs and thigh muscles.
DIAGNOSIS, CONTROL AND PREVENTION
Based on History
Based on Symptoms - The most obvious sign is crepitate swelling particularly
in the hind or fore quarter which rackels when rubbed with the fingers as a
result of gas production
Smears prepared from the lesions and oedmatous fluid reveal Gram positve
rod.
Isolation can be done from the center of the lesion, oedematous fluid and from
heart blood & spleen.
FAT used to differentiate from C. septicum
Broth cultures or oedematous fluid from the lesions can be tested for toxicity
and specific neutralization by antitoxin in mice or guinea pigs.
o The most reliable results are obtained from using a formalized alum
precipitated whole culture that confers immunity against the bacteria
as well as the toxin.
o For economic reasons a multi-component vaccine containing C.
chauvoei, C. septicum, C.welchii type D and C. tetani is used.
o A stronger immunity is stimulated by two doses of vaccine at a time
interval of at least 2-3 weeks
CHAPTER-8: LISTERIA
Learning objectives
To know in detail about,
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Firmicutes
Class Bacilli
Order Bacillales
Family Listeriaceae
Genus Listeria
Listeria has been divided into seven species with two distinct groups.
Among which the Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria ivanovii are haemolytic and
pathogenic for animals.
The Listeria murrayi and Listeria grayi are nonhaemolytic, rarely isolated and
considered to be non pathogenic.
Among which the genus L. monocytogenes, is the cause of septicaemia, abortion and
CNS infections in a wide range of animal species including humans.
HISTORY
HABITAT
Listeria species are widely distributed in the environment and can be isolated from
soil, faeces, plants, decaying vegetation and silage (pH 5.5) in which the bacteria can
multiply.
Silage is commonly implicated in outbreaks of listeriosis in cattle and sheep.
In poor quality sailage the listerial numbers may reach 107 cfu/kg of silage.
Asymptomatic faecal carriers occur in man and many animal species.
L.monocytogenes can be excreted in bovine milk.
Human foods associated with listeriosis in man include soft cheeses, milk and poultry
meat.
Morphology
L.monocytogenes are medium sized, Gram+ve rods, non-spore forming and non-acid
fast.
Old cultures stain Gram –ve. From rapidly growing cultures or animal tissues the
cells can appear coccal.
They are motile by few (1-5) peritrichous flagella. They are motile at room
temperature, but not at 37°C.
Cultural characteristics
Biochemical properties
All the Listeria species hydrolyse aesculin, Catalase +ve, Oxidase –ve, Indole –ve.
They produced acid from glucose and rhamnose, but not from xylose and mannitol.
Nitrates not reduced.
Resistance
It is killed by moist heat at 55°C for 40 minutes and is readily susceptible to the lethal
effects of disinfectants.
Under natural conditions, in summer they survive for 1 month and in winter for 3-4
months.
Based on somatic and flagellar antigens, so far 16 serovars have been identified.
Of these 16 serovars, all cases of animal and human infections are caused by 3
serotypes. ½ a, ½ b and 4 b.
Numbers indicate O antigen and alphabet indicate H antigens.
PATHOGENESIS
In both cattle and sheep, listeriosis can manifest itself in four ways
o as a CNS infection (meningo encephalitis in adults and meningitis in the
young)
o as abortion
o as a generalized septicaemia with involvement of the liver and other organs
o as mastitis in dairy cattle.
Flow Chart
PATHOGENECITY
Symptoms
Four syndromes
o Subclinical
Infections are the most common form of infection.
Usually outbreak occurs when fed with poor quality, high pH silage,
particularly during cold weather.
o Neonatal infections
Characterised as visceral infections with a septicemia.
Often gastroenteritis and bilateral meningitis.
Deaths are frequent in neonatal animals.
o Listerial abortion
It is a sporadic condition in cattle and sheep.
It occurs after 4-8 months pregnancy. Retained placenta is common.
o Neural Listeriosis (circling disease):
The incubation period ranges from 14 to 40 days.
The disease is more common in winter or early spring.
The clinical presentation of meningoencephalitis in adult ruminants
may begin with signs of depression and confusion.
The ears droop; animal holds its head to one side.
Protrusion of the tongue and salivation are common and twitching or
paralysis of the facial and throat muscles may occur.
When the animal moves, it tends to be in a single direction, giving rise
to the common name of circling disease.
In the terminal stages, the animal may fall and will be unable to rise.
o In poultry, there are signs of
Torticolis
Weakness
Incoordination of legs and
Sudden death in young birds
The disease is usually fatal in sheep, pigs and horses.
Lesions
Micro-abscess in the brain stem, usually unilateral, together with perivascular cuffing
is very characteristic of listeriosis.
The lesions are most common in the mid brain, pons and medulla oblongata.
In addition to this there will be generalized septicaemia, focal necrosis of the liver
and spleen will be seen.
DIAGNOSIS
Stained smears from lesions may reveal Gram +ve rods (often coccobacillary)
Histopathological examination of brain tissue can often give a presumptive diagnosis
of neural listeriosis
Isolation and Identification
o Inoculation of specimens on selective media include blood agar with an
antibiotic supplement or blood agar containing 0.05% potassium tellurite
(inhibitory to Gram –ve).
o Specimens from the visceral form of the disease or from abortion cases are
inoculated directly onto the laboratory media.
o A cold-enrichment procedure is necessary for brain tissue from neural
listeriosis.
o Small pieces of spinal cord and medulla are homogenized and a 10%
suspension is made in a nutrient broth.
o The broth suspension is placed in the refrigerator at 40C and sub cultured on
to blood agar once weekly for upto 12 weeks.
Inoculation in developing chicken embryos causes development of focal necrotic
lesions on the chorio allantoic membrane.(CAM)
Anton‘s test
o Inoculation of live bacterial suspension into the conjunctiva of a rabbit or
guinea pig only L.monocytogenes causes a purulent keratoconjunctivitis
within 24-36hrs of inoculation.
Intra peritoneal inoculation of mice with a 24hr broth culture.
o Both L.monocytogenes and L.ivanovii are pathogenic for mice.
o They die within in 5 days with necrotic lesions present in the liver.
Specimens to be collected
Visceral form
o Material from lesions in liver, kidneys or spleen
Neural form
o Spinal fluid, brain stem, and tissue from several sites in the medulla
oblongata
Abortion
o Placenta (cotyledon), foetal abomasal contents and/or uterine discharges.
Ruminants in early stages of septicaemic listeriosis respond to systemic therapy with
ampicillin or amoxicillin.
Response to antibiotic therapy may be poor in neural listeriosis although prolonged
higher doses of ampicillin or amoxicillin combined with an aminoglycoside may be
effective.
Ocular listeriosis requires treatment with antibiotics and corticosteroids injected
subconjuctivily.
Poor quality silage should be avoided. Vaccination with killed vaccines, which do not
induce effective cell-mediated immune response, is not protective
because L.monocytogenes is an intracellular pathogen. Live, attenuated vaccines,
which contain serovars 1/2a, 1/2b, and 4b are reported to reduce the prevalence of
listeriosis in sheep.
CHAPTER-9: ERYSIPELOTHRIX
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Firmicutes
Class Mollicutes
Family Erysipelotrichaceae
Genus Erysipelothrix
Species Erysipelothrix
rhusiopathiae
HABITAT
The bactrerium is widespread in nature and has been recovered from a wide variety
of wild and domestic animals including mammals, fish (both fresh and salt water),
birds, reptiles and amphibians.
It is present in the soil and can survive for 20 days or longer in alkaline soil.
The major source of infection for swine and turkeys is carrier animals of the same
species.
It is reported that 30-50% of pigs carry the bacterium in their tonsils, other lymphoid
tissues.
It is present in slurry of piglets and can be recovered from the faeces of carrier pigs.
MORPHOLOGY
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Based on heat labile and heat stable antigens so far 23 serotypes have been identified.
Strains of serotype 1 are subdivided into 1a and 1b. Serotypes 1a, 1b and 2 are most
frequently involved in disease in swine.
Hyaluronidase and neuraminidase are produced by some strains.
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENECITY
Symptoms
Erysipelas occurs in pigs of all ages, but pigs from 2 months to one year age are highly
susceptible.
Four forms of clinical disease in swine have been described.
o Acute septicaemia
o Urticarial or diamond skin lesions
o Vegetative endocarditis
o Arthritis
These may occur alone or in combination. Swine erysipelas manifest in three forms.
Acute
sub acute
Sub acute disease is similar to the acute except that it is less severe and animals are
likely to recover within 5-7 days.
chronic course
Specimens to be collected
Treatment
In addition to hyper immune serum, treatment with antibiotics such as penicillin and
tetracyclines are effective.
Workers engaged in the fish and poultry industries are highly susceptible.
The organism enters through minor skin abrasions causing localized cellulitis
referred as erysipeloid.
CHAPTER-10: MYCOBACTERIA
Learning objectives
Classification of Mycobacteria
Morphology, cultural and biochemical characteristics of Mycobacteria
Cultivation methods of Mycobacteria
Pathogenesis of tubercle formation
Isolation and identification of Mycobacteria
Explain the Acid fast staining and tuberculin tests
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Actinobacteria
Class Actinobacteria
Subclass Actinobacteridae
Order Actinomycetales
Suborder Corynebacterineae
Family Mycobacteriaceae
Genus Mycobacterium
The genus includes animal and human pathogens as well as saprophytic members
often referred to as atypical, anonymous, opportunistic, tuberculoid and MOTT
(Mycobacteria other than typical tubercle) bacilli.
CLASSIFICATION
Mycobacterium leprae
o Addition to this the unspecified acid-fast bacilli such as Mycobacterium
senegalense and Mycobacterium farcinogens were isolated from Bovine
farcy.
HISTORY
HABITAT
It has a worldwide distribution. The usual habitats of the great majority of the
cultivable mycobacteria are water and watery habitats, marshes, wet soil, streams,
lakes, rivers.
The source of the pathogenic mycobacteria is usually infected animals.
Mycobacterium bovis is excreted in respiratory discharges, faeces, milk, urine and
semen.
Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium paratuberculosis are shed in faeces
and Mycobacterium tuberculosis mainly in respiratory discharges.
The atypical mycobacteria are widespread in soil, pastures, grass and water.
A few are commensals in animals and may infect them.
MORPHOLOGY
Mycobacteria are slender rods of varying lengths that sometimes show branching
filamentous form resembling ‗fungal mycelium‘.
Hence, the name mycobacteria, meaning fungus like bacteria.
Although cytochemically Gram positive, the Mycobacteria do not take up the dyes of
the Gram stain because the cell walls are rich in lipids – Mycolic acid.
Once a dye has been taken up by the cells they are not easily decolourised, even by
acid-alcohol. Mycobacteria are therefore called as acid-fast bacilli.
They are usually straight or slightly curved rod occurring singly, pairs or in small
groups. The morphology varies from cells of species to species.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is often arranged in serpentine cords.
Mycobacterium kansasi is distinct banded or beaded appearnce, while
Mycobacterium avium is often almost coccoid.
In clinical materials they may appear as bundle of faggots. They are non-motile, non-
sporing and non-capsulated.
Cultural characteristics
Biochemical Properties
They are oxidative. Atypical mycobacteria are catalse positive, while tubercle bacilli
are peroxidase positive.
Niacin production and nitrate reduction is only by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Urease is reduced by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis, but not
by avian strain.
RESISTANCE
The Mycobacteria are resistance to physical influences and will retain their viability
in soil and particles of dried faeces for many months.
They are not specifically heat resistant; being killed at 60ºC in 15-20 mts .
Cultures may be killed by exposure to direct sunlight for two hours.
Bacilli in sputum may remain alive for 20-30 hrs and in droplet nuclei for 8-10 days .
They are relatively resistant to disinfectants i.e. exposure to 5% phenol, 15% H2SO4,
3% nitric acid, 5% oxalic acid and 4% NaOH.
It is destroyed by tincture of iodine in 5mts and by 80% ethanol in 2-10 mts.
PATHOGENESIS
Lesions
PATHOGENECITY
Cattle
Common sites are liver, spleen and lungs. In pigs, the skeleton, especially vertebrate
and long bones, are common sites.
Birds
The grayish white granulomatous lesions are found in the liver and they are also
present in the intestines, spleen and bone marrow.
Specimens to be collected
Specimens from live animals include aspirates from cavities, lymph nodes, biopsies,
tracheobronchial lavages and centrifuged deposit from about 50 ml of milk in the
case of suspected tuberculous mastitis. With dead animals, collect fresh and fixed
(10% formalin) samples of lesions.
Diagnosis
Rabbits (I/V) + ++ ++
Guinea pig (S/C) ++ ++ -
Chicken (I/V) - - ++
Bacteriophage typing: A, B, C, I
Tuberculin test (Intra dermal, double intra dermal, ophthalmic tests in cattle and
wattle test in case of poultry)
Gamma interferon assay, Gas liquid chromatography, PCR, ELISA for detecting
circulating antibodies, FAT , LTT assays can also be used in the diagnosis
Learning objectives
MORPHOLOGY
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
PATHOGENESIS
The organism is shed in the faeces, milk and semen of infected animals.
They remain viable in the environment for up to one year under suitable
conditions.
Calves under one month of age are highly susceptible and they develop clinical
disease than animals infected later in life.
Infection is acquired mainly through ingestion.
The organism is an intra cellular pathogen and cell mediated reactions are mainly
responsible for the enteric lesion.
Ingested mycobacteria, engulfed by macrophages in which they survive and
replicate, are found initially in Peyer‘s patches.
As the disease progresses, an immune mediated granulomatous reaction
develops, with marked lymphocyte and macrophage accumulation in the lamina
propria and submucosa.
The resulting enteropathy leads to loss of plasma proteins and malabsorption of
nutrients and water.
PATHOGENICITY
Symptoms
Clinical signs develop after prolonged subclinical phase of infection. Affected cattle
are usually more than 2 years of age when signs are first observed.
In cattle, the disease is characterized by diarrhoea, initially intermittent, dark and
semisolid, but becoming persistent and profuse.
Progressive weight loss results without loss of appetite, leading to emaciation and
eventually death.
The mortality rate may approach 100%. Asymptomatic carrier cattle have an
increased incidence of mastitis and infertility.
In sheep and goats, the disease is clinically evident only in mature animals. The
diarrhoea is less marked and may be absent.
Lesions
DIAGNOSIS
Specimens to be collected
Specimens for direct microscopy from live animals include scrapings /pinch biopsies
from the rectum. Faeces may be submitted for culture.
In case of dead animals, tissues from affected region of the intestines and from
regional lymphnodes are useful for histopathology.
Diagnosis by
Phylum Actinobacteria
Class Actinobacteria
Subclass Actinobacteridae
Order Actinomycetales
Suborder Corynebacterineae
Family Nocardiaceae
Genus Nocardia
History
Nocard described this organism in 1888, following its isolation from a case of bovine
farcy , hence the name of the type species is Nocardia farcinica.
Habitat
MORPHOLOGY
Nocardia has the ability to form Gram-positive, branching filaments of less than 1um
in d.m.
It is closely related to Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium and Rhodococcus species.
They are obligate aerobes. Some produce true mycelia and some strains are acid-fast.
All species are non-motile.
Gram stained smears from lesions revealed Gram-positive branching filaments that
often showed fragmentation into coccobacillary elements.
The modified ZN stained smears exhibit a similar morphology but most of the
filaments retain the carbol-fuchsin dye and stain red.
The Nocardia species grow very well in blood agar incubated aerobically at 370C for
up to 7 days.The colonies on blood agar are often vivid white and powdery if aerial
filaments and spores are formed. Occasionally the colonies are smooth, heaped and
variably pigmented.
Inoculate the suspected colonies from blood agar into Sabouraud dextrose agar
(SDA) and incubate at 370C for up to 10 days.
Both types of colonies firmly adherents to the agar surface. The colonies on SDA are
dry, wrinkled and yellow, becoming deep orange color with age.
Gram-stained smears from colonies show Gram-positive branching filaments that
characteristically break up into rods or coccobacillary elements with age.
An MZN –stained smear from young culture reveals red staining, branching
filaments.
Biochemical Properties
To differentiate Nocardia species tests such as decomposition of casein,
hypoxanthine, tyrosine, urea and xanthine are useful.
They are oxidase and Catalase positive. Reduce nitrates to nitrites. Gelatin not
hydrolyzed.
PATHOGENESIS
Nocardia species have been isolated from a variety of clinical situations, though the
genus is in general an opportunistic pathogen.
In primary nocardiosis, severe, suppurative or cavitary pulmonary infection
simulating tuberculosis is often observed and in some cases, show cutaneous and
subcutaneous abscesses which are diagnostic of N. asteroids.
Blood stream invasion with secondary, often fatal, involvement of the internal organs
and the central nervous system are seen in N. asteroids.
In the bovine species the mostimportant disease condition is mastitis whose
presentation is in the form of extensive fibrosis. N. asteroids is the most often
isolated species.
DIAGNOSIS
Specimens to be collected
o Specimens should include exudates, aspirates, mastitic milk samples, tissue
from granulomas and thin sections from granulomas in 10% formalin for
histopathology.
Based on direct microscopy
o Soft granules are not common in exudates from N. asteroides infections.
Smears made from exudates, aspirates, granulomatous tissue and from
centrifuged deposits of bovine mastitic milk are stained by Gram's and MZN
stain.
o Gram-stained smears reveal Gram-positive branching filaments that often
show some fragmentation into coccobacillary elements.
o The MZN –stained smears exhibit a similar morphology but most of the
filaments retain the carbol fuchsin dye and stain red.
Based on isolation and identification
o Characteristic colonial morphology on blood and SDA agar and microscopic
appearance.
Based on biochemical reactions
Differential diagnosis with Actinomyces
Actinomyces infections respond well to penicillin and other commonly used
antibiotics, nocardial infections are often refractory to treatment and N. asteroides is
susceptible only to limited range of antimicrobial agents such as Trimethoprim-
sulphamethoxazole or erythromycin.
Note
CHAPTER-12: ACTINOMYCETES
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
The actinomycetes comprise a heterologous group of prokaryotes that have the ability
to form Gram positive, branching filaments of less than 1μm in diameter.
The main animal pathogens in the actinomycetes are in the
genera Actinomyces, Arcanobacterium, Actinobaculum, Nocardia and Dermatophil
us.
Non-pathogenic, prolific producers of antimicrobial substances – streptomyces are
also included in Actinomycetes
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Actinobacteria
Class Actinobacteria
Subclass Actinobacteridae
Order Actinomycetales
Suborder Actinomyceneae
Family Actinomycetacea
The Actinomyces species are present on mucous membrane of the host animal, often
in the oral cavity, tonsils, and nasopharynx.
The soil is the natural habitat of many Actinomyces species.
The generic name Actinomyces was first used by Harz (1879). Boestrom (1891)
isolated Actinomyces bovis.
Cummins (1962) clearly demonstrated Actinomyces were bacteria and they were
distinct from other branching genera.
MORPHOLOGY
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
They cannot grow on Sabouraud dextrose agar. Actinomyces require enriched media
for growth. They grow well on sheep or ox blood agar.
Actinomyces bovis is capnophilic (i.e. required 5-10% CO2 for its growth).
Arcanobacterium pyogenes and Actinomyces viscous will grow aerobically but 5-
10% CO2will enhance their growth.
Actinomyces bovis and Actinomyces viscous usually require 2-4 days but the growth
of Arcanobacterium pyogenes can usually be seen in 24 hrs.
Actinomyces bovis colonies are non-haemolytic, very small (< 1nm), white, rough or
smooth and adhere tenaciously to solid medium.
Gram stained smears show Gram positive, slightly branched filaments or short forms.
On subculture, the bacterium may become diphtheroidal or coccobacillary.
Actinomyces bovis grows well in thioglycollate medium, giving a characteristic
diffuse growth in about 7-10 days.
In broth cultures, it grows in coarse aggregates, which in some cases may result in a
granular deposit with a completely clear supernatant.
Arcanobacterium pyogenes produce a hazy- haemolysis after 24hrs incubation along
the streak lines.
At 48 hrs incubation, the colonies are surrounded by a narrow zone of complete
haemolysis.
Arcanobacterium pyogenes has the ability to pit a loeffler serum slope in 24-48 hrs.
(i.e. A loopful of pure culture of the medium is taken and a heavy inoculum is made in
a small area in the center of the slope, taking care not to break the surface of the
medium. The medium is incubated at 370C for 24 –48 hrs).
Arcanobacterium pyogenes will give positive CAMP test with Staphylococcus
aureus (i.e.enhancement of staphylococcal haemolysis).
In litmus milk, the organism produces acid and clot after 3 days of growth.
Actinomyces viscous commonly produces two colonial forms, one being smooth,
entire, convex and glistening and the other is smaller, rough dry and irregular.
Neither is haemolytic. The larger colonial type yields Gram-positive diphtheroid
forms and the smaller colony has short branching filaments.
Biochemical tests
Resistance
Actinomyces are killed at a moist heat temperature of 600C for 20 mts and they are
susceptible to various disinfectants.
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENICITY
Symptoms
Lesions
Diagnosis
Specimens to be collected
It includes pus, exudates, aspirates, tissue and scrapings from the wall
of abscesses.
If they have been incised. A volume of fluid or pus should be collected
and submitted, if possible, rather than just a small amount on a swab.
Thin sections of granulomas in 10% formalin are useful for
histopathology.
Direct microscopy
o The pus or exudate is placed in a Petridish and washed carefully with a little
distilled water to expose the yellowish sulphur granules of Actinomyces
bovis or the softer greyish white granules of Actinomyces viscous.
o A granule is placed on a microscopic slide in a drop of 10% KOH and gently
crushed by applying pressure on the cover slip.
o The characteristic clubs can be examined under the low power microscope.
o If it is stained with Gram‘s, the ray fungus can be demonstrated.
Isolation and Identification of organism
Fat
Pitting of loeffler serum slope and CAMP test in case of Arcanobacterium pyogenes
Learning objectives
MORPHOLOGY
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Actinobacteria
Class Actinobacteria
Subclass Actinobacteridae
Order Actinomycetales
Suborder Corynebacterineae
Family Corynebacteriaceae
Genus Corynebactrerium
Family Nocardiaceae
Genus Rhodococcus
MORPHOLOGY
They are Gram-positive slender rods with a tendency to clubbing at one or both ends;
they are non-sporing, non-motile, non-capsulated and non-acid fast.
They have granules composed of (high energy phosphate stores) –
polymetaphosphate.
The granules are more strongly Gram positive than the rest of the bacterial cell.
Stained with Loeffler‘s methylene blue, the granules take up a reddish purple color
and hence they are called metachromatic granules. They are called as volutin or
Babes Ernst Granules.
They are often situated at the poles of the bacilli and are called polar bodies.
Special stains, such as Albert‘s, Neisser‘s and Ponder‘s have been devised for
demonstrating the granules clearly.
Stained smears from animal tissues often reveal groups of cells in parallel (Palisades)
or cells at sharp angles to each other (Chinese letter or Cuneiform arrangement).
This is due to the incomplete separation of the daughter cells after binary fission.
Rhodococcus equi can appear as a Gram-positive coccus or a rod or club shaped form
arranged in clusters. It is capsulated and sometimes weakly acid fast.
CUTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
On blood agar, Corynebacterium ovis colonies are small, white, dry and non-
haemolytic at 24hr incubation.
A narrow zone of haemolysis occurs at 72 hrs incubation. After several days
incubation the colonies can reach 3mm in d.m and appear dry, crumbly and cream in
color.
Corynebacterium bovis colonies are small, white, dry and non-haemolytic.
As it is a lipophilic corynebacterium, they grow very well on media enriched with 0.5
–1% tween 80.
Rhodococcus equi colonies are small, smooth, shiny and non-haemolytic after 24 hrs
incubation. But on 4-day culture, the colonies become larger, mucoid and salmon-
pink in color.
The salmon-pink pigmentation is not easily seen against a red background.
So, the mucoid colonies and salmon-pink pigmentation can easily be demonstrated
on nutrient agar (4-day culture).
Nutrient agar enriched with yeast extract and glucose is useful forenhancing the
salmon pink pigmentation.
The renale groups are non-haemolytic. On nutrient agar, after 48 hrs
incubation, Corynebacterium renale produces dull yellow colonies.
The Corynebacterium pilosum produces distinct yellow and Corynebacterium
cystitidis exhibit white colonies.
On milk agar, Corynebacterium renale showing casein digestion.
While Corynebacterium pilosum and Corynebacterium cystitidis do not give this
reaction.
On CAMP tests, the Corynebacterium ovis, Rhodococcus equi and Corynebacterium
renale interacting with beta haemolytic strains of Staphylococcus aureus gives the
following results.
Biochemical characters
They are catalase positive, oxidase negative. Except Corynebacterium bovis others are
urease positive.
The renale group is very strong urease positive (less than one hour).
All diptheroids ferments sugar except Rhodococcus equi. Corynebacterium bovis and
Corynebacterium renale ferments both glucose and maltose.
Two biotypes of Corynebacterium ovis are recognized.
The ovine/caprine strains lack nitrate-reducing capacity, while the equine/bovine
strains usually reduce nitrate.
Resistance
PATHOGENESIS
Corynebacterium ovis
Corynebacterium renale
Corynebacterium renale is a normal flora in the lower urogenital tract. This group
possess fimbriae which allow attachment to the urogenital mucosa.
The major predisposing factors that put a cattle at risk are the shortness of the female
urethra and the effects of pregnancy and parturition, thus, disease occurs most
frequently in mature cows.
The vulva may be animportant portal entry for Corynebacterium renale into the
urinary tract.
Bacteria grow readily in urine and ascend (through vesiculo uretharal reflex) to the
kidney.
Corynebacterium renale has high urease activity. The urease is nephrotoxic and
produces pyelonephritis.
Rhodococcus equi
Horses Ulcerative
and Cattle lymphangitis
(Nitrate
reducing
biotype)
PATHOGENICITY
Symptoms
Corynebacterium ovis
Corynebacterium renale
Rhodococcus equi
Lesions
Corynebacterium ovis
Corynebacterium renale
The kidneys are enlarged, necrosis and suppuration in the medulla. Wedge shaped
suppurative foci in the cortex.
The kidney pelvis contains blood and pus
The bladder contains blood and pus with petechial haemorrhages and ulceration of
the tract.
Rhodococcus equi
Characterized by pyogranulamatous lesions with abscesses in the lung, associated
lymphnodes and pus in the bronchi.
Diagnosis
Specimens
o Pus or exudates are collected from suppurative conditions and mid stream
urine for isolation of the Corynebacterium renale.
o A tracheal wash technique with infusion of saline, can be used for the recovery
of Rhodococcus equi from affected foals.
Diagnosis is mainly based on history, symptoms and lesions
Isolation and identification of the organism
o Based on microscopical appearance, colonial morphology on blood agar,
CAMP tests and Biochemical tests.
CHAPTER-14: SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phyum Proteobacteria
Order Enterobacteriales
Family Enterobacteriaceae
Genus Escherichia
Genus Salmonella
Genus Shigella
Genus Citrobacter
Genus Enterobacter
Genus Edwardsiella
Genus Klebsiella
Genus Morganella
Genus Proteus
Genus Providencia
Genus Serratia
Genus Yersinia
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Coliforms, white scours, watery mouth, mushy-yolk disease and Hjarre's disease
Diseases caused by E.coli in domestic animals
Antigens, toxins and virulence factors of E.coli
IMViC test
Classification of pathogenic E.coli
Role of Mac Conkey agar in diagnosis of Enterobacteriaceae
General approaches used to isolate, identify and serotyping of E.coli
HABITAT
E. coli is a natural inhabitant of the large intestine and lower small intestine of all
mammals.
It is usually present in large numbers in carnivores, omnivores than in herbivores.
E .coli is voided in faeces and can survive in faecal particles, dust and water for weeks
or months.
The presence of E .coli in water samples, being tested for potability, is taken as
evidence of faecal pollution.
This genus is named after Theobald Escherich, who was first to describe the Colon
bacillus under the name Bacterium coli commune (1885).
Morphology
Gram negative, rods, non-spores, non-acid fast, occurs either in singly or in pairs.
Usually motile with peritrichous flagella. Some strains possess a polysaccharide
capsule and fimbriae.
Cultural characteristics
It is an aerobe and facultative anaerobe, optimum temp. is 37oC, good growth occurs
on ordinary media.
Colonies are large, thick, grayish white, moist, smooth and opaque.
The 'S' forms are seen on fresh isolation.
The 'R' forms seen on repeated subculture.
On blood agar, many strains, especially those isolated from pathological conditions,
are Beta haemolytic.
As they are very strong lactose fermenters, the colonies on MacConkey agar are bright
pink. Because of its ability to ferment sugars, it gives yellow - green colonies on
Brilliant green agar (BGA) and yellow colonies on XLD agar.
On Eosin methylene blue agar (EMB), E.coli colonies have a unique and
characteristic metallic sheen. Click here for visual
In nutrient broth, growth occurs as general turbidity and a heavy deposit, which
disperses completely on shaking.
Biochemical properties
The four-biochemical tests- IMViC- (Indole, Methyl Red, Voges- Proskauer, Citrate
utilization) are widely employed to identify E.coli.
Resistance
E.coli remains in the environment (water, feed, dust) for weeks.
Some strains are more heat resistant and they will survive at 60°C for 15 min or 55oC
for 60 min.
They are more sensitive to lethal action of phenol and cresol.
The capsular antigens (K) are polysaccharides and the cell wall or somatic (O)
antigens are determined by the sugar side chains on the LPS of the outer membrane.
The Flagellar (H) and Fimbrial (F) antigens are proteins.
Three kinds of K antigens L, A, B have been described based on the effect of heat on
the agglutinability, antigenicity and antibody binding power.
The O, H and K antigens can be used to serotype strains of E.coli. So far, 164 types of
O antigens, 103 K antigens and 75 H antigens have been recognized.
The antigenic pattern of a strain is recorded as the number of particular antigen it
bears for eg: 0157: K85: H19.
Capsule
o The capsular polysaccharide is antiphagocytic and also protects the cell wall
from the damaging effects of complement.
Cell wall
o The endotoxin (lipid A) is the toxin associated with colisepticaemias and the
toxaemia in coliform mastitis.
o Lipid A also interferes with the complement components that are responsible
for the attack on the outer membrane of E.coli.
o Endotoxin is released when bacteria die and lyse.
o The effects of endotoxin in the animal body include fever, leukopenia followed
by leukocytosis and hyperglycemia with a subsequent fall in blood sugar and
lethal shock after a latent period.
Fimbriae/ Pili
o Fimbrial antigens are adhesins (i.e. they confer the adhesive properties on the
organism).
o Several major specific adhesins Type I (mannose sensitive), mannose
resistant K88 (F4) and K99 (F5), F6 and F 41 allow the attachment of E.coli to
RBC's or glycoproteins on the surface of the epithelial cells of jejunum and
ileum with consequent colonization.
Enterotoxins
o Both heat labile (LT) and heat stable (ST) enterotoxins are produced by the
ETEC strains that also have the K88, K99 or other colonizing agents.
o The LT enterotoxin is a large molecular weight protein and is antigenically
related to cholera toxin, which causes stimulation of asenylate cyclase activity.
o The ST enterotoxin is also a protein and there are two types, STa and STb. STa
toxin increases the guanylate cyclase system.
Verotoxins or shiga like toxins or Odema disease toxin
o It inhibits protein synthesis in host cells following interaction with 60S
ribosomal subunit.
o There are two types,SLT I / VT-1- that are neutralized by shiga antitoxin, SLT
2 / VT2e - which causes odema disease in pigs and haemorrhagic colitis in
man and it is not neutralized by shiga antitoxin.
o Shiga like toxin can cause destruction of intestinal epithelial cells where there
is dense adherence of the pathogenic E.coli.
Haemolysins
o E.coli strains produce both alpha and beta haemolysin.
o The alpha haemolysin is a protein that damages host cell membranes and also
increases the availbility of iron, which is required for invading organisms in
the host.
Siderophores
o Siderophores – iron-binding molecules are particularlyimportant for the
invasive strains.
o In response to low level of iron, the siderophores – aerobactin and
enterobactin are synthesized and released which allows the bacteria to
multiply in an environment of limited concentration of free iron.
Colicins
o Colicins are distinctive class of proteinaceous antibiotic substances produced
by strains of E.coli, which was described, by Gratia and Frederiq in 1946.
o They are 40-60 Kda, plasmid encoded proteins that are released
extracellularly.
o Characteristically, they become attached to specific receptors on the surface of
susceptible bacteria, causing the death of these organisms.
o Colicin V (COLv) is found primarily among virulent bacteria.
o It is plasmid encoded, small molecule and is released by an export
mechanism.
o The Col V plasmid also encode for virulence, increased serum survival, altered
motility, changes in hydrophobicity and facilitates attachment to appropriate
host cells.
PATHOGENESIS
Predisposing factors
PATHOGENICITY
Classification of pathogenic E.coli
Symptoms
Horse
Newborn foals suffer from a disease known as Joint ill, navel ill or sleepy foal disease.
There will be a rise in temperature, general weakness, diarrhoea, lameness and death.
Cattle (K99)
It causes white scour or colisepticaemia in calves. In adult cases the symptoms are
scouring, weakness, prostration and death within hours after initial symptoms.
In less acute cases the calves become listless, fail to suck and develop diarrhoea.
The faeces are grayish white in colour (hence the term white scour) with fetid odour.
Other signs include swollen joints and pneumonia. Faeces with blood stained mucus,
subnormal temperature, animal becomes comatose and dies.
E.coli is also associated with acute bovine mastitis.
The udder becomes swollen, hot and painful. Milk production falls rapidly and cease
with systemic disturbances.
E.coli infection causes piglet diarrhoea and edema disease. Piglets 4 days old to 3
weeks of age are susceptible.
There will be diarrhoea, listlessness. They may collapse and die.
There may be odematous lesions in various parts of the body.
They will show twitching of the ears and trembling staggering gait.
Poultry (O2,O78,O1)
Dogs (O42)
Similar lo that of calves. The watery mouth is characterized by severe depression, loss
of appetite, profuse salivation and abdominal distension.
Lesions
Cattle
In cases of pneumonia the lungs may show areas of congestion and necrosis.
The spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes are enlarged and congested. Joint infections
develop as synovitis.
Pigs
The intestine shows area of congestion and the stomach is filled with clotted milk.
In oedema disease the carcass shows edematous areas of eyelids, ears and face.
The abdominal cavity, pleural and pericardial sac may contain clear fluid containing
fibrin.
Poultry
Dogs
The lesions include petechial haemorrhages throughout the carcass, congested lungs
and haemorrhagic gastroenteritis.
DIAGNOSIS
Note
Passive immunization
Passive immunization can be achieved by immunizing sows with E.coli K88 antigen
during gestation.
This results in the production of anti K-88 antibodies in the colostrum and milk.
This when ingested by piglets prevent the adhesive capacity of K88 antigen on the
bacteria.
In cattle the mother should not be moved to new environment shortly before calving.
Active immunization
Three types of vaccines areavailable . They are live E.coli K88 antigen (oral vaccine),
killed E.coli bacteria with K88 antigen (bacterin) and bacteria free K88 antigen
(subunit vaccine).
Vaccination of pregnant cows with purified E.coli K99 fimbrial or whole cell
preparations, often combined with rotavirus antigen, can be used toenhance
colostral protection.
Antibiotics have been used in the prevention and treatment of colibacillosis,
particularly oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, streptomycin, ciprofloxacin, and
enrofloxacin. But this has resulted in the development of resistant strains of E.coli.
CHAPTER-15: SALMONELLA
Learning objectives
HISTORY
HABITAT
The reservoir for salmonellae is the intestinal tract of warm blooded and cold-
blooded animals.
The majority of infected animals become sub clinical excretors resulting in
contamination of water, food and the environment.
In Poultry some serotypes, such as Salmonella enteritidis infect the ovaries and be
transmitted through eggs.
The undercooked egg dishes may result in human food poisoning.
The salmonellae can survive for 9 months or more in moist soil, water, faecal
particles and animal feeds, especially in blood, bone and fish meal.
MORPHOLOGY
Cultural characteristics
They are aerobic and facultative anaerobic, growing readily on simple media over a
pH range of 6.8. Optimum temperature for growth is 370C.
On nutrient agar the colonies are large, circular, low convex and smooth.
The selective enriched media for salmonellae are tetrathionate broth, selenite broth
and rappaport vasiliadis medium.
The host adapted serotypes from pigs and poultry are more fastidious than others.
They do not tolerate selenite broth and tetrathionate broth. In this case, Rappaport is
highly suitable.
After 24-48 hr incubation on selective broth the subculture will be made on
MacConkey agar, Brilliant green agar, XLD and Salmonella Shigella (SS) agar.
The majority of salmonellae, except some strains of S.arizonae, are non-lactose
fermenters and produce pale or colorless colonies on MacConkey agar.
Most salmonellae give an alkaline reaction in brilliant green agar and have red
colonies
On XLD medium, they produce H2S and have red colonies with a black center (Black
center with red skirt).
On Salmonella and Shigella agar they produce colorless colonies with black center.
The typical reaction for salmonellae in TSI (triple sugar iron) agar is an alkaline slant
(red), acid butt (yellow) and superimposed H2S (black) production
(R/Y/H2S+). Click here for visual
The test for lysine decarboxylation is positive.
Biochemical properties
Salmonella gives IMViC test -, +,-,+. They ferment maltose, mannitol, mannose and
glucose and produce acid and gas. But do not ferment lactose, sucrose and salicin.
Urease negative. Most salmonellae produce H2S except S.cholera
suis and S.paratyphi A.
Salmonella pullorum ferments glucose and rhamnose while S.gallinarum ferments
dulcitiol and maltose.
Resistance
Antigens
Flagellar antigen
It is heat labile protein when mixed with H antisera, agglutinates rapidly producing
large, loose fluffy clumps.
The H antigen is strongly immunogenic. They have the unique character of diphasic
variation.
Somatic antigen
Vi antigen
Antigenic variations
H-O variation
This variation is associated with loss of flagella. When Salmonella are grown in agar
containing phenol (1 in 800), flagella are inhibited. This change is phenotypic and
temporary.
To attain a population of Salmonella rich in H antigen Craigie‘s tube or U tube on
soft agar can be employed.
Phase variation
Phase 1 antigen is either specific for a species or shared by a few species only. Hence
termed as specific phase.
Phase 2 antigens are widely shared and hence termed as nonspecific or group phase.
Phase 1 antigens are designated as a, b, c…Z and after Z as Z1, Z2, Z3…etc. Phase 2 is
designated as 1,2…etc.
The flagellar antigens of salmonellae occur in 1 or 2 phases.
Strains that posses both phases are called diphasic and strains having 1 phase are
called as monophasic.
V-W variation
Fresh isolates of S. typhi carry a surface Vi antigen that completely masks the O
antigen.
Such bacillus does not agglutinate with O antiserum but agglutinable with Vi
antiserum. This is called as V form.
After repeated sub culturing the Vi antigen is completely lost and does not
agglutinate with Vi antiserum but agglutinate with O antiserum.
This is called as W form. Intermediate stages which agglutinate with both Vi and O
antisera is called VW form.
S-R variation
The smooth to rough variation is associated with the change in colony morphology,
loss of O antigen and virulence.
The colonies become large, rough and irregular.
R forms occur by conversion into mutation.
It can be prevented by maintaining the cultures by lyophilisation.
Variation in O antigens
CLASSIFICATION OF SALMONELLA
O, H and Vi antigens
PATHOGENESIS
Salmonella
Ingestion
Gastroenteritis form Enteric fever form
Colonize intestine Colonize intestine
Penetrate epithelial cells of intestinal villi Penetrate epithelial cells of intestinal villi
Produce enterotoxins Enter blood stream
Gastroenteritis Endotoxaemia
Abortion
Following adherence with fimbriae to the surface of the intestinal mucousal cells, the
bacteria induce ruffling of cell membranes.
The ruffles facilitate uptake of the bacteria in membrane bound-vesicles, which often
coalesce.
The org. replicate in these cells and eventually released from the cells.
The virulence of salmonellae relates to their ability to invade host cells and replicate
in them.
The O-antigen chains of LPS resist phagocytosis and long chains of LPS prevent
complement action, which will facilitate the spread of organisms.
The LPS is also responsible for endotoxin activity.
Salmonellae often localize in the mucosae of the ileum, caecum and colon, and in the
mesenteric lymphnodes of infected animals. Subclinical infection may persist with
small numbers of salmonellae in the faeces. Latent infections, in which salmonellae
are present in the gall bladder but are not excreted, also occur.
Stress factors such as inter-current infections, transportation, overcrowding,
pregnancy, extreme ambient temperature, sudden changes in rations etc may activate
latent or sub clinical salmonellosis.
PATHOGENICITY
Pathogenesis
Cattle
Horses
The serotypes commonly affecting horses are S. abortus equi and S. typhimurium.
Abortion occurs during the last 2 months of pregnancy or at full term.
In newborn foals, infection results in septicaemia, weakness, diarrhoea, pyrexia,
laboured breathing and death in 2-3 days.
In some cases infections occur in the naval and joints.
Pigs
Poultry
Lesions
Cattle
There are areas of haemorrhagic inflammation and necrosis of the large intestine.
The mesenteric lymph nodes are oedematous and haemorrhagic.
Areas of necrosis occur in the liver and spleen.
Horse
Petechial haemorrhages occur in the heart, spleen and lungs of the aborted fetuses.
Fetal membranes are oedematous, haemorrhagic with areas of necrosis.
The abomasum and small intestine have areas of congestion and haemorrhage.
Haemorrhages occur in the myocardium and kidney cortex with oema of the
mesenteric lymph nodes.
Pigs
In acute cases the mucosa of stomach, intestine, kidney cortex and myocardium
reveals haemorrhagic spots.
Mesenteric lymph nodes and spleen are enlarged and hyperaemic. There may be
discoloration of the skin.
Poultry
DIAGNOSIS
Specimens to be collected
It includes faeces and blood from live animals, intestinal contents and tissue lesions
from dead animals, abomasal contents from aborted fetuses and parenchymatous
organs from septicaemic conditions.
Diagnosis based on
Whole blood agglutination test: 1 drop of colored or plain pullorum antigen is mixed
with 1 drop of blood and allowed for 2 minutes. In positive cases there will be clumps.
Tube agglutination test: In this test the sample serum is diluted serially to which 0.5
ml of constant amount of antigen is added and kept at 37°C in a water bath overnight.
Agglutinations in dilutions at a titre of 1 in 40 indicates a positive test.
In horses, cattle, sheep and goat live vaccines give rise to solid immunity but the
animal may remain as carrier throughout its life.
Killed vaccines are safe but can stimulate only a temporary resistance.
For cattle attenuated live culture of S. dublin vaccine has been developed.
In poultry either killed or live attenuated vaccine stimulates good immune response.
Various chemotherapeutic agents have been used to treat salmonellosis including
Chloromycetin, Terramycin, neomycin, furazolidone and sulfasuxidine.
The majority of serotypes are potential pathogens for both man and animals.
Theimportant route of transmission is through milk, meat and egg.
This will result in Salmonella food poisoning with symptoms of severe
gastroenteritis.
Yersinia species are non-lactose fermenters and, with the exception of Y. pestis are
motile.
Although there are more than 10 Yersinia species, only Yersinia pestis , Yersinia
enterocolitica , Yersinia pesudoteuberculosis are pathogenic for animals and man.
They characteristically demonstrate bipolar staining in Giemsa-stained smears from
animal tissues.
Yersinia pesudotuberculosis and Yersinia enterocolitica are found in the intestinal
tracts of a wide range of wild mammals, birds and domestic animals.
All these animals may be reservoirs of infection. Many avian species may act as
amplifier hosts and may also transfer the organisms mechanically.
They able to grow in a wide temperature range (5 to 420C) and survive for long
periods in cool wet conditions.
In endemic areas, wild rodents areimportant reservoirs of Yersinia pestis.
Fleas, especially Xenopsylla cheopis, the oriental rat flea, transmit the infection to
man and other animals.
Diseases caused by Yersinia
YERSINIA PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS
Distribution
The organisms has a world wide distribution and is particularly associated with a
disease known as pseudotuberculosis in guinea pigs and to a less extent in turkeys,
pigeons, rats, rabbits and horses.
It has occasionally been isolated from sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, cats & man.
Morphology
Cultural characters
Of the ten serotypes of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, serotypes I,II, III contain the
majority of pathogens.
Yersinia posses a common flagellar antigen and a common somatic antigen.
Symptoms
The acute form of the disease develops as a sudden and acute septicaemia.
The septicaemic form is called as pseudotuberculosis.
Deaths may be sudden and mortality may be high.
In chronic cases there will be intermittent diarrhoea with emaciation before death.
Lesions
The spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes are enlarged and congested.
In chronic cases necrotic and caseous lesions in the spleen, liver and mesenteric
Lymph nodes will be noticed, resembling pseudotuberculosis.
Diagnosis
By isolation & identification of the organism from the liver, spleen, heart blood and
bone marrow.
A cold enrichment procedure may facilitate recovery of yersiniae from faeces,
especially if they are present in very low numbers.
A 5% suspension of faeces in PBS, held at 40C for 3 weeks, is subcultured weekly on
MacConkey agar.
YERSINIA PESTIS
YERSINIA ENTEROCOLITICA
Y. enterocolitica has been identified from pigs, horse, ox, sheep and goat, dogs, cats,
rodents etc. 57 O-factors, 6 K -antigens and 19 H - antigens have been identified.
Based on this there are five biotypes and more than 50 serotypes have been
identified.
Somatic antigens 2,3,5,8 and 9 are present in isolates from clinical infections caused
by this species.
Serotype O:9 is of particularimportance because it shares common antigens
with Brucella species and it may induce false-positive reactions in brucella
agglutination tests.
They produce either generalized infections or enteritis.
It can grow on blood agar and the optimum temperature for growth is 28°C.
A preceding cold enrichment improves the isolation rate.
It produces gastroenteritis in human infants and terminal ileitis, mesenteric
lymphadenitis and pseudo appendicitis in adolescents.
The pig is the natural reservoir for Yersinia enterocolitica serotype O3 biotype 4,
which is animportant pathogen in humans
SHIGELLA
Four species (S. boydii, S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri and S. sonnei) are etiological
agents of diarrhoea and dysentery in man and subhuman primates.
They are Gram –ve, non-motile, rod shaped organisms found in the intestinal flora of
animals.
Shigella are facultatively anaerobic and grows on blood agar and MacConkey agar at
37oC without haemolysis.
Shigella produces an enterotoxin which acts on the epithelial lining of the terminal
illeum and large intestine, producing bloody mucus stained stool.
CITROBACTER
Citrobacter freundi forms part of the normal intestinal flora of domestic animals
and are also found in soil and water.
They are Gram negative, facultatively anaerobic, motile, rod shaped organisms,
which grows on blood agar and MacConkey agar at 37°C producing no
haemolysis.
In domestic animals, Citrobacter are opportunistic pathogens in a variety of
extra intestinal infections.
EDWARDSIELLA
Edwardsiella tarda appears to have a worldwide distribution and has been isolated
from all classes of vertebrates, fish, amphibia, reptiles, birds and mammals.
They are Gram negative, motile rods. They are facultatively anaerobic and grow on
blood agar and MacConkey agar at 37°C.
They are non-haemolytic and lactose negative organisms.
E. tarda has been implicated as the cause of diarrhoea,wound infections and sepsis in
animals and humans.
ENTEROBACTER
KLEBSIELLA
Kelbsiella species occur naturally in soil and water and are normal intestinal flora of
domestic animals.
They are non-motile, encapsulated rods arranged singly, in pairs or short chains.
The Klebsiella are non haemolytic on blood agar and lactose positive on MacConkey
agar.
Klebsiella pneumoniae has O antigen (11 types) and K antigen (70 types).
In horses Klebsiella causes inflammation of the genital mucosa and abortion and
generalized infections of foals.
In cattle it causes mastitis, generalized infections and enteritis of calves.
In pigs it causes atrophic rhinitis and in poultry it causes air sac and yolk sac
infections.
K. pneumoniae and K. oxytoca are the most commonly isolated species from
domestic animals.
MORGANELLA
PROTEUS
Proteus mirabilis and P.vulgaris are normal intestinal flora of domestic animals and
also are found in soil and polluted water.
Proteus is Gram-negative rod shaped organism but often show pleomorphism.
All strains are normally motile with peritrichous flagella and majority produce
fimbriae. Spores and capsules are not produced.
These organisms are aerobic and facultatively anaerobic and growth takes place at
37°C growth on solid media shows the feature of swarming.
All species are positive to the phenylpyruvic acid. They are responsible for
endometritis, gastroenteritis and arthritis.
In pigs it causes diarrhoea and urinary tract infections.
In dogs and cats it causes urinary tract infections, cystitis, otits externa and
sepsis. Click here for visual
PROVIDENCIA
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Proteobacteria
Providencia rettgeri and P.stuartii are
found in the normal Class Gamma intestinal flora of domestic
animals. proteobacteria
They are Gram- negative rods and motile by
peritrichous flagella.
They are facultatively anaerobic and growth on
blood agar and MacConkey agar at 37°C
produces no haemolysis and is lactose
negative.
P.rettgeri is frequently isolated in pure culture from
urinary infections.
SERRATIA
CHAPTER-17: PASTEURELLA
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Order Pasteurellales
Family Pasteurellaceae
Genus Pasteurella
Genus Mannheimia
Genus Haemophilus
Genus Actinobacillus
Genus Lonepinella
History
The first significant report of the P.multocida was made by Bollinger (1878) and
Perroncito (1878) and it was extensively investigated in 1880 by Pasteur as the cause
of Fowl cholera.
The P.haemolytica was isolated from disease of calves and sheep by Jones (1921).
The name Pasteurellacea was proposed by Mannheim (1981).
Habitat
Pasteurella organisms are world wide in distribution with a wide spectrum of hosts.
They infect practically all domesticated and many wild animals and birds.
They occur as commensals in the mucous membrane of the Upper respiratory and
intestinal tract of animals.
MORPHOLOGY
Cultural characteristics
Biocehmical properties
Resistance
They are readily killed at 550C for 15mts or if exposed to sunlight for 3-4 hrs.
They are also killed by 0.5% phenol in 15 mts.
They are susceptible to penicillin but resistant to sulphonamides.
PATHOGENESIS
Speices Disease
Mannheimia haemolytica (P.haemolytica Biotype Pneumonia (Shipping fever) in cattle and sheep
A) Septicaemia in lambs
Pasteurella trehalosi (P.haemolytica Biotype T)
PATHOGENECITY
Symptoms
Cattle
Sheep
Pigs
Poultry
The acute form of fowl cholera can affect many species of wild and domesticated
birds including chicken, turkey, ducks and geese causing high mortality.
Death occurs suddenly without any predominant symptoms.
In ailing birds, breathing is rapid through the open beak, the feathers are ruffled and
the comb and wattles become cyanotic.
In chronic cases swollen wattles and comb, hot and painful joints are characteristic.
Lesions
Cattle
In acute form, the lesions include multiple haemorrhages on the serous membranes
and organs together with blood stained exudates in the thorax and abdomen.
There will be severe gastroenteritis with enlargement of mesenteric lymphnodes.
In edematous form the striking lesion is odema occurring in the subcutaneous tissues
in the region of throat, and brisket region.
In pectoral form, the lesions are confined to the lungs and pleural cavity with
enlargement of bronchial and mediastinal lymph glands.
In acute cases there may be exudates in the pleural cavity and pericardial sac.
Poultry
The liver and spleen are enlarged, hyperaemic with necrotic foci.
There will be peritonitis, fluid in the pericardial sac and petechial haemorrhages on
the serous surfaces.
In chronic infections there will be swelling of the comb and wattles and accumulation
of serofibrinous fluid in the joints.
Diagnosis
Learning objectives
Haemophilus
History
Habitat
Morphology
Cultural characteristics
H. influenzae + +
H. aegyptius + +
H.parasuis - +
H.paragallinarum - +
H.parinfluenzae - +
H.somnus - -
In addition to X and V factors, the growth of the many of the Haemophilus species
isenhanced by 10% C02.
Haemophilus grows on blood agar, but growth is scanty, as the V factor is present
mainly intra cellularly in red cells.
The chocolate agar is the most suitable medium for isolation of Haemophilus.
In chocolate agar, the V factor is released from the red cell, and the heat stable X
factor is still present.
Sattelitism
Media supplemented with yeast extract, Levinthals medium (clear transparent media
may be prepared by boiling and filtering a mixture of blood and nutrient broth) or
Filde‘s agar (by adding a peptic digest of blood to nutrient agar) are also suitable for
the primary isolation of Haemophilus.
MORPHOLOGY
Biochemical properties
Biochemical reactions are not helpful in identification.
The fermentation reactions are irregular. Nitrates are reduced to nitrites.
H.parasuis and H.paragallinarum are oxidase negative but H.somnus are oxidase
positive and catalase negative.
Resistance
Haemophilus species are fragile. They are readily destroyed by heating (550C for
30mts), refrigeration (00C to 40C), drying and disinfectants.
In cultures the cells die within 2 to 3 days due to autolysis. For long-term
preservation the cultures may be lyophilized.
Antigens
PATHOGENESIS
Lesions
In Glasser's disease during acute death conditions, the PM reveals large deposition of
fibrin in joints and on any or all of the serosal surfaces (poly serositis) of the body.
In addition there will be fibrinous pericarditis, pleuritis and peritonitis. Catarrhal
inflammation of the infra orbital sinus is characteristic of infectious coryza.
Diagnosis
Specimens
In H.somnus infections, the organism can be demonstrated in brain lesions, they can
be recovered from semen samples and preputial washings of healthy bulls.
Haemophilus species are highly delicate and do not survive long when removed from
the host.
Clinical material is best frozen (dry ice preferred) and delivered to the laboratory
within 24 hrs.
Refrigeration and transport media may not assure viability.
A presumptive identification of Haemophilus can be made based on the host species,
clinical signs and lesions, colony characters, X and V factor requirements, oxidase
and catalase reactions and whether or not C02enhances growth.
Serological tests including agglutination, AGPT, ELISA are used to
detect H.paragallinarum and H.somnus infection.
Treatment
History
Habitat
Morphology
Gram –ve, small, rod shaped organism. They are non-motile, non-sporing and non-
acid fast.
They are non capsulated (except A.pleuropneumoniae) but extracellular slime is
present in three major species (A.lignieresii, A.equuli and A.suis)
In media containing fermentable carbohydrates, the occurrence of rather long,
almost filamentous forms is seen.
Small granules are found scattered along the bacilli, often lying at the pole of a
bacillary or filamentous form, giving a characteristic ‗Morse code‘ form.
In lesion in the animal body small grayish white granules are present.
If these granules are crushed on a slide and stained, club colonies are seen consisting
of club-like processes of calcium phosphate, with Gram-negative rods of A.
lignieresii in the center.
Both bacilli and club forms are Gram negative.
They can be distinguished with ZN stain in which the club appears red and the bacilli
blue.
Cultural characteristics
Biochemical properties
Resistance
They are rapidly killed by heating at 620C for 10 mints and by drying.
Culture lose their viability rapidly and should be subcultured every 5-7 days.
In A.lignieresii, heat stable somatic and heat labile surface antigens are described.
Six antigenic types (1-6) and two subtypes (1a and 1c) have been demonstrated.
In A.equuli, as in A.lignieresii, both heat labile and heat stable antigens can be
demonstrated.
In A.suis, the antigens have not been studied in any detail.
In A.pleuropneumoniae, 12 serotypes and 2 biotypes have been described,.
Biotype 1 requires NAD for its growth while biotype 2 is NAD independent.
In A.pleuropneumoniae, capsule, LPS, outer membrane proteins and toxins
(haemolytic and cytotoxic) play a major role in pathogenicity.
Exotoxin is not formed in A.lignieresii.
PATHOGENESIS
Symptoms
Cattle
o Chronic pyogranulomatous lesions occur on tongue and other soft tissues.
o Enlargement and protrusion of the tongue that interferes feeding. The pus
contains soft grayish white granules.
Pigs
o A.suis can infect pigs of all ages. But infection is most serious in very young
animals.
o In neonates and suckling pigs, A.suis can cause an acute and rapidly fatal
septicaemia.
o Death occurs within 15hrs. Affected animal may show signs of cyanosis,
petechial haemorrhages, fever, respiratory distress, neurologic disturbances
and arthritis.
o In older animals, the disease is less severe and may be characterized by fever,
anorexia and persistent cough. The mortality is also much lower.
o A.pleuropnemoniae can cause acute and rapidly fatal pleuropneumonia.
o The acute form is characterized by extensive haemorrhage and fibrin deposit
in the lungs.
o Affected animals show signs of severe respiratory distress, cyanosis, fever and
vomiting.
o In chronically infected animals the organism may be sequestrated in the lungs
in the necrotic lesions, tonsils and URT and may responsible for spread of
infection.
Sheep
o Actinobacillus seminis is a common cause of epididymitis in young rams.
o The organism is found in the prepuce. The infection occurs probably following
an ascending opportunistic infection.
o Abscesses and purulent discharge through fistulae on the scrotal skin are
most commonly seen.
Horse
o Sleepy foal disease is an acute, potentially fatal septicaemia of newborn foals
caused by Actinobacillus equuli.
o Occasionally it causes abortion and peritonitis in adult horses.
o The organism is found in the reproductive and intestinal tracts of mares.
o Foals can be infected in utero and after birth via the umbilicus.
o Affected foals are febrile and recumbent. Death usually ocuurs in 1 to 2 days.
Diagnosis
Specimens to be collected
o Pus, biopsy material and tissues in case of wooden tongue.
o Tracheal washings or affected portions of lung in pleuropneumonia cases.
Based on history and symptoms
Isolation and identification of organism
o Club colonies in tissue sections, growth pattern on blood and MacConkey agar
and biochemical test are highly useful.
Treatment
CHAPTER-19: PSEUDOMONAS
Learning objectives
After reading this chapter, the learner will understand the following,
SYSTEMATICS
The Pseudomonas is Gram –ve, aerobic, medium-sized rods, motile by one or several
polar flagella (except P.mallei).
Catalase and oxidase positive and some species produce water-soluble pigments and
most will grow on MacConkey agar.
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Proteobacteria
Order Pseudomonadales
Family Pseudomonadaceae
Genus Pseudomonas
History
Habitat
MORPHOLOGY
Gram negative, rod shaped bacteria. They have parallel sides and rounded ends.
They are arranged singly, in small bundles, in short chains or in filaments.
All except P.mallei are motile by means of polar flagella at one or both ends.
Some strains are lopotrichate and some are monotrichate. P.pseudomallei is
peritrichous.
Non spore forming and non acid fast.
It is non capsulated but when grown in the absence of sucrose an extracellular
polysaccharide slime layer may be formed.
Most of the strains possess fimbriae.
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Biochemical properties
RESISTANCE
They are more resistant to high dilutions of quaternary ammonium compounds and
phenolic compounds.
P.aeruginosa can survive for long periods on water faucets, utensils, floors,
instruments, baths, humidifiers and respiratory equipments.
They grow very well in antiseptic lotions kept for use in hospitals. Pseudomonas is
susceptible to ethylene oxide and heat (550C for one hour).
Pseudomonads are resistant to wide range of antimicrobial drugs.
Much of this intrinsic resistance is attributed to the outer membrane porins, which
restrict passage of many antimicrobial agents into the periplasm.
Resistance to penicillin, Ampicillin, tetracycline, first and second-generation
cephalosporin, sulfonamides, neomycin, streptomycin, kanamycin, chloramphenicol,
nitrofuran and trimethoprim-sulfonamide.
Susceptible to gentamicin, amikacin, colistin, Polymyxin B, carbenicillin, cefoxamine,
third generation cephalosporins and Ciprofloxacin
PATHOGENESIS
Depends upon the degree and site, the P.aeruginosa produces wide variety of
suppurative infections.
In localized lesions there will be yellowish green pus.
The acute form of P.pseudomallei occurs more often in young animlas.
The chronic form is characterized by nodules in the lungs, liver, spleen, lymphnodes
and subcutis, the lesions resembling those of caseous lymphadenitis and numerous
visceral abscesses.
Three forms of glanders are seen in horse. They are classified as
Nasal form
Nasal form initially there is reddening of the nasal mucosa and mucoid discharge
from nostrils.
It will become purulent, blood stained and adherent as brown crust. Ulcers may form
on the nasal mucosa.
DIAGNOSIS
Specimens
Urine, pus, affected tissues and swab from infected tissue surfaces are suitable
for P.aeruginosa.
In case of P.mallei, collect tissue containing early nodules or pus from ulcers.
Diagnosis
CHAPTER-20: BRUCELLA
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Proteobacteria
Order Rhizobiales
Family Brucellaceae
Genus Brucella
History
B.melitensis was identified by Bruce in Malta in 1887. B.abortus was first recognised
by Bang in 1897. B.suis was discoverd by Traum in 1914.
Alice Evans (1918) identified the first Brucella of human origin in the USA. Buck
(1930) developed live attenuated strain 19 vaccine.
Habitat
Brucella species are obligate parasites and each species has a preferred natural host
that serves as a reservoir of infection.
Brucellae have a predilection for ungulate placentas, foetal fluids and testes of bulls,
rams, boars and dogs.
Morphology
Brucellae are coccobacilli or short rods, arranged singly or in short chains. They are
non-motile, non-capsulated, non-sporing and partial acid fast.
They are stained by Grams, MZN and Koster‘s stain.
Koster‘s stain is mostly useful in demonstrating Brucella in smears from the
cotyledons in bovine abortion (Cells of chorion are packed with organism).
MZN isspecially useful to stain smears from foetal membranes, uterine swabs,
smear or stomach contents of aborted foetus.
Cultural characteristics
Biochemical properties
Brucellae are catalse positive, oxidase positive (except B.ovis and B.neotomae), and
urease +ve (except B.ovis and B.melitensis), reduce nitrate, IMViC, -,-,-,-. (indole,
methyl red, voges proskauer and citrate utilization negative).
Resistance
Antigens
Brucella biotyping
PATHOGENESIS
The common routes of infection in animals and humans are via the mucous
membrane of the digestive tract, genital tract and skin.
Veneral transmission is main route for B.ovis. Less commonly infection may occur
through inhalation or by conjuctiva.
Organisms may penetrate the mucosa of nasal or oral cavities. Soon after entry into
the host the brucellae are engulfed by phagocytic cells, in which they survive, multiply
and are transported to the regional lymphnodes.
After multiplication, the organism pass to the thoracic duct and then via blood stream
to parenchymatous organs and other tissues such as joints, granulomatous foci
develop in lymphatic tissues, liver, spleen, bone marrow and other locations. On
occasion it will become abscess.
Brucellosis is essentially disease of the sexually mature animal, the predilection sites
being the reproductive tracts of males and females especially the pregnant uterus.
Allantoic factors such as erythritol (Polyhydric OH),steroid hormones and other
substances favour the growth of most brucellae.
Erythritol is present in the placenta and male genital tract of cattle, sheep, goats and
pigs but not humans.
Erythritol does not stimulate the growth of B.ovis and inhibits B.abortus strain 19,
the attenuated vaccine strain.
A pyogranulomatous reaction occurs in affected placentae and abortion occurs from 6
month onwards.
Note: Females usually abort only once, after which a degree of immunity develops,
and the animals remains infected and large numbers of brucellae can be excreted in
foetal fluids at subsequent parturitions. Permanent infertily may occur in male dogs
infected with B.canis.
Diseases caused by Brucella species
PATHOGENECITY
Symptoms
Cattle
Sheep
Swine
Dogs
Expelled tissues and vaginal discharges of aborted bitches and the urine of infected
males are primary sources of the infectious agent.
The incubation period is 6 to 21 days. Infected bitches usually aborted in the last
trimester.
Following abortion there is yellow brown to dark brown discharges that persist for 1
to 6 weeks.
Epididymitis and testicular atrophy with decreased spermatogenesis are common in
the male and may result in irreversible sterility.
Lesions
The gravid bovine uterus infected with B.abortus develops a necrotic placentitis.
The cotyledons become swollen, hyperaemic and surrounded by brownish exudates.
The inter cotyledonary spaces are thickened and have a characteristic leathery
appearance.
Orchitis in bull result in abscess formation or areas of necrosis in the testicles,
surrouned by fibrous tissues.
Brucella suis causes placentitis, metritis in ewes and epididymitis and orchitis in
boars.
In horses, B.abortus infection associated with fistulous withers (a chronic
inflammatory condition of the supraspinous bursa) and poll evil.
DIAGNOSIS
Specimens to be collected
In abortion cases a full range of specimens should be collected and submitted for a
differential diagnosis.
A whole foetus should be sent, if feasible.
Alternatively foetal stomach contents, any foetal lesions, cotyledons, uterine
discharges, urine, coloustrum, paired serum samples and sections of cotyledons and
foetal lesions in 10% formalin for histopathology. Semen and tissue from epididymis
or testes from males could be examined.
Direct examination
Modified ZN and Koster‘s stain are useful in demonstrating brucellae in smear from
the placenta (cotyledons) in bovine abortion.
Cells of the chorion are packed with organism, which stain red against a blue
background.
Organism can also be demonstrated directly in smears from vaginal mucous, semen
and various tissues. Direct and indirect FAT is also used.
Based on biotyping
Animal inoculation
Immunological tests
The immunity acquired from natural infection is not always sufficient to prevent
reinfection.
The general basis for elimination of brucellosis is testing and removal of reactors
from the herd.
Because the cattle will be less susceptible to reinfection, calf hood vaccination is
recommended.
The attenuated live vaccine (Strain 19 B.abortus biotype 1) is used in female calves 4
to 12 months of age.
Because strain 19 cause infertility in some male calves, its use is restricted to females.
The adjuvant bacterins eg: vaccine 45/20 is used as booster
vaccine. B.melitensis Rev.1 live attenuated vaccine has been used with success to
immunize rams against B.ovisinfection.
CHAPTER-21: CAMPYLOBACTER
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Proteobacteria
Class Epsiloproteobacteria
Order Campylobacterales
Family Campylobacteraceae
Genus Campylobacter
The mostimportant animal pathogens are C.
fetus subsp. fetus, C. fetus subsp. venerealis, C. jejuni and possibly C.
mucosalis and C. hyointestinalis.
The Campylobacter species were once placed in the genus Vibrio and some of the
diseases are still occasionally referred to as 'vibriosis'.
HABITAT
Morphology
Cultural characterstics
The organisms grow at 25 °C or 45 °C. They grow best on nutritious basal media
supplemented with 5-10 per cent blood under reduced oxygen tension.
The Campylobacter fetus (both subspecies) grows very well on nutritious base
(Brucella, Columbia or brain heart infusion agars) supplemented with 5-10 per cent
blood.
The medium can be made selective by the addition of polymyxin B sulphate (2
units/ml), novobiocin (2 µg/ml) and cycloheximide (20 µg/ml).
Incubate the plates at 37°C for 4-6 days in a microaerophilic atmosphere containing 6
per cent O2, 10 per cent CO2 and 84 per cent N2.
These atmospheric conditions must be adhered to strictly. Both subspecies of C.
fetus have small (1 mm), round, slightly raised, smooth, translucent colonies- said to
have a 'dewdrop' appearance.
C. jejuni grows very well on charcoal-cefopera-zole-deoxycholate agar or Blaser's
Campy-BAP medium.
This latter medium is Brucella agar with 5 per cent sheep blood and vancomycin (10
ug/ml), polymyxin B sulphate (2-5 units/ml), trimethoprim lactate (5 ug/ml)
cephalothin (15 ug/ml), and amphotericin B (2 ug/ml).
The plates should be incubated under the atmosphere described above for 2-3 days at
42° C.
The colonies of C. jejuni are usually flat, grey, and larger than those of C. fetus and
can be spreading and watery on moist plates. C. mucosalis / C. coli grows on
Columbia blood agar with and without 1:60,000 brilliant green.
Incubate the plates anaerobically at 37°C for 2-5 days. After primary isolation the
bacterium will grow well microaerophilically.
C. coli produces a pink-tan pigment and the growth of C. mucosalis may appear as a
dirty-yellow colour.
Biochemical properties
Resistance
Antigencity
C. fetus subsp. venerealis has "0" and "W' cell wall antigens. "0" antigen is stable,
whereas "W" antigen is altered once specific (sIgA) antibodies are produced.
Now "W" antigen is called Surface Array protein. As sIgA immunologic memory is
poor, the bacterium can shift between antigens.
C. fetus subsp. fetus has"0" A-2 and B. But the protein antigens areimportant
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENECITY
Symtpoms
Cattle
Affected cattle usually show signs of acute endometritis with in 2 weeks after
exposure.
Failure to implant or early abortions, Abortions at 5 -7 months, retained placenta and
increase number of services per conception resulting in repeat breeders are most
commonly seen.
Sheep
Pregnant ewes that become infected may lose weight and appear unthrifty. Diarrhea
may be present. They usually abort late in their pregnancy.
They may also deliver stillborn or weak lambs. In unvaccinated flocks, the abortion
rate may reach 70% of the ewes.
The aborted fetus is autolyzed (already showing signs of decomposition).
This is in contrast to a fresh fetus in Chlamydial/Enzootic Abortion of Ewes (EAE),
which is another common cause of ovine abortion.
The placenta is often hemorrhagic (bloody), necrotic (decomposition), and
edematous (swollen, leathery).
Blood tinged fetal fluids. Characteristic necrotic spots in the fetal liver.
Following the abortion, the ewe may develop an infection of the uterus (metritis) and
require additional medical attention.
Mortality in the ewes may exceed 5%. Surviving ewes may become carriers.
Swine
DIAGNOSIS
Campylobacter fetus (both subspecies): cervical mucus and preputial washings can
be passed through a 0.65 µm membrane filter to reduce contamination.
Foetal abomasal contents and filtrates are useful for isolation and identification.
C. jejuni: rectal swabs or faeces are the most sutiable specimens.
C. mucosalis: Homogenates of mucosal scrapings from the affected intestine are
useful.
Hippurate test
By Serology
The cervical mucus agglutination test for C. fetus subsp. venerealis is accurate if
carried out 2-7 months post-infection.
A vaginal mucus agglutination test has been found useful but the serum agglutination
test is unreliable.
As C. jejuni is present in the intestines of many normal animals, its isolation from
faeces may not necessarily be significant.
A four-fold increase in an agglutinating antibody titre to the bacterium would suggest
involvement of the organism in the diarrhoea.
Fluorescent antibody-stained smears can be used to identify C. fetus, but the
technique does not distinguish between the subtypes.
To detect infected bull, virgin heifers are inseminated with semen and preputial
washings from suspected animals and examined the heifer‘s vaginal mucous during
the following 3-4 weeks.
This test is effective but expensive and time consuming.
This disease is very contagious and spreads rapidly among the remaining animals
unless very strict hygiene is practiced.
The fetus, placenta, birth fluids, vaginal discharge, and feces from the affected
animals are all sources of infection.
If the water or feeding areas become contaminated with these materials, the abortion
rate can be very high.
Isolate the aborting animals immediately, along with proper disposal of the aborted
fetus/placenta, and disinfection procedures.
Prevent the disease from spreading by limiting access to the aborted materials by
wild birds and wild or domestic mammals, which can carry the bacteria to other lots
or ranches. Cleanliness is absolutely essential.
Many Campylobacter species produce beta-lactamase, thus accounting for their
resistance to penicillin and ampicillin.
Killed bacterins are effective both prophylactically and therapeutically. Heifers and
cows should be vaccinated 1 to 4 months before breeding.
Segregate affected bulls and test new additions. If infected, suspend breeding for 90
days and use antibiotics and artificial insemination.
In Sheep, vaccinate all incoming and unvaccinated ewes thirty days prior to breeding
season and again sixty to ninety days later.
Follow up with a booster every year at the onset of breeding season.
While some immunity is obtained following an outbreak, immunity against one strain
of Campylobacter is not cross-protective against the other strain.
This false sense of security combined with the presence of carrier animals can result
in further abortion storms.
CHAPTER-22: MYCOPLASMA
Learning objectives
MORPHOLOGY
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Firmicutes
Class Mollicutes
Order Mycoplasmatales
Family Mycoplasmataeceae
Genus Mycoplasma
Order Acholeplasmatales
Family Acholeplasmataeceae (not required cholestrol)
Genus Acholeplasma
Order Entomoplasmatales
Family Spiroplasmataeceae
Genus Spiroplasma
History
The first mycoplasmal species, the causative agent of bovine pleuropneumonia, was
first isolated by Nocard and Roux (1898).
The species discovered later were called PPLO, because of their resemblance to the
organisms causing pleuropneumonia.
Habitat
Mycoplasmas are highly fastidious organisms and most require specific growth
factors, an isotonic medium and the absence of inhibitory substances for growth.
Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma require reduced sterol or cholestrol for their growth.
Because the Mycoplasma are unable to synthesise purines and pyrimidines, they
require complex media.
The agar which contains bovine heart infusion, 20% horse serum, (Pooled serum
from several animals), 10% yeast extract, 20ml of adenine dinucleotide, 50 units of
penicillin and 0.25 mg of thallous acetate (inhibitory to Gram –ve and fungi) and the
optimal pH is 7.5.
Most grow aerobically but some require N2 with 5% to 10% Co2 after 2 to 6 days of
aerobic incubation at 370C, colonies on solid media are 0.1 to 0.6 mm in d.m.
under low power magnification, the colonies appear transparent, flat and often
resemble a fried egg.
Colonies grow into the medium and are difficult to remove from the agar surface.
This is then put, stain-slide downwards on the microcolonies on the agar block then
examined under low power of microscope.
The dense center of the microcolonies, which grow down into the agar, stain dark
blue, the less dense peripheral zone, resembling surface growth, stains light blue.
Most mycoplasmas are haemolytic in swine blood agar. Mycoplasmas may grow in
chicken embryos (yolk sac route) and cell cultures.
Ureaplasma produce tiny colonies (T-mycoplasma) than the
conventional mycoplasma
Biochemical charactersMycoplasmas are chemoorganotrophs, the metabolism being
mainly fermentative.
Resistance
PATHOGENESIS
DIAGNOSIS
Specimens
Diagnosis
CFT for CCPP and enzootic pneumonia. FAT, ELISA, LAT, species specific DNA
probes are highly useful in the identification of mycoplasmas.
CHAPTER-23: LEPTOSPIRA
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Spirochaetes
Order Spirochaetales
Family Spirochaetaceae
Genus Borrelia
Family Serpulinaceae
Genus Serpulina
Family Leptospiraceae
The spirochaetes are slender, motile, unicellular, helically coiled, bacteria ranging
from 0.1 -3µm in width.
Based on pathogenicity, DNA composition, and inability to grow at 13ºC the
genus Leptospira has traditionally been divided into two groups
o The pathogenic species - L.interrogans
o Free-living non-pathogenic strains - L.biflexa
The common Leptospira interrogans serovars are L.interrogans serovar
Pomona, L.interrogans serovar Hardojobovis, L.interrogans serovar
Icterohaemorrhagiae, L.interrogans serovar Canicola, L.interrogans serovar
Grippotyphosa, L.interrogans serovar Bratislava, and L.interrogans serovar
Tarassovi.
History
Synonyms of leptospirosis
Weil‘s disease, Seven-day fever, Japanese autumnal fever, Rice field fever, Sugar cane
fever and Stuttgart disease (dogs).
Natural habitat
Leptospirosis occurs worldwide. Leptospires are present in the proximal convoluted
tubules of mammalian kidneys (Sometimes genital tract) and are excreted in urine,
often for several months. Characteristically, a reservoir host shows minimal or no
clinical signs.
Several animals act as carrier. Rats are particularlyimportant and they carry most
pathogenic serotypes.
Animal carriers often excrete upto 100 million leptospirae per ml of urine.
A warm moist environment with the presence of ground water with a neutral or
slightly basic pH favours the survival of the Leptospira outside the host.
In India the disease has been more frequently reported from southern states than rest
of the country.
MORPHOLOGY
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Leptospira are obligate aerobes that use long chain fatty acids or fatty alcohols rather
than CHO and aminoacid as their energy and carbon sources.
In addition to this it also requires vitamins B1, B12 and purines. Optimum
temperature for growth is 25ºC to 35ºC. They are highly fastidious.
They grow very well in media enriched with rabbit plasma (rabbit plasma contain
high concentration of bound vitamin B12).
Several liquid and semisolid media areavailable . Korthof‘s modified medium,
Stuart‘s liquid medium, Fletcher‘s semi solid medium, EMJH (Ellinghausen,
McCullough (1965), Johnson and Harris (1967), protein free medium (commomly
used for preparation of vaccine) and Ellis medium (mainly for isolation of leptospires
from the genital tract of cows).
Among these, the EMJH medium contains bovine albumin (fraction V), Tween 80
and rabbit plasma and is most commonly used for isolation of Leptospira.
The generation time in laboratory media is 12 –16 hrs. The cultures are incubated at
30ºC for upto 8 weeks.
In semisolid media, growth occurs characteristically a few millimeters below the
surface.
Addition of 5-flurouracil (100 mgm/ml) in medium is inhibitory for most of the
microorganism but not for leptospires.
The colonies of Leptospira strains appear colorless and below the surface of the agar.
They may not be visible until held against opaque light.
The leptospires are identified on the basis of their typical morphology and motility
under dark field microscopy.
In fluid medium, the leptospires appear to rotate alternatively along their axis,
moving backward and forward with no apparent polar differentiation.
In semisolid media, flexing, boring and serpentine movements are seen.
RESISTANCE, ANTIGENS AND TOXINS
Resistance
Leptospira are highly susceptible to heat, being killed in 10 mts at 50ºC and in 10 sec
at 60ºC.
They are also sensitive to acid and are destroyed by gastric juice in 30 mts. Bile
destroys them rapidly.
They are also readily destroyed by most antiseptics and disinfectants.
They can survive for several days in alkaline water and only 12 –14 wks in sewage.
Dogs may shed leptospires in their urine for 2 to 6 months, cattle for 3 months and
rats for longer periods.
Leptospira have remained viable for atleast 6 days in coagulated blood and also they
remain viable in unfrozen kidneys for several days after the death of the animal.
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENECITY
DIAGNOSIS
Specimens
Direct microscopy
Leptospires can be demonstrated in urine, other body fluids, and tissues by darkfield
microscopy (DFM) and by FAT.
To detect under DFM, one probably needs 10,000 to 20,000 leptospires/ml in the
sample toview atleast one Leptospira in the high power field.
Urine is centrifuged to concentrate the leptospires. Unclotted blood is centrifuged at
low speed to sediment the RBC after which the plasma can be removed and
centrifuged at high speed.
After inoculating the suitable media incubate at 30ºC for upto 8 weeks. A drop of the
culture is examined by DFM.
Animal inoculation
Guineapigs, hamsters and weaning gerbils can be inoculated i/p with 0.5 to 1 ml of
neutralized urine, unclotted blood or a 10% tissue suspension in EMJH or 1% BSA.
Cardiac blood is taken aseptically when a temperature rise is detected or at 5,8,10 and
14 days post infection.
Media are inoculated with 2-3 drops of the freshly collected blood.
By serology
Macroscopic agglutination test: it is a screening test and uses dead antigen (lack of
specificity).
Microscopic agglutination test (MAT): it uses live leptospires as antigen and is highly
sensitive and serovar specific.
CFTand ELISA are also useful for detection of leptospiral antibodies in serum.
To identify the serovar, MAT, restriction endonucleae, DNA analysis and monoclonal
antibodies are useful.
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria Bacteria Bacteria
Habitat
B. nodosus are obligate anaerobic bacteria of the digital epidermis of sheep under
normal climatic conditions.
They will not survive on pastures for more than a week.
Other Bacteroides species can be normal inhabitants of the skin, mucous membrane
and G.I. tract of domestic animals.
Fusobacterium species occurs as a commensal in the alimentary tract and mucous
membranes of a variety of animals.
Morphology
Bacteroides nodosus appear as Gram-negative, fairly large (1.7 x 3-6 µm), slightly
curved and non-motile rods.
Often swollen at one or both ends. They occur singly or occasionally in pairs
Fusobacterium necrophorum is Gram-negative, long and filamentous but does not
branch.
Filaments can be up to 100 µm in length and 0.5-0.7 µm in diameter.
May have tapered or rounded ends. Irregular staining is characteristic
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
The cellular morphology, and sometimes the colonial morphology, can be very
variable depending on the strain, medium and cultural conditions.
Bacteroides nodosus
Bacteroides melaninogenicus
Bacteriodes asaccharolyticus
Colonies are 0.5-1.0 mm in diameter, round, convex, opaque and light grey after 48
hours' incubation.
In 6-14 days the colonies may become black. Some strains are haemolytic on rabbit
blood agar
Bacteroides fragilis
Fusobacterium necrophorum
F. necrophorum produces grey to yellowish shiny colonies on blood agar, that are
about 2-3 mm in diameter after 48 hours' incubation.
Haemolysis is variable.
A Gram-stained smear from the colonies shows long Gram-negative filaments that
are less characteristic than those from direct microscopic examination of specimens.
Lipase, but not lecithinase, activity is exhibited by many strains
of F. necrophorum on egg yolk agar.
Biochemical characters
Resistance
Toxins
Pathogenesis
The infections are often endogenous, arising from normal flora at the site or by
wounds contaminated by nearby flora.
For these strict anaerobes multiply at a focus in animal tissue if the redox potential of
the area is lowered.
This can occur through trauma and necrosis, ischaemia, parasitic invasion or
concomitant multiplication of facultative anaerobes.
B. nodosus produces keratinolytic enzymes and F. necrophorum produces leukotoxin
– which protects Corynebacterium pyogenes from phagocytosis. C.
pyogenes produces a diffusible factor that stimulates the proliferation
of Fusobacterium in tissue.
The conditions caused by these non-sporing anaerobes include soft tissue abscesses
and cellulitis, post-operative wound infections, periodontal abscesses, aspiration
pneumonia, lung and liver abscesses, peritonitis, pleuritis, myometritis,
osteomyelitis, mastitis and foot rot. The excessive odour is due to production of
volatile fatty acids.
Diseases caused by Bacteroides and Fusobacterium species
PATHOGENICITY
Symptoms
Infections in animals generally occur when animals are kept in filthy, manure-laden
surroundings.
Among the Fusobacterium only necrophorum regularly causes disease in animals.
It is frequently a secondary invader (e.g., liver abscesses in cattle often found
with Corynebacterium pyogenes and is characterized by a necrotic process,
commonly causing diseases collectively referred to as necrobacilloses and present as
necrosis, abscess formation, and putrid odour (most common fermentation product
is butyric acid).
Cattle
Sheep
Foot rot (interdigital dermatitis, infective bulbar necrosis and heel abscess), mouth
lesions and abortions (rare).
Swine
Principal cause of bull nose or Ulcerative stomatitis viainjury from fitting nose
rings.
Cats
Opportunistic. Highly suppurative. Involves nasal passages, oral cavity and bone.
Secondary invaders to tissue damage.
Dental tartar leads to gingivitis and periodontal disease.
DIAGNOSIS
Choice of specimens
As the non-sporing anaerobes constitute a major portion of the normal flora, the
specimens must be collected with care to avoid contamination from the normal
anaerobic flora, situated mainly on mucous membranes and in the intestinal tract.
The following samples are suitable for culture of the non-spore-forming anaerobes.
o Pus from abscesses
o Discharges from wounds (surgical and traumatic)
o Direct pleural aspirates
o Peritoneal aspirates
o Joint fluids
o Urine if taken by suprapubic puncture
o Tissue specimens (biopsy, necropsy and post-operative)
Collection of specimens
Specimens for the isolation of these strict anaerobes should be placed immediately in
an oxygen-free container, especially small pieces of tissue or material taken on swabs.
Larger pieces of tissue (over 2 cm3) usually maintain an anaerobic microenvironment
deep in the tissue and can be placed in an air-tight jar for transportation.
Fluid specimens can be collected in a sterile syringe, the air expelled and the needle
bent over or plugged. However, if the specimen cannot be processed within an hour, a
fluid specimen should be placed in an oxygen-free tube or vial.
All specimens for anaerobic culture should be processed within a few hours of collec-
tion.
It is best to keep the specimens at ambient temperature rather than in the
refrigerator, as oxygen absorption is greater at lower temperatures.
o Direct examination
Gram-stained smears of the specimens are useful as a screening
process, although many of these anaerobes are not morphologically
distinctive.
Dilute carbol fuchsin (4-8 minutes) stained smears are more useful
for Bacteroides and Fusobacterium species as they tend to stain
faintly with the Gram-stain.
Fusobacterium necrophorum in clinical specimens is long and
filamentous (about 1µm in diameter) and characteristically stains in
an irregular manner.
Bacteroides nodosus is a large rod characterised by the presence of
terminal enlargements at one or both ends (barbell or club shaped).
o FAT is reported as being specific and sensitive
o By Isolation and identfication in anerobic media
o By animal inoculation
Mice, rats and guinea pigs inoculated with cultures of B. nodosus will
produce abscess and sepsis.
Inoculate rabbit subcutaneously with material suspected
for F. necrophorum - produces lesions throughout the body.
Differential diagnosis should be made with strawberry foot rot caused
by Dermatophilus species, FMD and pyogenic infections associated
with Corynebacterium pyogenes.
In B. nodosus infection the affected hooves should be trimmed and treated with
10% formalin or chloramphenicol or tetracycline.
Parental treatment with penicillin and streptomycin may be of value.
In Fusobacterium infections, 5-10% CuSO4 is recommended for the treatment
of foot lesions.
For early treatment sulphonamides, tetracycline and erythromycin are useful.
CHAPTER-25: DERMATOPHILUS
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Actinobacteria
Class Actinobacteria
Subclass Actinobacteridae
Order Actinomycetales
Suborder Micrococcineae
Family Dermatophilaceae
Genus Dermatophilus
History
Bovine disease was first described by Van Saceghem in 1915 in the Congo now known
as Zaire in Africa.
Habitat
Dermatophilus congolensis is the only species in the genus thought to maintain itself
in small foci of infection on a carrier animal or within scab particles in dust.
It can survive in scab material for periods upto 3 years.
MORPHOLOGY
D. congolensis is Gram positive, non acid fast and aerobic to facultatively anaerobic.
It is filamentous and branching. Mature filaments are composed of motile, coccal
zoospores, in parallel lines, at least two abreast, resulting in a 'tram-track'-like
appearance.
The zoospores are about 1 um in diameter. If the flakes of scab (collected from
infections) are treated too roughly, when the smears are made, the filaments will
disintegrate and only Gram-positive cocci (zoospores) will be seen.
Life cycle
Transverse, horizontal and vertical septa form in the immature filaments dividing it
into coccal zoospores.
When mature, these zoospores are motile by polar flagella and are infective.
Cultural characteristics
The bacterium is comparatively easy to culture and grows well on sheep or ox blood
agar.
An atmosphere of 5-10 per cent CO2enhances the growth of the organism, espe-
cially on primary isolation.
The inoculated plates are incubated at 37°C (Optimum temp. 37oC.) for up to 5 days,
although colonies may be seen after 24-48 hours incubation.
Colonial morphology
Small (about 1 mm) greyish-yellow, distinctly haemolytic colonies can be seen after
24-48 hours incubation.
They are firmly adherent to the medium and are embedded in the agar.
After 3-4 days, isolated colonies can be 3 mm in diameter and are rough, wrinkled
with a golden-yellow colour. Older colonies can become mucoid.
No growth occurs on Sabouraud dextrose agar.
Microscopic appearance
Biochemical characters
PATHOGENESIS
Dermatophilus congolensis causes very severe clinical disease and its infection is
most common in tropical and subtropical regions.
Dermatophilus congolensis mainly affects Cattle, horses, sheep and goats, but many
animal species and man can be infected.
The disease has many names
o Cattle : Rain scald, Streptothricosis, Dermatophilosis
o Sheep: Mycotic dermatitis (general infection), lumpy wool (wool- covered
skin) and strawberry foot rot (skin of lower leg and coronet)
The bacterium produces disease in many animal species. It is also a zoonosis.
The common name for the disease is dermatophilosis or streptothricosis.
As far as is known the bacterium is considered an obligate parasite, living only on
animals.
Infection is spread by contact, biting insects, fomites and by other unknown means.
Moist conditions and high relative humidity are known topromote the prevalence of
the disease.
D. congolensis causes skin infections most commonly seen in cattle, sheep, goats,
horses and polar bears in zoological collections.
The infection is characterised by the formation of thick crusts which come away easily
with a tuft of hair, leaving a moist, depressed area with bleeding points from capil-
laries.
Infections can be localised but have a tendency to spread over large areas of the body
and the morbidity and mortality can be high, especially in tropical regions.
Diagnosis
A tuft of hair that is plucked from the lesion usually detaches with scab material
adhering to it.
Grind up a small amount of scab material and place a little in 2 ml distilled water in a
container and incubated for 3.5 hours at room temperature.
Place the container, with lid removed, in a candle jar at room temperature for 15
minutes.
The motile zoospores are chemotactically attracted to the carbon dioxide-enhanced
atmosphere in the candle jar and move to the surface of the distilled water.
Remove a loopful of fluid from the surface and inoculate a blood agar plate.
Incubate the inoculated plate at 37°C for 72 hours under 5-10 per cent CO2.
Identification of this bacterium does not seem to pose any problems. Lesion and
typical morphology are quite diagnostic.
The organism grows well on blood agar plates within 24 to 48 hours as small grayish
white colonies turning yellow to orange upon further incubation.
Although the isolation of D. congolensis may not be necessary for a diagnosis of
streptothricosis, Scab material contains many contaminants and Haalstra's method
was developed to overcome this problem.
Small pieces of material are shaved from the scab with a scalpel and the flakes of scab
are softened in a few drops of distilled water on a microscope slide.
A smear is made, taking care to leave a few flakes of scab material intact. The smear
can be stained by either Giemsa or Gram stains.
Giemsa is the better stain to show the characteristic morphology of the bacterium.
Segmenting filaments and coccoid spores stain deep purple. The spores are seen in
packets.
Immunity
There is no known vaccine for immunization against the disease produced
by Dermatophilus.
Recovery from the disease seems to confer permanent immunity to reinfection.
CHAPTER-26: RICKETTSIALES
Learning objectives
Characters of rickettsiales
Principal diseases, host and mode oftransmission of rickettsial pathogens
Q-fever and Heart water in cattle
Weil-felix reaction
Stains used to identify the rickettsiales
Cultivation methods of rickettsiales
Antigens and toxins of rickettsiales
Pathogenesis of rickettsiales
General approaches used to diagnose Q-fever canine ehrlichiosis, Salmon poisoning
and Heart water
SYSTEMATICS
o Domain : Bacteria
o Phylum : Proteobacteria
o Class : 1. Alphaproteobacteria
o Order : 1. Rickettsiales
o Family : 1. Rickettsiaceae
o Family : 2. Ehrichiaceae
o Genus : Ehrlichia
o Genus : Anaplasma
o Genus : Cowdria
o Genus : Neorickettsia
o Genus : Aegyptianella
o Order : 2. Rhizobiales
o Family : Bartonellaceae
o Genus : Bartonella
o Class : 2. Gammaproteobacteria
o Order : Legionellales
o Family : Coxiellaceae
o Genus : Coxiella
o Phylum : Firmicutes
o Class : Mollicutes
o Order : Mycoplasmatales
o Family : Mycoplasmataceae
o Genus : Haemobartonella
o Genus : Eprythrozoon
They are minute obligate intra cellular parasites requiring living cells for
multiplication.
They were formerely considered closely related to virus.
But based on their characters like
o cell walls similar to those of other Gram negative bacteria.
o divide by binary fission
o possessing cell wall containing muramic acid
o metabolic enzymes independanat of the host cell
o posess both DNA and RNA
o large enough to be seen under the light microscope
o held back by bacterial filters
o susceptible to antibiotics
o They are considered true bacteria,specially adapted to obligate intra cellular
parasitism.
CLASSIFICATION
Depending on the diseases they produce, the vectors that transmit them, antigenic
relationships, growth properties and resistance to physical and chemical agents.
Rickettsiales are usually parasites of alimentary tract of arthropods such as fleas, lice,
ticks and mites.
Transmission is from artropod to animal.
The principal diseases, hosts, mode of transmission of pathogens in
the Rickettsiales are:
Ixodes tick
Animals
(equine
monocytic
ehrlichiosis)
History
The name Rickettsiales has been given in honor of American Pathologist Howard
Taylor Rickets (1909) who first observed these microorganisms in Rocky Mountain
spotted fever.
Derrick (1935) investigated cases of fever occurring in abattoir workers in Brisbane,
Australia.
As the etiology of the disease was unknown, it was referred to as Querry or Q fever.
The causative agent was identified by Burnert (Australian) and Cox (American)- so, it
named as Coxiella burnetti.
Habitat
Morphology
Cultivation
Rickettsiae multiply by simple binary fission. They have cytochromes and their
metabolic reactions are aerobic.
They possess many of the metabolic functions of bacteria but require exogenous co-
factors from animal cells.
Rickettsiae can genrate their own energy, but they also depend on their host for some
energy.
Rickettsiales require living cells for replication. They are readily cultivated in the yolk
sac of developing chicken embryo (first shown by Cox), or in cell lines like mouse
fibroblast, HeLa and HEp2.
Growth generally occurs in the cytoplasm of the infected cells or in some cases
(spotted fever) in the nucleus.
E.canis can be propagated very well in dog monocytes culture.
Rochalimae quintana –the only rickettsiae which have the ability to grow on blood
agar.
Guinea pig and Mice are useful for primary isolation.
Resistance
Rickettsiae are readily inactivated by physical and chemical agents.
Rickettsiae can lose their viability in storage due to loss of their intercellular ATP pool
and several coenzymes.
They can be preserved in skimmed milk or a suspending medium containing sucrose,
K, Po4 and glutamate (SPG) medium.
Coxiella burnetti is relatively resistant to physical and chemical agents.
In dried tick faeces and in wool, it survives for a year or more at 40C and in meat for
atleast a month.
Holding method of pasteurisaton is not effective, but the flash method is effetive.
Rickettsiae are susceptible to tetracycline and chloramphenicol.
Penicillin and sulphonamides are ineffective. Sulphonamides may actuallyenhance
the growth of rickettsiae.
PATHOGENESIS
DIAGNOSIS
It vary with the disease, but usually include unclotted blood for blood smears,
affected tissues (such as brain in heart water), paired serum samples for serology are
appropriate.
In Q fever, besides blood, the sputum and less often the urine, may yield the causative
agent.
By Direct microscopy
Both blood and tissue smears, stains such as Giemsa, Gimenez, Machiavello and
Leishman as well as FAT are useful.
By Isolation and cultivation
This is often difficult and is not usually necessary for a laboratory diagnosis.
Guineapigs and mice are useful for primary isolation. Suspected materials are
inoculated i/peritoneally and the animals have to be observed for 3-4 weeks for
raising their temperature. (Rochalimae quintana will not grow in guinea pigs and
mice).
Disease Diagnosis
Q-fever Detection of organisms in
o Giemsa or FAT stained smears from ruminant placentas
o Inoculation of chicken embryos, guinea pigs and hamsters
o Paired sera samples for agglutination, CFT and ELISA
o Allergic test
The cattle and horses are inoculated in the lower eyelids with the antigen. After
3-4 days, there is acute swelling of the eyelid in the positive case with rise in
temperature.
Canine Giemsa stained blood smears (best at 13th day post infection) - characteristic
ehrlichiosis inclusion in monocytes and neutrophils
Serology – indirect FAT
Weil-felix reaction
CHAPTER-27: CHLAMYDIAE
Learning objectives
SYSTEMATICS
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Chlamydiae
Class Chlamydiae
Order Chlamydiales
Family Chlamydiaceae
Genus Chlamydia
Chlamydophila
Chlamydia are derived from the characteristic appearance of the inclusion bodies
produced by these agents, which are seen close to the nuclei of infected cells as a
cloak or mantle (chlamys meaning mantle).
Chlamydiae are obligate intra cellular parasites, filterable, requiring living system for
multiplication.
They differ from viruses in
o They possess cell wall, resembling Gram-negative bacteria but lacking
muramic acid
o Do not have an eclipse phase following an infection.
o Produce basophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in infected cells (Hence,
referred as basophilic virus).
o Pocesses both DNA and RNA
o Multiply by binary fission.
o Sensitive to antibiotics.
Therefore, they occupy a position intermediate between rickettsia and viruses.
o Chlamydiae are more dependant on host cell for high energy compounds such
as ATP. Hence, they are called as energy parsites.
o C.psittaci causes variety of infections in animals such as gastritis, diarrhoea,
pneumonia, enzootic abortion in ewes, abortion, orchitis, epididymitis,
seminal vesiculitis, feline pneumonitis, sporadic bovine encephalomyelitis
(BUSS disease), conjuctivitis, rhinitis, hepatitis, and polyserositis and poly
arthritis.
o Chlamydia infection in psittacine birds such as parrots called as psittacosis
and this infection in non-psittacine birds such as pigeons, sparrows, turkey
and domestic poultry called as ornithosis.
History
The preliminary study in psittacosis was carried out by Sir Samuel Bedson.
Hence, the psittacosis agents are also termed as Bedsoniae.
Natutal habitat
MORPHOLOGY
CULTIVATION
RESISTANCE,ANTIGENSAND TOXINS
Resistance
PATHOGENESIS
DIAGNOSIS
Chalmydiae can be isolated from the blood during the early stage and from the
sputum on later stage.
Specimens
Introduction
Fungi, unlike bacteria, are eukaryotic organisms that lack chlorophyll and absorb all
nutrients from the environment. Fungi are ubiquitous and the majority are
saprophytic; only a few of the thousands of recognized species are pathogenic for
animals or humans.
Most species that do infect animals are limited, by nutritional requirements and host
defenses, to the superficial skin or subcutaneous tissues. However, fungal infections
in the immunocompromised host can be very serious.
Systemic fungal infections are the most serious and some are limited to particular
geographical regions. Because fungi are eukaryotic, they are not susceptible to most
of the antibiotics used to treat bacterial infections. There are only a few drugs used in
the treatment of fungal infections and most of them have some toxicity for mammals.
The fungi that are most commonly isolated as agents of disease in animals are yeasts,
dermatophytes, and opportunistic fungi (e.g. Aspergillus).
Macroscopic Morphology
Certain fungus species of veterinary importance are known to multiply through the
budding of blastospores (Imperfect yeast); resembling the budding of perfect yeast.
The budding type of multiplication produces a pasty to mucoid appearance on culture
media, resembling appearance of a bacterial culture, these forms are termed as
Monomorphic yeasts.
E. g. Candida albicans and other Candida spp. Cryptococcus neoformans,
Geotrichum candidurn, Trichosporon cutaneum.
Some species are known to multiply only by sending out germ tubes from the spores.
These germ tubes develop into long filaments, called hyphae, which may become
septate, branched or both, depending upon the species.
Hyphae develop into a mat of filamentous growth known as mycelium.
Mycelial growth can be observed macroscopically as a flilamentous (mold) growth
shortly after its development commences.
The hyphae of the mycelium usually give rise to spores in which case the process of
development repeats under proper conditions for growth; these type of fungi are
termed as Monomorphic molds
e.g. Microsporum, Trichophyton, Aspergillus and Penicillium species.
A few species of pathogenic importance are known to multiply at 25°C in the manner
of the monomorphic molds and to multiply at 37°C in the manner of monomorphic
yeasts.
Such type of species which are known to multiply as either a yeast form or a mold
form, depending upon the temperature of Incubation, are termed as dimorphic fungi
eg. Histoplasma capsulatum. Blastomyces dermatitidis, Sporothrix schenckii.
Microscopic Morphology
Type of Reproduction
Fungi reproduce asexually or sexually or both depending upon the species and
environmental conditions.
o If a fungus species demonstrate sexual reproduction alone or sexual and
asexual reproduction, the fungus is called perfect fungus eg. Saccharomyces
cerevisiae.
o If a fungus species demonstrates only asexual reproduction, this fungus is
called an imperfect fungus, also known as fungi-imperfecti and these belong
to the class Deuteromycetes.
Taxonomy
Class Phycomycetes
o The Phycomycetes are the most primitive class of fungi.
o They produce broad, aseptate hyphae and reproduce asexually by forming
sporangia that contain sporangiospores.
o Sexual reproduction occurs by means of thick walled resting spores, which
can be zygospores or oospores.
Class Ascomycetes
o Ascomycetes are represented by two morphologically distinct types.
o The first type has unicellular, round or oval forms reproducing asexually by
budding of blastospores.
o The perfect yeast, genus Saccharomyces, represents this type. If conditions
are favourable, sexual ascospores are formed.
o Four or eight ascospores develop within each sac-like enclosure called an
ascus. The asci break open to release the ascospores.
o The second type of Ascomycetes have septate hyphae, producing filamentous
forms, which reproduce asexually by spores called conidia and sexually by
ascopores.
o In this type, the asci are usually enclosed within a tightly meshed network of
hyphae (mycelia) called perithecium.
Class Basidiomycetes
o Basidiomycetes develop sexual basidiospores from specialized club shaped
structures called basidia.
o Each basidium usually bears four exogenous basidiospores resembling toes on
a foot.
Class Deuteromycetes
o The majority of pathogenic fungi belong to this class. Deuteromycetes (fungi
imperfecti) are composed of those fungi that lack a demonstrable means of
sexual reproduction, therefore, are considered imperfect.
o The Deuteromycetes are represented by two morphologically distinct types: a
filamentous (mold) form and an imperfect yeast form resembling the perfect
yeast, Saccharomyces.
o Asexual spores of two major types are produced in this class. These are the
thallospores and conidia.
o The thallospores are formed by a change in portions of the thallus or body of
the fungus and include the arthrospores, blastospores and chlamydospores.
o The conidia are produced by abstrictions from specialized hyphae called
conidiophores.
o Large conidia mav be called macroconidia and small conidia as microconidia.
Mycosis
Mycoses can be divided into four categories according to the tissues usually invaded.
Superficial
o The etiological agents of the superficial mycoses are confined to the outermost
layers of skin and hair.
o The superficial mycoses are less serious than the other mycoses
e.g. Trichosporon cutaneum.
Cutaneous
o Most of the etiological agents of the cutaneous mycoses possess the special
ability to invade and destroy keratin in skin, hair and nails, e.g. Candida
albicans, Trichophyton, Microsporum, & Epidermophyton spp.
Subcutaneous
o The agents responsible for subcutaneous mycoses are more serious than the
cutaneous mycoses and they invade primarily the muscle tissue,
e.g. Rhinosporidium seebri, Sporothrix schenckii.
Systemic
o The agents of systemic mycoses invade deep tissue and create symptoms
resembling other diseases of the particular tissues or organ invaded.
o Systemic mycoses may also have cutaneous manifestations.
o The systemic mycoses are the most serious of the mycoses.
o E.g. Candidiasis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, geotrichosis, blastomycosis
etc.,
Prolonged antibiotic therapy. Antibiotics may lower host resistance in some ways, but
the best known effect is through alteration of the normal bacterial flora.
The most common fungal infection resulting from antibiotic treatment is intestinal
candidiasis.
Immunosuppressive treatment and drugs. Drugs that interfere with inflammation
and humoral and cellular immunity, make animals particularly more susceptible to
opportunistic fungal infections.
Radiation therapy is particularly toxic for antibody-producing cells.
Infectious and noninfectious diseases (e.g. cancer), and pregnancy can reduce host
resistance and make animals more susceptible to fungal infections.
Genetic immune deficiencies.
Environmental factors, such as trauma, general lowered resistance due to stress, a
moist environment and exposure to a large number of organisms.
REFERENCE BOOKS
CHAPTER-29: DERMATOPHYTOSIS
Learning objectives
INTRODUCTION
History
Ringworm, the common name for dermatophyte infections, has been described from
the earliest historical times.
The name came about due to the fact that the fungus grows equally in all directions
and forms lesions with circular or ring forms.
The Romans associated the disease with insects and referred to it as tinea, meaning
small insect.
Tinea is still used to refer to different clinical settings of the disease (e.g., tinea pedis -
ringworm of the feet).
In 1910 Sabouraud published a detailed work on systematic and scientific studies of
the dermatophytes. There are currently 37 species of dermatophytes.
In 1959 the sexual state of some of the dermatophytes was identified, and they are
now classified in the class Ascomycetes.
In 1958 Gentles published the first report on the oral administration of griseofulvin,
which cured experimental dermatophytosis in a guinea pig.
Natural habitat
The dermatophytes are closely related in appearance, physiology, and antigenicity.
Although the soil is rich with dermatophytes, most of the agents that cause animal
disease are obligate parasites of animals.
In general, the more chronic the infection and the more adapted the parasite is to the
host, the less severe the inflammatory response will be.
M. gypseum is a natural soil inhabitant that is a common cause of dermatophytosis,
while most of the other common animal pathogens are normally found only on
animals.
MORPHOLOGY
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
The most common media for propagating dermatophytes are dermatophyte test
medium (DTM) or Sabouraud's dextrose agar, a 2% agar containing 1% peptone and
4% glucose.
Its acidity (pH 5.6) renders it mildly bacteriostatic and selective.
The selectivity is enhanced by addition of cycloheximide (500µg/ml), which inhibits
other fungi, and gentamicin and tetracycline (100 µg/ml of each), or chloramphenicol
(50 µg/ml).
Dermatophytes are aerobes-and nonfermenters. Some attack proteins and deaminate
amino acids.
They grow optimally at 25°C to 30°C and require several days to weeks of incubation.
Some dermatophytes in skin and hair (but not in culture) produce a green
fluorescence due to a tryptophan metabolite that is visible under a Wood's light. Of
animal dermatophytes, only Microsporum canis produces this reaction.
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENICITY
Symptoms
Although not fatal, dermatophytosis can be a cause of significant economic loss and a
source of infection for man.
One of the first clinical signs is loss of hair, followed by an inflammatory reaction of
the skin due to the host response.
Dermatophytosis occurs more commonly in very young, old, or sick animals and
most often in stabled rather than pastured animals.
The peak incidence occurs in the winter. The characteristic lesion is a hyperkeratosis
with septate hyphae and arthroconidia in the stratum corneum.
Invasion of the hair causes the shaft to become weak and break, resulting in circular,
scaly areas of alopecia with or without crust formation.
Arthroconidia within or outside the hairshaft are also referred to as arthrospores.
Manifestations range from erythema to vesiculopustular reactions and suppuration.
Mild forms are seen in T. verrucosum infection of calves. Severe reactions are typical
in T. mentagrophytes infection of dogs and M. gypseum infection of horses.
Local plaques (kerion) may resemble certain skin tumors, especially in dogs.
The inflammatory reaction may arrest the mycotic infection but become the primary
problem through secondary suppurative bacteria! infection.
The roughly circular pattern of the lesions and their inflamed margins suggested the
terms ringworm and tinea (Latin for worm). Different tineas are
o Tinea barabe – beard
o Tinea capitis – scalp
o Tinea corporis – body
o Tinea cruris – groin
o Tinea favosa – favus
o Tinea imbricata and Tinea manum – hands
o Tinea pedis – feet
o Tinea unguium – nails
Lesions
DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis
Differential diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Wood light screening of scalps and suspected animal reservoirs. (Cats and dogs), hair
brush technique for culture of none fluorescing scalps, improve hygiene and
discourage sharing of clothing and accessories.
In cattle, vaccines for T. verrucosum have been reported to be successful for 3-5
years. However, this has not been shown with vaccines to other dermatophytes.
CHAPTER-30: CANDIDIASIS
Learning objectives
INTRODUCTION
Candidiasis is a general term covering diseases caused by yeasts of the
genus Candida, especially C.albicans.
Candidiasis can occur either as a superficial or as a systemic infection.
There are more than 150 species of Candida, but only C.albicans is commonly
associated with disease in animals.
Diseases and main hosts of Candida albicans
HABITAT
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENECITY
Lesions
In acute cases the lesions appear as tiny, discrete yellowish white (or) grayish white
pustules which loosely adhere to the mucous membranes and rather resemble a small
quantity of curdled milk.
In acute cases, the wall of the crop is thickened and covered by a corrugated
pseudomembrane of yellowish grey necrotic material giving the characteristic ‗turky-
towelling‘ appearance.
In avian moniliasis (or) thrush lesion are confined to the crop, less frequently invade
the mouth, oesophagous, proventriculus, gizzard and intestine.
Symptoms
DIAGNOSIS
Specimens
Scrapings from lesions, centrifuged milk samples, biopsy or tissue samples in 10%
formalin for histopathology.
Based on morphology
o C.albicans grows as oval, budding yeast cell on agar cultures & in animal
tissues.
o Pseudohyphae are also produced in animal tissue by elongation of yeast cells
that fail to separate.
o In Gram stained smears C.albicans appear as purple-blue yeast cell.
o It can also be demonstrated in specimens by 10% KOH (or) by lacto phenol
cotton blue.
o The tissue sections stained by PAS-haematoxylin (or) methaneamine silver
stains, the C.albicans appear as thin walled oval, budding yeast cells and/or in
the form of pseudohyphae.
Based on isolation and identification
o C.albicans grows well on blood agar or SDA without inhibitors (Candida spp
may be inhibited by cycloheximide).
o The plates are streaked with a small inoculum as for bacteria. The cultures are
incubated at 37ºC, aerobically, for upto 5 days.
o Colonies of C.albicans are white to cream, shiny, high convex and have a
pleasant beery smell.
o Smears from the colonies stained with Gram's or lactophenol cotton blue or
methylene blue stain reveal thin walled budding yeast cell and pseudohyphae.
o BiGGy agar (Bismuth-sulphite-glucose- glycine- yeast agar) can also be used
for the isolation and identification of C.albicans.
o Most bacterial contaminants are inhibited by the Bismuth
sulphite. C.albicans and C.tropicalis strongly reduce the Bismuth sulphite to
Bismuth sulphide.
o C.albicans gives smooth, circular, brownish colonies and no color diffusion
into the surrounding medium.
o The colonies of C.tropicalis are similar but there is diffuse blackening of the
medium after 72 hrs.
Germ tube or serum tube test
o A small inoculum from an isolated colony is suspended in 0.5 ml of sheep,
bovine, rabbit or human serum and incubated at 370C for 2-3 hrs.
o A drop of the preparation is examined under phase contrast or high objective
of the light microscope.
o Small, thin walled tubes will be seen projecting from some of the yeast cells.
This is charcteristic of C.albicans.
Demonstration of Chlamydospore (Dalmu's technique)
o Subsurface inoculation is made on corn meal- tween 80 or chlamydospore
agar and the plates are incubated at 30ºC for 2-4 days.
o A thin coverslip is placed on the surface of the agar and examined under high
power microscope to demonstrate thick walled chlamydospores borne on the
tips of pseudohyphae.
o Clusters of smaller blastospores may also be present.
Based on biochemical test
Animal inoculation
o Rabbits and mice are susceptible to intra venous and intra peritoneal
inoculation respectively. Abscesses develop in the kidney.
The majority of the candidiasis cases are associated with predisposing diseases,
unsanitary conditions or medication with antibiotics.
Correction of this condition is the first step in therapy.
Nystatin (Mycostatin) administered in the feed to treat candidiasis in chickens,
turkeys, swine, dogs and cats.
It has been administered in the mammary gland to treat mastitis in cattle.
Amphotericin B is the most effective drug for the treatment of systemic candidiasis.
Ketoconazole and clotrimazole have been effective in the treatment of
mucocutaneous candidiasis.
HISTORY AND HABITAT
History
The natural habitat of the organism is thought to be associated with stagnant water.
The disease has worldwide distribution but its occurrence is most common in India
and Srilanka.
The disease has been reported in India more frequently in human beings.
It is of interest that 90% infections involve the nose of male animals.
In south India, particularly humid climatic areas, the disease is more in animals and
in dry areas the disease mostly occur in man.
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENICITY
Rhinosporidiosis in dogs
Rhinosporidium seeberi has not been grown in culture and no laboratory animals are
available for cultivation.
Only method of diagnosis is demonstration of spores and sporangia in wetmount
preparations of nasal discharge and section of polyps.
Spores are 6 - 7 µm in d.m. Spores increase in size and attaining a size of
approximately 100 µm become transformed into sporangia by the deposition of a
layer of cellulose within the chitinous wall. Numerous nucleoid division occur and it
attains 200 -300µm in d.m.
A sporangium contains approximately 16,000 to 20,000 spores.
At one point, the sporangium thins to form a pore and the spores are escaped.
In the tissue sections stained by H &E stain, various forms of sporangia are seen
Young trophic forms: 10 to 100 µm in d.m. with single central basophilic karyosomes
and amorphous cytoplasm.
Mature forms 100 -300µm in d.m. containing sporangiospore.
Empty and collapse form of sporangia.
Treatment
CHAPTER-31: CRYPTOCOCCOSIS
Learning objectives
INTRODUCTION
Cryptococcosis also known as European blastomycosis or Torulosis is a subacute or
chronic mycotic infection of man and various species of animals involving the CNS,
the respiratory system and eye.
It is caused by encapsulated yeast – Cryptococcus neoformans. Of the 19 species
of Cryptococcus, only C.neoformans is pathogenic for animals and humans.
Diseases and main hosts of Cryptococcus neoformans
There are two varieties Cryptococcus neoformans var neoformans (serotypes A and
D) and Cryptococcus neoformans var gattii (Serotypes B and C).
C. neoformans is a member of the fungi imperfecti. But Filobasidiella neoformans is
the teleopmorphic (sexual stage) state of serotypes A and D, Filobasidiella
bacillispora is the teleomorphic state of serotypes B and C.
C. neoformans is a spherical to oval, thin walled, budding yeast that varies greatly in
d.m.
The cells are surrounded by a mucoid polysaccharide capsule that varies in thickness,
but in animal tissues it is usually very large, the width of the capsule exceeding the
d.m. of the parent cell.
Daughter cells are usually single and bud from the parent cell by a thin neck.
Yeast cells are Gram positive. Lactophenol cotton blue or nigrosin stains are
commonly used to demonstrate the spherical budding yeast surrounded by a capsule.
HABITAT
C. neoformans is present in dust and has been isolated from the skin, mucous
membrane and intestinal tract of normal animals and birds.
The reservoir of types A and D is the faeces of birds, particularly pigeons and soil
contaminated by avian excreta.
The pigeon is not infected, the organism colonise the faeces after they have been
passed.
The organisms are concentrated in pigeon faeces due to their high content of
creatinine.
The creatinine inhibits many other micro organism but can be utilized by C.
neoformans.
It can survive in pigeon droppings for more than a year. C. neoformans has a
worldwide distribution.
Cultural characters
Biochemical characters
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENECITY
In cryptococcal mastitis cows with mild infections often show no clinical signs except
swelling of the affected glands.
In severe infections, animal exhibits typical clinical signs of bacterial mastitis (fever,
swelling and firmness of the udder).
Milk secretion gradually diminishes. Milk will appear grey, white, highly viscid and
mucoid.
In dogs, it affects the CNS, causing incoordination, hyperaesthesia and nasal
discharge.
Subcutaneous granuloma around the ear, face and feet. In cats, chronic nasal and
ocular discharge, granulomas and blindness are common.
DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis
Specimens: CSF, lesions or exudates, mastitic milk, biopsies and tissues should be
collected.
Direct microscopy
o Demonstration of budding yeast with a large capsule by India ink, Nigrosin
and LPCB staining methods.
Histological sections on biopsies of tissue from lesions can be stained by the PAS-
haemotoxylin stain. This will stain or outline, the yeast cell but not the capsule, which
appear as a clear area surrounding the cell.
Based on isolation and identification: production of brown pigment on birdseed agar.
Based on urease production
By Animal inoculation
o Mice are susceptible to pathogenic strains.
o When intra cerebral or intra peritoneal inoculation of suspected material, the
mice will die within 4 days to two weeks.
o PM reveals gelatinous lesions in the abdominal cavity and lungs.
o The budding encapsulated yeast can be demonstrated from the lesions.
By serology
o Slide LAT, tube agglutination, CFT, ELISA, IFAT are useful to detect
antibodies.
Treatment
Learning objectives
INTRODUCTION
Synonyms of this disease are small form histoplasmosis, Darling‘s disease and
reticuloendothelial cytomycosis.
Histoplasmosis is a chronic, granulomatous disease caused by Histoplamsa
capsulatum var capsulatum (Teleomorph : Ajellomyces capsulatus).
The organisms become heavily concentrated in the feces of birds (particularly black
birds, sea gulls, starlings and pigeons); bats are also important vectors of this disease.
Thus, the fungus has been isolated from soil in bat caves, bird roosts, chicken houses,
and silos inhabited by pigeons.
The organisms are facultative, intracellular parasites of macrophages.
The tissue form cells of H. capsulatum var.capsulatum appear as small, oval yeast
cells with or without buds.
Daughter cells are attached to mother cells by a narrow attachment point.
The yeast cells are relatively small (2-4 um). A clear halo is seen around darker-
staining central material.
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Prevalent in America, parts of Africa and Asia. Rare in Australia and Europe.
In the United States, histoplasmosis occurs throughout the midwest and much of the
eastern half of the United States.
Infection usually occurs through inhalation of spores of the dimorphic
fungus Histoplasma capsulatum.
Infections may also occur through ingestion. Most infections are subclinical or
benign.
Histoplasmosis may occur commonly in animals in endemic areas.
Dogs are particularly susceptible, but the disease has also been reported in cattle,
cats, swine, horses, sheep and wild animals.
The disease has not been reported in birds. Histoplasma capsulatum is not
contagious.
PATHOGENESIS
The disease may vary from small granulomatous nodules to an acute, disseminating,
rapidly fatal form.
Usually, the disease manifests itself either as a pulmonary or intestinal infection, and
may be inapparent or subclinical, mild, acute, chronic, or disseminated.
Ulcerations and tuberculosis-type lesions may occur in many of the organ systems.
Mice are highly susceptible to infection, whereas other laboratory animals vary in
susceptibility.
Following inhalation of spores, macrophages phagocytize the organisms and an
inflammatory response ensues.
The fungus is either killed, or local granulomas form with calcification.
Host immunity and the number of spores inhaled determine which form the disease
manifests itself as.
The macrophages may carry the organisms to various body sites and actually help to
disseminate it.
Thus, histoplasmosis has been referred to as a disease of the reticuloendothelial
system.
Enlargement of the liver and spleen, and nodules on the tongue, ocular involvement,
and abortion have also been reported.
PATHOGENECITY
Clinical signs
Basically pulmonary. Most infections are asymptomatic or benign and self
limiting.
Symptomatic forms with fever, night sweats, weight loss and hemoptysis.
In disseminated cases hepatomegaly and splenomegaly develop, with anemia and
leucopenia.
Chronic pulmonary infections associated with cough, dyspnea, chest pain,
hemoptysis and weight loss.
Cavities may develop in the apex or subapical regions of the lungs.
Lesions
DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis
The organisms are rarely seen extracellularly. Specimens (CSF, biopsies, bone
marrow, lymph nodes, or buffy coat) stained with a variety of histological stains
(Gomori methanamie or Periodic acid-schiff stains) reveal the organisms within
macrophages. The yeast cells are relatively small (2-4 um).
A clear halo is seen around darker-staining central material.
The skin test becomes positive after exposure to the fungus and remains so for the life
of the animal.
Thus, the skin test is of little usefulness in detecting active disease.
Furthermore, skin testing may induce antibody formation, thereby, interfering with
more useful serological tests.
The complement fixation test for detection of specific antibodies is useful for
diagnosis.
Animals develop a rapid rise in titer following infection; the titer falls off gradually
and disappears by nine months.
However, cross-reactivity to antigens of the other systemic fungal pathogens may
occur.
The immunodiffusion test is a useful adjunct to the CF test; the development of 2
bands may indicate active or past infection, respectively.
A latex agglutination test and fluorescent antibody test are useful screening tests, but
complement fixation is considered the confirmatory test.
Treatment
Learning objectives
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Both yeast and mycelial forms can be cultivated if suitable media, temperature of
incubation and carbon dioxide tenson are provided.
The organism grows slowly when the yeast phase is grown on media rich in protein
and in an atmosphere enriched with CO2.
Several culture media have been used, but the most satisfactory were Sabouraud's
dextrose agar enriched with 2.5% glycerol; brain heart infusion agar enriched with
10% horse blood; nutrient agar supplemented with 2% dextrose; mycobiotic agar and
mycoplasma-like organism medium.
Growth on all media is very slow and appears after four to eight weeks of incubation
at 25°C.
Colonies of the mycelial form are a yellowish/light brown to deep brown, convoluted,
waxy and cauliflower-like.
In body tissues, the ability of H. farciminosum to convert from the mycelial form to
the yeast form appears to be dependent on temperature and nutrition as well as the
strain, However, in vitro, conversion of the mycelial form to the yeast form of H.
farciminosum can be achieved by incubating at 35°C to 37°C.
Complete conversion to the yeast form is achieved only after four to five repeated
serial transfers onto fresh media every eight days.
Biochemical characteristics
The biochemical characteristics of the mycelial form include positive reactions to
catalase and urease tests as well as the assimilation of ammonium sulphate as the
sole source of nitrogen.
No Fermentation of carbohydrate sugars, liquefaction of gelatine or reduction of
nitrate occurs.
Resistance
The organism is highly resistant to the effects of physical and chemical agents and
can survive for at least a month in the dust of stables or kraals.
This pathogen is also known to be viable and virulent after desiccation in the
laboratory for 25 months.
H. farciminosum may survive for up to ten weeks in non-sterile water at 26°C.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
PATHOGENESIS
PATHOGENECITY
Clinical signs
The cases of epizootic lymphangitis can be grouped into four different forms, namely:
cutaneous, respiratory, ocular and asymptomatic carriers.
The cutaneous form of the disease, after which the disease was named, is the most
common.
The initial lesion is an open granulomatous wound along the course of a lymphatic
vessel, which has a tendency to ulcerate, or to undergo alternating periods of
discharge and closure for some weeks before healing with residual scar formation.
Lesions are most common in the forelimbs, the chest wall and the neck. In severe
cases, skin over the entire body may be affected.
The lesions begin as indolent, chancre-like papules, becoming larger over the course
of weeks and eventually form irregular pyogranulomatous nodules, which frequently
ulcerate.
Mortality does not usually exceed 10% to 15% and the main loss results from the
inability of animals to work for several weeks because of extremely painful lesions.
The ophthalmic form of the disease is less frequent. Infection may occur as
conjunctivitis or a naso-lachrymal infection.
The infection rarely becomes generalised. Initial infection is characterised by a
watery discharge from one or both eyes and some swelling of the eyelids, followed by
the development of papules and ulcerating button-like growths on the conjunctiva
and/or on the nictitating membrane .
The respiratory form of the disease is characterised by lesions which are mostly
confined to the upper respiratory tract.
This form usually occurs as a late development in the cutaneous form of the disease.
On the nasal mucosa, the lesions begin as yellowish papules or nodules and these
soon form crater-like granulating ulcers that bleed easily.
The lesions are usually found near the external nares. These lesions may also occur in
the lungs.
Asymptomatic carriers can be identified clinically by the identification of fibrocalcific
skin lesions at previous sites of infection. Such horses will give a positive result to an
intradermal sensitivity test and positive reactions to serological tests.
Lesions
DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis
Differential diagnosis
TREATMENT
CHAPTER-34: COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS
Learning objectives
INTRODUCTION
MORPHOLOGY
In the soil, C. immitis is a mould made up of slender septate hyphae that give rise, on
thicker secondary branches, to chains of infectious arthroconidia (arthrospores,
arthroaleuriospores, arthroaleurioconidia).
These are bulging, thick-walled cells, separated by empty cells, through which breaks
occur when arthroconidia are dispersed.
In tissue, arthroconidia grow into spherical sporangia with birefringent walls,
"spherules", which by internal cleavage produce several hundred "endospores".
The walls disintegrate, allowing dissemination of endospores, each of which may
repeat the cycle or, on a nonliving substrate, give rise to mycelial growth.
Though only arthroconidia are naturally infectious, endospores can experimentally
initiate disease. Sexual spores are not known.
"Coccidioidin" in supernatants of mycelial C. immitis broth cultures is largely
polysaccharide, but contains some amino acid nitrogen.
It is used in cutaneous hypersensitivity and serologic tests.
"Spherulin," a lysate of cultured spherules, is also used in skin tests. Both are
leukotactic.
Cultural characteristics
This dimorphic fungus grows more quickly than the other dimorphic pathogens (1-2
weeks), but the same cultivation media are used.
On Sabouraud's or blood agar, at 25° C or 37° C, a moist white colony develops that
later is covered with a fluffy mycelium. Bovine blood agar is hemolyzed.
Arthroconidia are produced in 5 to 7 days. Mycelial growth should be evident within a
week and is examined for presence of arthroconidia in a lactophenol cotton blue wet
mount.
Thick-walled, barrel-shaped arthroconidia alternating with empty disjunctor cells is
characteristic.
The isolate can be reconverted to the sporangial phase by animal inoculation or
cultivation in a spherule medium.
The sporangial phase is produced at 40°C in media containing casein hydrolysate,
glucose, biotin, glutathione and a salt mixture.
Resistance
Arthroconidia resist drying and tolerate heat and salinity better than do competing
soil organisms.
In summer heat, C. immitis survives in soil layers nearer the surface than its
competitors.
When conditions favor growth again after rains, C. immitis repopulates the
superficial soil layers first, ensuring its widespread dispersal.
PATHOGENESIS
Clinical Signs
In all species, overt disease is the exception. Highest prevalence of canine systemic
coccidioidomycosis is observed in male dogs, 4 to 7 years of age.
Young Boxer dogs and Doberman pinschers are highly susceptible.
Pulmonary disease may be asymptomatic, symptomatic of variable degree, benign
and chronic, or progressive.
Dissemination may occur, but only in the dog and human, and depends on host
resistance and the level of exposure.
There may be respiratory signs (including cough), fever, lameness due to bone
involvement, or discharging sinuses from deep lesions.
The disease is most common in Boxers and Doberman Pinschers.
The disease has not been reported in cats.
In cattle, sheep, and swine, the disease is usually asymptomatic, limited to lungs and
regional lymph nodes and undiagnosed until slaughter.
Lesions
Gross lesions are white granulomas varying from miliary nodules to irregular masses.
Peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial effusions occur.
The initial lesions are found in the lungs. Systemic disease may involve the meninges,
bones, joints, and subcutaneous and cutaneous tissues.
Lesions may also occur in the lung, brain, liver, spleen, and kidney.
In acute cases, burrowing abscesses are common.
In chronic and slowly advancing cases, focal and suppurative granulomatous lesions
are common without caseation or calcification.
Severe, disseminated disease is usually seen only in dogs and humans.
Cattle and swine are often infected, but the disease is restricted to a few tuberculous-
like lesions in the lymph nodes and sometimes the lung.
Diagnosis
SPOROTRICHOSIS
BLASTOMYCOSIS
CHAPTER-35: ASPERGILLOSIS
Learning objectives
INTRODUCTION
CULTIVATION
Cultivation of the organism
The Aspergillus grows very well in ordinary Sabouraud's Dextrose Agar with
chloramphenicol.
Cycloheximide should never been incorporated in the media.
Morphology of Single, usually one on Double, cover entire Single and double,
conidiospore upper half of the vesicle, form radiate cover entire vesicle,
and vesicle, parellel to head point out in all
sterigmata axis of stalk. directions
PATHOGENECITY
Acute Aspergillosis
Chronic Aspergillosis
Cattle
Conditions of high humidity and temperature encourage the growth of molds when
hay and straw is stored and this constitutes the source of infection for cattle.
Aspergillus fumigatus is considered as the primary cause of mycotic abortion,
however many other Aspergillus species, A.flavus, A.nidulans, A.niger,
A.terreus and A.versicolor are also found to be associated with abortion.
Infections mainly occur by inhalation into lungs or by ingestion, and then carried to
the placenta in the blood stream from lesions in the respiratory tract or ulcers,
mycotic ruminits or other lesions of the digestive tract.
This results in a slowly developing fungal placentitis (one to two months) and intefere
with the nutrition of the foetus, resulting in foetal death and abortion.
Chronic form may lead to purulent vaginitis, cervicitis and endometritis, resulting in
infertility.
Abortion most commonly occurs in 6-7 months of gestation.
The aborted foetus shows discrete, raised ringworm type lesions on the skin of head
and neck.
The placenta is found thickened, haemorrhagic, odematous and necrotic.
The cotyledons will be grey in color, inter cotyledonary area will be leathery, grey and
tan in color.
On necropsy grayish or yellowish gaseous exudates with mycelia are commonly seen
in the lung and airsac.
Sometimes the organism colonise the bronchi, forming a compact spherical colony,
which is called fungus ball.
The fungal balls are produced most frequently by A.niger than A.fumigatus.
Characteristic nodular lesions are also seen in alimentary canal, kidneys and ovaries.
DIAGNOSIS
Method of diagnosis
Prevention
Vaccines
Several types of vaccines are used involving different parts of the fungal elements. i.e.
whole cell filterate, spores, mycelial fragments, germinating cells and they are
inactivated with the use of heat, phenol, formalin etc. some vaccines of live cell origin
are also available.
Treatment
Learning objectives
HISTORY
Fungal toxins are referred to as mycotoxins and the diseases they produced are
termed as mycotoxicosis.
The epidemics of ergot poisoning caused by eating cereal grains infected with the
parasitic fungus Claviceps purpura have been recorded since the middle ages, the
toxin compounds responsible for this ergotism were identified in 1875. During 1942 –
1947, the disease alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA) outbreak occurred due to the
consumption of mouldy cereal grains.
One of the first, well-documented outbreaks of animal mycotoxicosis (aflatoxicosis)
occurred in East Anglia, England in 1960 when more than 1,00,000 turkey poults
died of an unknown disease (Turkey X disease). Subsequently, the examination of the
incriminated grounnut meal revealed the presence of A.flavus mycelia and the toxic
metabolites revealed by thin layer chromatography (TLC) were called aflatoxins.
Many of the toxigenic fungi, over 100 known species, are capable of elaborating
mycotoxins.
The same mycotoxin can be produced by different fungi and the same fungus can
produce different mycotoxins.
Toxin production occurs only under specific conditions of moisture, temperature,
suitability of substrate and appropriate oxygen tension.
The optimum conditions for toxin production are relatively specific for each fungus.
For e.g. Fusarium elaborates its toxin at freezing temperature, while A.
flavus requires a temperture of 250C.
The susceptibility of different crops to mould infection is goverened by the presence
of suitable substrates.
Damage to the seed coat by insects, mechanical harvesting, severe frost or other
factors may predispose crops to fungal attack.
Insects may also serve as carriers of fungal spores.
The fungi associated with cereal grains have been divided mainly into two types.
o Field fungi which invade the grains before harvest and required greater water
activity for growth
e.g. Fusarium, Helminthosporium and Cladosporium
o Storage fungi which invade the grains after harvest during drying and in
storage
e.g. Aspergillus, Penicillium
The main types of toxigenic fungi, which produce mycotoxins of animal/ poultry
importance, are
Species Toxins
A.flavus and A.parasiticus Aflatoxins
A. ocheraceus Ochratoxin
Fusraium roseum Trichothecane (t-2) toxin
Penicillium citrinum Citrinin
A.nidulans and A.versicolor Sterigmatocyosin
CHARACTERISTICS OF MYCOTOXINS
The term mycotoxin is derived from the Greek word – ‗mykes‘ meaning ‗fungus‘ and
the Latin word – ‗toxicum‘ meaning ‗poison‘.
Mycotoxins are group of compounds produced by some strains of certain fungi that
cause illness or death when ingested by man or animals.
They are low molecular weight, non-antigenic, heat stable secondary fungal
metabolites.
They can activate at low concentrations. They have a wide spectrum of toxic effects,
like carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive.
Acquired immunity does not occur following exposure.
Each toxin affects specific target organs or tissues.
AFLATOXICOSIS
The name aflatoxin derives from Aspergillus flavus toxin. Afalatoxins are a group of
approx.
20 related toxic compounds produced by some strains of A.
flavus and A.parasiticus during growth on a variety of cereal grains and food stuffs
such as maize, cotton seed and groundnuts.
High humidity and high temperature during pre-harvesting, harvesting,
transporatation and storage, as well as damage to feed crops by insects, drought and
mechanical injury during harvesting, favours the growth and toxin production
of Aspergillus flavus.
Mould growth and toxin formation require a moisture content of the substrate
greater than 15%, temp.250C and adequate aeration.
Aflatoxins are a group of related bisfuranocumasin compounds with toxic,
carcinogenic, teratogenic and mutagenic activity.
The four major aflatoxins are B1, B2, G1 and G2. These mycotoxins are named
according to their position and fluorescent colour on thin layer chromatography
(TLC).
B1and B2 produce blue colour and G1, G2 gives green fluorescence.
Aflatoxins M1, M2 are hydroxylated metabolites of B1 and B2 that are excreted in the
milk of lactating animals such as dairy cows.
Acute toxicity
Hepatic injury and nervous signs such as ataxia and convulsions. Death may occur
suddenly.
Chronic toxicity
PATHOGENECITY
Symptoms
Young animals, particularly young pigs, calves, turkey poults and ducklings are highly
susceptible.
Aflatoxin B1 produce the most hepatogenic, carcinogenic, teratogenic and
embryotoxic effects.
Prominent signs in calves include blindness, circling, grinding of teeth, diarrhoea,
tenesmus and convulsions.
Aflatoxicosis has ben described in goats. But sheep are highly resistant.
In dairy cattle, afalatoxin M1 and M2 are excreted in the milk.
In pigs, signs include drowsiness, inappetance, jaundice, weight loss and yellow
urine.
Ducklings are considered to be the most susceptible avain species to aflatoxins.
Signs include anorexia, poor growth rate, ataxia and opisthotonus, followed by death.
In birds over three weeks of age, subcutaneous haemorrhages of legs and feet.
Lesions
DIAGNOSIS
Biological assays
Prevention of contamination at all stages of food production, storage and use is the
preferred method of preventing aflatoxicosis.
Decontamination procedures like physical removal and chemical treatment of
aflatoxin contaminated feeds such as with acids, alkalies, aldehydes, oxidizing agents
of selected gases (ammonia) have been used for degrading aflatoxins.
High affitnity inorganic compounds such as benzoic and propionic acid have been
widely used as preservatives for stored agricultural products.