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    187 views118 pages

    022 - CEH11 Appendix A - Ethical Hacking Essential Concepts - I

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    Nizar Hajji karwi
    CEH

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Certified |} Ethical Hacker Appendix A: Ethical Hacking Essential Concepts - | Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 ia ra] = Module Objectives Understanding Operating System and File System Concepts ‘overview of Computer Network Fundamentals and Basic Network Toubleshocting Overview of Vitualzation and Network File System (NFS) Overview of web Markup and Programming Languages Understanding Application Development Frameworks and Their Vulnerabilities Understanding Web Subcomponents and Database Connectivity Operating System Concepts ‘Appendix Pape 3205 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Coun "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Windows Operating System c/EH (@ The Windows 0S i developed by Mierosat corporations and is 2 widely used Operating System in most private and govarnment organizations Windows Architecture |B The processors of the Windows system Work in wo different modes for ‘operation User Mode © Acallecton of sub-systems © Has limited access to resources Kernel Mode © MAL, Kernel, executive (© Unrestricted acces to system memory ‘and external devices ‘Appendix Pape 3206 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Coun "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Ts tein ecco Dipeplomaton tt oucau to anos Duran Name Steno) sae eee omens sna cpP amp ges ect an tc Ture comman eee tenreoncatt a ete cng arses te olunteer i oi irl ert 1 erect Oisemcargeiemnecorfereton fcmasenatci compen epee sen UNIX Operating System computer systemor computing device (© UNI Isan operating system which was frst developed in the 19605and designed for use on any type oF ‘Three main components © pate syn ba xerset |” seestine nd meme roms & ender ee sdconmenatesuth on suet | @ Teter btnan th r nda rrograms | @ Prcmtrining onthe mate ‘Appendix Pape 3207 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 UNIX Directory Structure [ © atttesere grouped topeterin the rector strctre 1 [oe tegeem tormenta nena! ance mcm inert oe | ([ te parte teactyauamnsetycec on rem byamen Fy | ‘ = L 7 =] CI Cf eee " Ce = enor deny a es or deen ere or dete sorties Mone ra eb compute wo th: dapat eres ‘Pom he st Ones of fe ‘apr to peng th end gh ‘pay th cre c's patie Diy aur syste Dantes ‘Appendix A Pape 3208 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Coun "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures Ele Making Essential Concepts vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Linux Operating System [+ nt emsorpeing oni tae ett ger ae | J cnnrrens tacos 2 Nb: Comic een sch enthe man RA 0, Bpeoenetpe capa == = Migwraaemmpectancocomncsecay [ll Coon “ ete = eset | ae oo + ome nenacenrepe oe en ~ | = [ese] a/b = Linux Features EH | Portabiity | urunterctand ppcatnscanbemsaedn frst karate ltrs | OpenSource | Source codeof ruts vaetefr readin aconmuniy-bsed development rt | Maiiaser | lip werscan ces the resources ibe RAM ormemoryatthe same tine | rstrermess | a i bye Joo | | sm | cero ‘nun uses standard hierarchical fle sucture for 2ranginguser and system es ‘A spedalinterpreter program wed to execute programsor applications Luu proues ecunty features he authentication, contol acess to fs sing passwordsand Se | ‘Appendix Pape 3202 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 MAC OS X Operating System ia ra] = © Core 0S layer: Outlines programming interfaces related to hardware and networking '® Kerneland Device Driverslayer: Contains support fr filesystems, networking, security, IPC progremming IMAC 08 Xis a series ofclosed-source graphical operating systems developed by Apple nc Itisthe primary operating system for Apple's Mac computers Itcan offers more stable and reliable platform and supports pre-emptive multitasking anclmemory protection [pes tne 08 coc Apeation er compass eho bling =p seine Meds ner: carpeted echoes pg econ, an ein a adie Core Services layer: Comprises fundamental services and technologies ranging from Automatic Reference Counting to string manipulation and data formatting languages, device drivers, and other tools MAC OS X Layered Architecture Ce H ‘Appendix Pape 3210 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 File Systems Understanding File Systems CEH ‘The filesystem Isa set of data types that i employed for storage, hierarchical eategorzaton, management, navigation, access, and recovering date It also includes 2 format for specifying the path toa file through the structure of directories, Henseocoumnintetomatteamaniansaersmtimicacsrinmn | | joe ses ince Ft NTFS MS, ES APS EE, x, among Notes: ‘Appendix Pape 3211 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Types of File Systems EH == —— | menetieyer arunsertasenssne soa | ———————————————— == 1s = | | " | SS = = rs [ —————— ‘Tape Fae ‘Thisfile systemis designed for storing andrecovering the file on the tapein a self-describing form I ——— SS Sar | Seer Windows File Systems: File Allocation Table (FAT) EH |G The FAT filesystem s used with DOS; was See ees te the first fle system used withthe Windows OS == |© itis named forits method of organization, the : flealeeston table, whichispaces athe begining of the volume O (© FAT contains tree different versions (FATS2, FAT16, and FAT32) that difer owing tothe ste of the entries inthe FAT structure Lair. oto fk 0 as Fovernan erent ree 2 Seman 4872 5,52 ctr, nce os * ewan 65,554 268,05/56 ctr, mre Notes: ‘Appendix Pape 3212 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 ia ra] = Windows File Systems: FAT32 (© FATS2 filesystem Is derived from 3 FAT filesystem tat supports crives up to 2 terabytes in size (@ ‘eases ve space een and uses small cers pe (2 ‘crests bacups of the fla actin table insta of xing he dea copy ‘ome Case (0 Comoe avon ey = rocten ey Fost ry Poston Cty rot teers Windows File Systems: New Technology File System (NTFS) (© NTFS isthe standard fle system of Windows NT and is descendants Windows XP Vista, 7,8..10, [Ep server 2003, server 2008, server 2032, Server 2016, ane Server 2019, bod © From Windows NT 3, itis the default fle system ofthe Windows NT family ‘of advanced data structures to improve performance, reliability and diskspace utlizaton, |@ includes several improvements over FAT, suchas enhanced support for metadata and the use & besides extensions such as security access contro lists and file system journaling ‘Appendix Pape 3213 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Windows File Systems: NTFS Architecture EH ser mode Windows File Systems: NTFS System Files EH conan detnton of alsysten nducer dened ates ofthe volume Contain the bd uses comatesa bnap forte entre wien Used forrecovery purposes conransa recorstor erry fie aos te MET se fr ecoveing es Inacstesa ek quot for each ser ones charac ito wert Unease ‘Appendix Pape 3216 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Coun "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Windows File Systems: Encrypting File Systems (EFS) cE H |© The EncryptingFile System (EFS) was first introducedinvesion3.0 of NTFS which offers fleyster-eveleneryption |© Thisencyyptiontechnologymaintaisatevel of transparencyto the userwho encryptedthe tle, which impliesthatthere ‘sna need for users tadecrypl the fleandaccessitformakingchanges |@ Afera users done wth the file, the encryption plicyis automaticaly rexores |© When any unauthorised usr tiles to access an encrypted file, they are denied access © Toenabiethe encryption and decryption cities, user hasto set the ‘encryption attributesof the fles andfoldersthat the user wontsto| leneryptor decrypt opestcsmes | San | etna | ‘Appendix Pape 3235 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Coun "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Windows File Systems: Sparse Files c/EH @ Sparse files provide a method |) @ fan NTFS files marked as © The non-defined data of the (of saving dsk space fr files spars, it assigns hard disk fleare represented by non- byallowing the YO subsystem ‘duster only for the data allocated space on the disk to allocate only meaningful ‘defined by the application (eonero) date Sytmcat tatace nail ecptoms ‘Appendix Pape 3216 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Coun "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Linux File Systems: Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) CEH \© The Flesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) defines the directory structure and its contents in Linux ‘and Unbe-ikeoperating systems |G inthe FHS, all fles and atrectories are present Lnder the root crectory represented by /) — ———i Linux File Systems: Extended File System (EXT) {© Ext was the firstfile system forthe Linux operating system to overcome certain limitations ofthe Minis file system {© Ichas a maximum partition siz of2 GB and a maximum file name sie of 255 charactors {© Ieremaves the two major Minx filesystem limitations ofa 64 MB partition size and short fil names {© The major limitation ofthis fle system is that it doesnt support separate access, inode modification, lor data modification tie stamps © Itisreplaced bythe second extended ile system ‘Appendix Pape 3217 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Linux File Systems: Second Extended File System (EXT2) G | EH [B«T2 Isa standard filesystem that uses improved algorithms, which significantly enhances Is speed. I also maintains addtional time stamps ‘maintains a special field in the superblock that keeps track ofthe file system status and identifies it as either | cleanor dirty Its majo shortcomings are the risk of filesystem cocruption when writing to EXT2, and that it isnot a journaling filesystem Physical layout of the EXT2 Filesystem Linux File Systems: Third Extended File System (EXT3) ¢ \EH {@ x3 is 2 journaling version of the EXT2 file system and is commonly used withthe Linux operating system \@ tigen enhanced version of the EXT? filesystem {© Icuses fle system maintenance utilis (Ike fsck for maintenance and repair ke the EXT2 fle systern {© The following is the command to convert EXT? to EXTS ile system: © # /abin/eune?te Ext Features ata mecarty Speed easy anstion| (prove stronger data © the D113 esate is © The urercan esi change the Integy tor events that occut Journaing the fe system fie system om 6X12 00X72 wing to computer system hashigher throughput in and increase the performance shutdowns smosteases, than XZ ofthesyten é a ‘Appendix Pape 3218 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Linux File Systems: Fourth Extended File System (EXT4) G | EH x4 isa journaling filesystem, developed as the replacement of the commonly used EXT3 filesystem With incorpocation of new features, EXT4 has significant advantages over EXTS and EXT? filesystems particularly in terms of performance, scalability and reliability Supports Linus Kernel v2.6.19 onwards Extents— replaces block mappingscheme use by EXTZandEXT3, improvinglarge fie performance and eeducng ragmenttion Delayed allocation — improves performance and seduces ragrentation by ellectvely locating lager amounts data ata Mul: block locaton ~ allocates fies contguouly an dk ‘ck speed — sspprts faster filesystem checking Jouracecksumming uses checksums in he journaita improve rebity Persistent reallocation — pre-alocatesondakspace fora fle Improved timestamps ~ provdestmestempamensurein nanoseconds Koy Features Fle System Sze — supports a maximum inde isi 678 aed overalls EXT4 file system soe ER oxy Backwascompatiy~ malt possible to mount EXT3 and EXT? as ETE Mac OS X File Systems Rienscles'T36 | @ eveoped by Ale Computer to suppor the Mc operating system | spice | @ HFS Plus(hSe isa successor HS ands used asa primary fe systemin Macintosh | {© Derive from the Berkeley Fst File System (FF) that was ovigialy developed at Bll Loboratores rom the irstversion of UND FS yoerere | ai1asD UND derivatives nclucing FreeBSD, NeRBSO, OpenBSD, NeXTStp, and Solas use a variantof UFS 1B Acts as. substitute for HFS In MacOS x ‘Appendix Pape 3219 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Computer Network Fundamentals Computer Networks ‘Appendix Pape 3220 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Computer Networks ¢ EH | = ssomientcts senate at |@ allows users to communicate and share information between various resources such as computers, mobile hones, printers, scanners, and other devices ‘computing systems, respective oftheir underving internal structure and technology © Standard Network Modes: © pen sjstem interconnection 051) Made! | (2 Tne network model ay he foundation for he siccestfl establishment of communication between two | © Tap ode | Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model ¢ \EH |@ The 05! mode! comprises seven layers, of which the top four layers are used when a message transfers to | The 051 model isthe standard reference model for communication between two end users in a network gZ lor froma user and the lower thre layers are used when a message passes through the host computer ‘Appendix Pape 3221 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 TCP/IP Model c/EH |G The TCP/IP model isa framework forthe Internet Protocol suite of computer network protocols that defines the ‘communication in an IP-based network Fonetions Protocols (8 Handles highevel prox, (© sae transfer 141,10, emal SMT Remote agin (ene, login, Network Pee sect hone rage «Contes ngaomeon pereennceéponarasrouges | [__ompte loc coon imrterame j arrenconintos ‘he destination host = “ a fe Sicuineonrpenvcupite |] (eenttner—) |) © renee, mee cone mowerpoes es : eS: ne i bs (© Detines howto transmitan IP Ss Rawterton Protect (AREY cian er Seon wate rool conve > Festina ( sam) || © root rotenone, Comparing OSI and TCP/IP "@ Te Teefipmodelisbasedon the practical implementation of protec around which the internet has developed, whereas the O51 model often referred to asa reference model, genre protacasindependentstansars —— (——— } ogee |\C_- JI | osramtraterrin | ( merern | | (_sewersen _) | Seems (noe) eS) * ‘Appendix Pape 3222 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Coun "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Types of Networks EH |@ The classification of networks based onthe physical location or the geographical boundsries —— ———o Meccpetes em teem an aan a © unatypecrmeanypnmte || movdestanmistonsautors |] @ nuseconpie newer per nme creme || sie cere e Cirteteralecctosnee || eaten ter ee, weal Santas ee certcceanas aration | | Aun can vecamplety © Designed to faciitatethe locationa wechesaybe ta pewate organization or ican sharing of resources between oa be provided as a service by any PCs or workstations: different continents public organization, such as a 2 rrovacsewmwory. qu, || lotto emery Hepes Oh maar cmmnaien . Sinton Satya sew a o-0 s Types of Networks (Cont'd) Personal Aron Network Campus Krea Network Global Area Network (Pan) (can (GaN) {© Wireless communication that || Covers only alimited © Acombination of ferent Uses both radio and optical secgraphical area interconnected computer signals [© This kind of network is sewers (© covers individual’ work area applicable or a university (© Covers an unlimited or workgroup and is also campus eogrophical res known asa room-size network (© The internet isan example of 8 Gan ‘Appendix Pape 3223 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 ia Types of Networks (Cont'd) ra] = ‘Wireless Networks (WLI) (© Wireless networks use Radio Frequency (RF) signals to connect witeless-enabled devices in the network (© They use the IEE standard of 802.11 and use radio waves for communication Saasinge ‘anne 2 valaton ny lint wing nF Secuty mayne nest xettons ¢ Acestothe norco many fj © Th nhs bac byt amar ot ‘wow neg on aces pat © wt standard ennges ay eeepc 6 at paces he gos and choos canter wet comport Consantienetanecioningswarces EL» some dec eum cn terre ithe aaa WHEI network Wireless Standards fas u —— ss mss » 100 tose vo » Gama 2secase oro (maind—Anetecemert os ard 02305 tna gol ee bao tonnes ower, ancens tattered pines othe plot od, an vee von eal ot mus = Gomme oro ‘Appendix Pape 3224 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Wireless Standards (Cont'd) ¢ \EH ‘tei WireeLoclce Meta NUH at resid mean forme tte BO B28 a F 5 2apeaatrannaneass, a Fy Mu » sme. im ns.i9 » 5 anu aaaroae, » 5 Soom ns Eg ae & 65075 50,185,260 25, MWOOHM aa user sine 60 eo anes womans aw ) resonance Wireless Technologies WIMAX ‘Worldwide interoperability for Mlerowave Access (WIMAX) sa wireless communication standard based onthe IEEE £02.16 family of wireless networking standards Ieisa standardized wireless version of Ethernet that provides broadband access to wireless mobile 3s well as, stationary devices It works as an alternative to wire tachnologes including Cable Modems, DL, and T1/€ links [WiMAX signal can function over along distance of several miles with higher data rates It proves high-speed data, voice, video calls,and Internet connectivity to users Microwave Transmission Microwave transmission is afm of wireles communicstion that uses high frequency radio waves ta transmit data Its widely used in point-poiot communications owing tits short wavelength that allows communication between, smallsized antennas through narrow beams This technology offers avery large nformation-crrying capacity owing to its huge bandwidth ‘Amajor limitation its ability to transmit dats only within ine of sight ‘Appendix Pape 3225 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Coun "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Wireless Technologies (Cont'd) ¢ Optical Wireless communication Optical wireless communication (OWC] sa form of unguided transmission though optical carriers This type of wireless communication uses visible, infrared (IR) and ureviolet (UV) ranges of light for its twansmissionof dats Giodes tat pulse a very high speeds Point-to-point OWC systems, also known as free space optical systems, transmit at IR frequencies (750-1600 fim). These systems use laser transmitters and provide a data rate of 10 Gbit/s per wavelength Ultraviolet communication (UVC) operates within the soar bliné UV spectrum (200-280 nm) Vil et communication (Vc operates nthe wise band (290-750), Tek stems wet ein | Wireless Technologies (Cont'd) 2S 2G isthe second generationof mobile cellularnetwork, under the stander Globaleystemfor Mobile communications (osu tally ncryptod signals for moblledata transmission A combinstionof 2G and GPRS forms its advanced version, 256, which extends the GSM packet andsupports transmission ratesot 114Kbt/sfor download and 20KbIY/sfor upload ter EDGE Enhanced Dats Ratesfor GSM Evolution) otherwise known 2.756 succeeded the GPRS with increased datarates of 38¢KDIY/s for download and 60Kbt/sfor upload 36 3G sa third generationwirelesstech nology that was aunchedasa Universal Mobile TelecommunicstonsSorvice (ums) ncrwork The frst version of 36, called Wigh-Speed Packet Access (HSPA), sa combinationof two protocols, Highspeed DownlinkPacket Access (HSDPA) and High Speed UplinkFacket Access (HSUPA) that offer transmisionrateof 7 2Mbit/sfor download ané2Mbit/sforuplons Later the Evolved High Speed Packet Access (HSPAC], also known as 3.56, wasintroducedin 2008. I fered transmission ratesof 337Mbit/sfor download and 3¢MbiY/sforuplozd ‘Appendix Pape 3226 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 Wireless Technologies (Cont'd) ia ra] = ac {© Also known as Long Term Evolution (LTE, 46 is afourth-generation wireless technology (© tischaracterized by all capabilities defined by the International Telecommunication Unica (ITU) ‘and International Mobile Telecommunicaions-Advanced (©. otfers transmission rates of L00Mbit/s for high-mobility communication and 1Gbit/sfor low-mebilty ‘communication Tetra (@. TETRA (Teresrial vunked radio) is a European standard that describes 2 professional mobile radio ‘communication infrastructure 1@ isa standord for Private Mobile Radio (PM) and Public Access Mobile Radio (PAME) that Is aimed at ‘emergency users suchas police forces, nltary ambulance, and transport services {© The low frequency of tetra permits coverage ofa large geographic area with fewer transmitters, which reduces Infrastructure costs Wireless Technologies (Cont'd) Bluetooth |@ Bluetooth i 2 short-range device-to-devie data transmission technology developed for mobile devices (© tisused to transmit dats between cell phones, computers, and other networking devices |© Bluetooth transfers data at less than 1 Mbps and operates within 2 frequency range of 2.4 GK to 2.485 GHz (© This technology comes under IEEE 802.1 and uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread 0 ee aie ne ini tap esanen | ‘Appendix Pape 3227 ‘Ethical Hacking and Countermessures Copyright © by EC Count "Al RightsReserved. Reproduction fSrcty Prohibited. Ehlel Hacking and Countermeasures vam 222.50 Certiie Ethical Hacker Eticl Making Essential Concepts 1 = Network Topologies ¢ (© Network topology i 2 specification that deals witha network's overall design and flow of ts data ‘Types of Topology

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