FMA 6063:

CROSS-CULTURAL
MANAGEMENT
 INTRODUCTION

What is Culture?
 intricate concept with over 160 different
definitions
 “that complex whole which includes knowledge,
belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by a man as a
member of society” (Tylor, 1871, p.1).
 “everything that people have, think, and do as a
member of their society” (Ferraro, 2001)
 “software of the mind” or mental programming,
analogous to the way computers are
programmed, which focuses on patterns of
thinking, feeling, and acting (Hofstede, 1980)
 Three levels of human mental
programming (Hofstede, 1991)

Specific to Learned and

individual Inherited
PERSONALITY inherited

Specific to group Learned

CULTURE
or category

Universal HUMAN NATURE Inherited

 Cultural Layers
Culture can be studied from many perspectives (Kaarst-
Brown & Evaristo, 2002; Karahanna, Evaristo & Strite, 2005)

National — based on one’s country of origin;

Ethnic — every country is made up of many different
affiliated groups. For example, in Malaysia, there are
three major ethnic groups: Malay, Chinese, and Indian;
Religious — the world has man different religions
which cross ethnic and national boundaries, such as
American or Arab Muslims, Chinese or Japanese
Buddhists, etc;
Gender — female or male;
 Cultural Layers
Generational — distinguishing grandparents from
parents from children or the elders from the youngsters;
Social — based on one’s educational background or
professional status;
Corporate or organizational — based on work-related
values arising from the way people are socialized or
oriented to the organization in which they work;
Technological — how technology shapes one’s way of
thinking, feeling, and acting; what are the norms inherent
with technology usage or adoption.
 Cultural Assumptions
Culture is learned and not innate.
 People will learn how to behave, feel, or think
according to what they experience in their social
environment because culture is not derived from
genetic characteristics.
Culture is an interrelated system.
 Cultures are logical systems and provide coherent
parts to a society.
Culture is shared by a group or category
and is not specific to individual.
 Culture is a collective concept
 CULTURAL LAYERS &
METHODS OF DISCOVERY

Examples Layers of Culture Methods of Discovery

Architecture, greeting
rituals, dress and
ARTIFACTS & Observation—
on the surface
codes of address & SYMBOLS analysis

food.
Evil vs. good, dirty vs. BELIEFS & Interviews &
clean, wrong vs. right, Surveys—
immoral vs. moral, VALUES deeper analysis
irrational vs. rational
Relationship with nature, Inference
relationship with time, BASIC & interpretation
high and low context, ASSUMPTIONS —intense and
power distance, thorough analysis
uncertainty avoidance
 CULTURAL LAYERS &
METHODS OF DISCOVERY
Barsoux (1998) provide a framework for
understanding the multiple layers of culture and
its methods of discovery.
The different layers include artifacts and
behaviors, beliefs and values, and basic
assumptions. The layers move from the most
easily and readily observed to the most
challenging to access and understand. Each
layer requires different methods of exploration.
 CULTURAL LAYERS &
METHODS OF DISCOVERY
1st layer-- artifacts and behaviors, can be
directly observed and may be the easiest form of
analysis.
Some behaviors are clearly visible –through
OBSERVATION
The roots of many behaviors are unobservable
or hidden, which makes them harder to discover.
 For example, in some cultures people eat with their
hands while in others they eat with forks and knives.
 Observation informs the eating routines or habits, but
does not inform the underlying reasons for such
behaviors.
 CULTURAL LAYERS &
METHODS OF DISCOVERY
2nd layer--beliefs and values
Ask individuals to explain the meaning of
their behaviors
 What are your cultural values and beliefs?
Use methods like interviews and surveys
to get explanations or test the observed
behaviors
 CULTURAL LAYERS &
METHODS OF DISCOVERY
3rd layer--focuses on understanding the hidden
cultural assumptions that emerge from the
observed artifacts and behaviors.
Try to get answers and explanations from all
observations made
Patterns emerge from which a researcher
derives inferences, interpretations and ultimately
a coherent theory.
Researcher apply an existing theoretical
framework on observed behaviors.
The ‘onion’ diagram: Manifestations
of culture at different levels

Artifacts
& Symbols
Norms &
Values

Basic
Assumptions
& Behaviors

~IMPLICIT~

~EXPLICIT~
 Onion Model
Artifacts, Products, and Symbols
 These symbols are commonly shared among people within
the same culture.
 Use of jargon (words or language used within certain
groups of people to describe their specialty).
e.g. medical doctors use different terms than the average
person for explaining the flu
lawyers have different ways of explaining a contractual
agreement that laymen may not fully understand.
 This layer is explicit, superficial, changeable, easily
copied or modified by other groups
 Consists of behaviors that are easily recognized or
observed
 Onion Model
Norms and Values -- “prescriptive principles
to which members of a culture subscribe.”
Hofstede (1991) defines values as “a broad tendency to
prefer certain states of affairs over others, p.8).”
Schwartz’s --values are “desirable states, objects, goals,
or behaviors, transcending specific situations and
applied as normative standards to judge and to choose
among alternative modes of behavior” (1992, p.2).
Scarborough (1998) asserts that values are in large part
culturally derived.
 Onion Model
Basic assumptions
 This innermost layer provides an in-depth
understanding (and sometimes an explanation) of the
differences and similarities of values between
cultures.
 Basic assumptions are the implicit or hidden aspects
of culture which spring from needs at the core of
human existence (Trompenaars, 1994).
 At this core layer, behaviors often have unconscious
motivations because basic assumptions are not
articulated and are taken for granted.