Auna R.

Allen

Final Writing Assignment

PSY 201

March 2, 2021

Final Writing Assignment

Neuroscience has many applications in the field of psychology. Specifically, its

capability to use technology to diagnose disorders, rather than observe behaviors (South et al.,

2012). Along with this emphasis on integrating neuroscience into the field of psychology a

behavior that is quite common is the usage of holistic approaches. It is important to study holistic

behaviors, so we can determine how this complementary form of medicine can be applied in

clinical practices (Chan et al., 2009). Neuroscience technology conducted on holistic practices

shows promising results by which provides further evidence that this behavior is beneficial for

the brain (Lazar, et al., 2005). Research regarding the neurobiology of the brain had focused on

how the frontal cortex, cortical thickness, grey and white matter boundaries, and

neurotransmission, was affected when observing these behaviors.

Meta analyses on holistic practice focuses on how the frontal cortex is affected when

these behaviors are applied to the human experience. Positioned in the frontal lobe, the frontal

cortex is responsible for higher cognitive functions such as memory, emotions, impulse control,

problem solving, social development, and motor functioning. Damage to the neurons, and or the

tissue can lead to personality changes, impulsivity, and even difficulty concentrating (Arnsten,

2009). The thickness of the cortex can be a useful measure when understanding progression of

diseases, identifying damaged brain regions, and even studying how a healthy brain develops and

ages (Menary et al., 2014). See Figure 1.1. Studies also suggest that human intellectual ability is
related to the thickness of the cerebral cortex. This indicates that general intelligence is positivity

associated with cortical thickness distributed throughout the brain (Lazar, et al., 2005).

Neurotransmitters located throughout the brain also play a vital role in cognition. Dopamine

release can contribute greatly towards the rewards system and pathways, and holistic practices

have been found to cause and alter changes with neurotransmission of dopamine (Kjaer, et. al.,

2002).

A somatic intervention had assessed how magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over the

dorsolateral prefrontal cortices (DLPFC) improved the components of mindfulness. (Leong et al.,

2013). Previous studies suggest that DLPFC acts as an emotional regulator and has a role in

reassessment. They had hypothesized that rTMS would cause cortical changes, by which would

translate into improved mindfulness. The independent variable in the study is the usage of

magnetic stimulation at different frequencies, and dependent variables are symptoms of anxiety,

and depression as well as mindfulness related regulators. Participants in this study had been

diagnosed under the DSM-IV for major depressive episodes. They had then stimulated the motor

cortex with the frequency of 10 Hz in different intervals. The results of the study found that the

rTMS over the DLPFC had led to significant improvements in symptoms of depression and

anxiety. In regard to the mindfulness, the results had indicated improved emotional regulation.

They had also found that low-frequency rTMS over the DLPFC led to improvements in aspects

of mindfulness, and low-frequency over the right DLPFC suggested that it may be hyperactive in

depression. In regard to the ethical standards of this research participants should also be fully

debriefed and have a written informed consent form done. Overall, this study supports

mindfulness being effective in treating a variety of applications.

 In a controlled experiment they had theorized that meditation practice creates long-lasting

changes in an individual’s brain activity (Lazar, et al., 2005). In this behavioral intervention they

aimed to determine what neurobiological processes were specifically altered by this practice.

With twenty participants who had extensive meditation practice experience, they determined the

effects of meditation by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This determined how the physical

structure of the brain’s cortical thickness was affected. The independent variable of this study

was meditation practice, vs the control non-meditation practice. The dependent variable of this

study was the increase in cortical thickness measured in millimeters (mm) by MRI. When

assessing the results of the imaging, individuals who practiced meditation had a thicker cortical

area associated with attention, interception, sensory processing, and even in prefrontal cortex

when compared to the control group. Between-group differences in prefrontal cortical thickness

were noticeable in older participants as well. See Figure 1.2 This evidence demonstrates that

regular meditation practice may slow age-related cortical thinning of the prefrontal cortex. In

regard to the ethical standing of this research, their experimental design did an appropriate

interpretation of the benefits of meditation practice. This suggests the research is within ethical

grounds because participants were not exposed to harmful experimental variables.

Based on the results of previous studies involving increased cortical thickness and

meditation, a study conducted on Zen meditators had assessed cortical thickness in relation to

pain sensitivity. This behavioral intervention helps provide further evidence in regard to the

benefits of holistic practices. The main objective of this study was to determine how these

neurobiological changes may impact an individual’s pain tolerance. (Grant, et al., 2010). They

had investigated whether there were differences in brain morphometry and low pain sensitivity.

To assess this, they used MRI scans to observe the gray and white matter boundaries. They had
also used a thermal pain sensitivity test to induce an uncomfortable temperature associated with

moderate pain (34 degrees Celsius). The two independent variables of this study were the

application of uncomfortable temperature, as well as whether or not participants meditated. The

dependent variable of this study was the measurement of gray and white matter boundaries, and

pain sensitivity. They had found that the meditators had a thicker cortex in the medial and lateral

views of the right hemisphere. This is the area in the brain where cortical thickness correlates

significantly to pain sensitivity. In context, a thicker cortex constitutes lower pain sensitivity.

There was also great emphasis on thicker grey matter in participants who meditated when

compared to those in the control group. To conclude, this study had found that cortical regions

involved in emotion induction, pain affect, and pain modulation were also thicker in meditators

when compared to the control group. This suggests overall that holistic behaviors can induce

neurobiological changes affecting many different sensory inputs such as touch. To be sure there

are no ethical implications in this study researchers should be sure to get informed consent and

debrief participants correctly. Inducing pain by temperature can raise some ethical concern, but

with the assumed debriefing and informed consent, this study provides society with a

complementary form of medicine. Therefore, research on holistic behaviors is needed in order to

determine further applications in the field of psychology and neuroscience alone.

Other properties of neurology are showing differences among neurotransmitters in the

brain when participating in holistic practices such as yoga. A study involving Yoga Nidra

Meditation was assessing the association between dopamine (a neurotransmitter) release and

conscious experience of meditation (Kjaer, et. al., 2002). They had found that Yoga Nidra

meditation is negatively correlated to the flow of blood to the prefrontal, cerebellar, and

subcortical regions in the brain. This suggested the more participants practiced Yoga Nidra the
less blood flow to these areas. Using PET scans, they assessed if there was an increase in

dopamine (neurotransmitter known as the “feel-good” hormone) in the ventral striatum.

Participants in this study had PET scans done once while attending to speech with eyes closes,

and another during active meditation. During meditation they had found c-raclopride (dopamine

inhibitor) binding in the ventral striatum decreased 7.9% and was found to associate with a 65%

increase in dopamine release. An EEG had also indicated theta activity increased during

meditation as well. Participants had also reported a reduced aspiration for action during

meditation, along with heightened sensory imagery. This suggests that being in the conscious

state of meditation causes suppression of cortico-striatal (neurons from the cerebral cortex to the

striatum) glutamatergic (excitatory) transmission. In regard to the ethical standards of this

experiment, the researchers are within grounds. Although, there should be the required

debriefing and informed consent.

Research on holistic practices has shown promising results for the future of

complementary medicine. Specifically, it is important to see the many applications holistic

practices can have on the field of both psychology and neuroscience. More importantly looking

at how these holistic approaches can be applied in clinical settings and show promising results

helps many understand the importance of unconventional medicine. An experimental study

assessed the effects of herbal remedies on the neurobiology of the brain (Chan, et al., 2009). In

this study they developed an herbal remedy to cleanse nasal cavities of fourteen adults. Each

participant had a baseline EEG and a post EEG to assess the areas in the brain affected. The

control group had received a saline solution instead of the nasal drop remedy. The results had

indicated the herbal nasal drop had induced a promotion of activity in the different brain regions.

This was reflected by an increase in theta activity in the anterior cingulate cortex. The control
group on the other hand had shown no increase of activity in the same brain regions as the

experimental group. Although this study provided promising results for the effect this holistic

practice has on the brain, further research needs to be conducted in order to determine how

complementarity and alternative medicine can be applied in clinical settings.

Figure 1.1

In conclusion, this paper outlines the benefits of holistic behaviors, and how they are

applied in clinical settings in the field of psychology. This helps the field gain a understanding of

how the neurobiology of the brain is affected when these behaviors are utilized. Understanding

these behaviors also allows clinicians to be more rounded in their therapy choices. In the future I

hope that this form of complementary medicine is applied more. Upon reading this research it

allows us to better understand how we can impact our own behaviors, and choices. One of the

most interesting things I have learned is how beneficial meditation is in any individual’s life. Not

only did this paper suggest that those who practice these behaviors are beneficial, but also

suggests how others can make these simple behaviors change their lives too.
Negative associations between cortical thickness and age. As an individual ages, cortical

thickness decreases. Blue= Negative correlations, red=positive partial correlations. (Menary et

al., 2014)
Figure 1.2

Cortical regions are thicker in the

meditators than in the controls. (A,
and B) on the graph depict
between group differences in
thickness at each point on the
cortical surface overlaid on the
average brain. Illustrates the extent
of the areas 1) insula, 2)
Brodmann area, 3) the
somatosensory cortex, 4) auditory
cortex. (Lazar, et al., 2005).

The Scatter plot of the mean

cortical thickness of each
participant in the subregion above
is plotted versus age. Meditation
participants are blue circles, and
control participants are red
squares. As Age increases control
participants experience a decrease
in cortical thickness when
compared to the mediation group,
as they age their thickness either
increases or stays the same.
(Lazar, et al., 2005).
 References

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