Unit 4: Electricity

A) Static Electricity
All atoms contain small particles called protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons (carry a
charge of +1) and neutrons are found within the nucleus of the atom. Electrons travel in
orbits around the nucleus (carry a charge of -1). Normally, the atom has no overall charge
as the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. It is neutral.

If the atom gains extra electrons, it is then negatively charged (negative ion). If the atom
loses electrons, it becomes positively charged (positive ion).

N.B.: Only negative electrons can move – the positive protons remain fixed.
❖ According to the ability of a substance to allow electric charges to flow through it,
substances have been classified into electrical conductors and electrical insulators.
✓ Electrical conductors: these are substances that allow charges (electricity) to flow
through them easily. This is because they have free charge carriers. E.g. all metals are
good conductors as they have free electrons.
✓ Electrical insulators: these are substances that do not allow electric charges to flow
easily through them. This is because they do not have free charge carriers. E.g. most
non-metals (except graphite and silicon), plastic, rubber, glass and wood.

There are two methods to obtain static electricity, either by friction (of an insulator) or by
induction (of a conductor).
1. Charging an insulator by friction (rubbing):

Atoms of insulators can be electrically charged by rubbing them against atoms of other
insulators.
e.g. When the uncharged plastic rod is rubbed with an uncharged dry piece of cloth,
electrons from the atoms of
the rod may move onto the
cloth. Now the charges on
each object are imbalanced.
The rod becomes positively
charged (short of electrons)
and the cloth becomes
negatively charged (has
excess electrons).
Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 1
Electric forces between charges and electric fields:
a) Electric forces:
• Charged objects can exert forces on other charged objects without being in contact with
them. The closer the charges, the greater the force.
“Like charges repel and unlike charges attract”

• Attraction exists between charged

and uncharged (neutral) objects.
Therefore, a neutral object can be
attracted to a positively charged
rod and also to a negatively
charged rod. Accordingly,
attraction is not considered to be
a proof that an object carries a
charge but repulsion is
considered to be. Because for
repulsion to occur, both objects
should have the same type of
charge.
“only repulsion can confirm that an object is charged”

b) Electric fields:
An electric field is a region where an object experiences a force due to its charge. i.e. It
is the region around a charge where the force of attraction or repulsion can be observed
by another test charge. Electric fields are represented by imaginary lines showing the
direction of the force (away from a positive charge and towards a negative charge). The
spacing of the lines shows the strength of the field. The more closely packed field lines,
the stronger the field.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 2
 The field lines caused by the parallel plates are parallel are parallel to eachother and
equally spaced. The field is uniform. It has the same strength at all points.
The field of a point charge is called a radial field and is non uniform

2. Charging by induction (an insulator or a conductor):

It is possible for a charged object to attract something that is uncharged without
touching.
The comb experiment:
When you rub the comb against your hair, it is
likely to be charged (assuming positive charge). If
the comb is brought close to uncharged pieces of
paper, some of their electrons are attracted to the
edges of the paper and the comb and the repulsive
forces between the comb and the positive parts of
the paper. The attractive forces are stronger than
the repulsive forces because opposite charges are
closer. i.e. the paper moves towards the comb.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 3
Charging a metal sphere:
Charging an electrical conductor cannot be done by the rubbing method (previously used to
charge insulators). The next steps show how you can charge a metal sphere:

a) The sphere is neutral (number of positive charges is equal to number of negative

charges) and the charges are evenly distributed among the sphere.
b) When a charged rod (insulator) is brought near the metal sphere (without touching it)
the charge on the sphere becomes redistributed, where some of the free electrons in the
sphere are repelled.
c) If the sphere is earthed (from the other side) by metal wire (or by touching with finger),
some of the electrons will travel through the wire to the earth.
d) When the wire is removed, the sphere has excess positive charge.
e) When the rod is removed, the positive charges are evenly distributed on the surface of
the sphere.
Important precautions:
I. The sphere must be insulated from the ground (by being supported on an insulator
stand) because if the sphere touches the ground, electrons will flow from the Earth to
the sphere and it becomes neutral).
II. The metal wire must be removed (to disconnect the sphere from the Earth) before
removing the charged rod to prevent electrons from flowing back from the Earth to
the sphere (the sphere would become neutral).

❖ You can obtain a negatively charged sphere by approaching a positively charged rod
close to it and applying the same previous procedure.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 4
Uses of static electricity:
a) Electrostatic paint spraying:
• Paint emerging from the spay gun is
positively charged.
• All paint droplets carry similar charge
so they repel and spread out forming a
large even cloud of fine spray.
• Paint droplets are attracted to the
surface of the frame because it is
negatively charged.

Painting with this method is much

more efficient than painting with a spray gun as the paint reaches tight corners (even the
back of the object) and it does not waste too much paint as the droplets are all attracted
to the object.

b) Inkjet printers:
Many modern printers use inkjets to direct a
fine jet of ink drops onto paper. Each spot
of ink is given a charge so that as it falls
between a pair of deflecting plates,
electrostatic forces direct it to the correct
position. The charges on the plates change
hundreds of times each second so that each
drop falls in a different position, forming
pictures and words on the paper as required.
c) Photocopiers:
• Positive charges are sprayed onto a rotating drum (coated with selenium metal).
• Bright light is shone onto the paper to be copied.
• White parts of the paper reflect light onto the drum and dark parts do not.
• Selenium loses its charge when reflected light reaches it, but remains charged where
there’s no light.
• The toner (fine negative carbon powder) is blown across the drum and sticks only to
the positively charged parts of the drum.
• A sheet of paper is pressed against the drum and picks up the pattern of the toner.
• The powder is fixed in place by a heater.
Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 5
d) Electrostatic precipitators:

The smoke produced from factories and

coal-fired power stations carries small
particles of ash and dust that causes
health problems and damage to buildings.
To remove those pollutants from the
smoke, we use electrostatic precipitators.
When the earthed plates are covered with
dust and ash, they are given a sharp rap.
The dust and ash fall into collection
boxes and are emptied to be used to make
house-bricks later.

Problems with static electricity:

• Television screens and monitors become charged with static electricity as they are
used. Those charges attract light uncharged particles (dust).

• As aircraft fly through the air, they become charged with static electricity. As the
charge on the aircraft increases, so too does the potential difference between it and
earth. With high potential differences there is a possibility of charges escaping to
earth as a spark during refueling, causing an explosion. To solve this, earth the plane
with a conductor as soon as it lands and before refueling.

• Fuel tankers that transport fuel on roads must be earthed before any fuel is
transferred, to prevent sparks causing a fire or explosion.

• A liquid flowing through a pipe can become charged. This can be dangerous if it
causes a spark and the liquid is inflammable. So when re-fuelling an airplane by a
tanker lorry, they are connected together by a copper wire.

• Our clothing may become charged with static electricity. When removing the clothes
there’s a possibility of receiving a small electric shock as the charges escape to earth.

• Walking on nylon carpets can give you a shock when you touch the door handle.
Modern carpets can be made conducting to prevent this.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 6
 B) Current Electricity
Current, Voltage and Electrical Resistance

a) Electron flow and conventional current:

✓ Electric current is the flow of charge (carried by electrons).
✓ Electrons flow easily through metals good conductors of electricity.
✓ Electrons do not flow easily through plastics poor conductors of electricity.

✓ If a cell or battery is connected across the conductor (in a closed circuit), the electrons
flow in the direction away from the negative terminal and towards the positive
terminal. This flow of charge is an electric current.
✓ The free electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the
battery “direction of electron flow”. Whereas the “direction of conventional current”
is from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the battery.
✓ The direction of conventional current is incorrect but it is still considered when dealing
with topics such as circuits and motors.

b) Measuring Electric current:

Electric current is the rate of flow of charges.
Electric charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C). One coulomb of charge is the
equivalent of the charge carried by 6x1018 electrons.
Electric current is measured in amperes where 1 C/s = 1 A

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 7
 • The size of the current flowing in a circuit is measured using an ammeter which is
connected in series with the component of the circuit being investigated.
• Ammeters have negligible resistance so that they measure the size of the current
flowing in the circuit without affecting its value.
• The positive terminal of the ammeter must be connected to the
positive terminal of the power supply and the negative of the
ammeter must be connected to the negative of the supply.

Example: calculate the charge flowing through a wire in 5s if the current is 3A.
𝑄 =𝐼×𝑡
𝑄 = 3𝐴 × 5𝑠 𝑄 = 15𝐶

c) Voltage (potential difference):

✓ Cells or batteries transfer energy to the charges as they move them around circuits. If a
1.5V cell is connected into a circuit, it means that 1.5 Joules of energy is given to each
coulomb of charge that passes through the cell.
✓ So the potential difference (voltage) between two points in a circuit is the work done
to drive one coulomb of charge between these two points. It is the energy transferred
per unit charge which is measured in Volt (V). 1 Volt = 1 J/C.

If there is a potential difference across a conductor, a current flows through it.

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑉=
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄

✓ The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of an electrical source is the work done (energy
supplied) by the source to drive 1 coulomb of charge round a closed circuit (energy
gained by each coulomb).
✓ As charges flow around a circuit the energy they carry is converted into other forms of
energy by the components they pass through. The voltage across each component
means how much energy it is converting (electrical energy
lost) each time 1 C of charge passes through it.
✓ The potential difference (voltage drop) across a
component (or between two points in a circuit) is the drop
in electric potential energy experienced by each coulomb
of charge due to resistance between these two points i.e.
difference in electrical energy.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 8
 ➢ What is the difference between voltage gain & voltage drop?!
d) Measuring the voltage:
• To measure the voltage across a component in a circuit we use
a voltmeter which is connected in parallel with this
component.
• Voltmeters have a very high resistance (very little current
flows through it) so that they measure the potential difference across a component
without affecting the value of the current passing through this component.
• The positive terminal of the voltmeter must be connected to the positive terminal of
the battery and the negative of the voltmeter must be connected to the negative of the
battery.

e) Ohm’s law and Resistance of a conductor:

The resistance of a component is what causes a voltage drop “potential difference”

across this component.
❖ There are four factors affecting the resistance of a wire of a certain material:

1. As the length increases, the resistance increases so R α l

This is used in a rheostat.
2. As cross-sectional area increases, the resistance decreases. R α 1/A
3. The resistivity (ρ) of the material: copper is a good conductor “low resistivity” so used
for connecting wires, while nichrome has more resistance, so used in the heating
elements of electric fires.
𝜌𝜄
𝑅=
𝐴

4. As temperature increases, the resistance of the wire increases:

This is used in a resistance thermometer.
✓ The resistance of metallic conductors increases as their temperature increases and
vice versa.
✓ The resistance of non-metallic conductors (semi-conductors) decreases as their
temperature increases and vice versa.

The thin wire in a lamp tends to resist the movement of electrons in it. So the wire has a
certain resistance to the current. The greater the resistance, the more voltage is needed to
push a current through the wire.

The resistance of a conductor is “the ratio of the p.d. applied across it, to the current
passing through it”.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 9
 Resistance can be calculated by:
𝑝. 𝑑. 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑉)
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅 =
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐼)
Where R is measured in Ohms (Ω), V in volts and I in amperes. Thus, 1 Ohm= 1
Volt/Ampere

❖ Measuring the resistance of a resistor:

Set up the following experiment…

• The voltmeter measures the voltage drop across the

resistor.
• The ammeter measures the current through the
resistor.
• The rheostat allows you to change the size of the
current. Accordingly note the readings of the
ammeter and voltmeter.
Then... move the rheostat and take more readings.

Finally, plot a graph of voltage against current using

your readings:
The slope of V against I graph gives the resistance of the
wire ( R= V/I )
Accordingly, the resistance of a conductor is the voltage
drop across this conductor when a current of one Ampere
flows through it. It is measured in Ohm (Ω) where 1 Ohm
= 1 Volt/Ampere.
If we draw a graph of I against V, then the slope = 1/R.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 10
 The relationship between the voltage across a component and the current that flows
through it is described by Ohm’s law:
The current that flows through a metallic conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided
its temperature remains constant.

Conductors which obey Ohm’s law (they don’t get hot and they have constant
resistance) are called Ohmic conductors.

Current - Voltage graphs & Special Resistors:

a) I-V characteristics of Ohmic conductors:

The graph is a straight line passing through the origin i.e. the current flowing through the
wire is directly proportional to the voltage applied across its ends. This is Ohm’s law.
The steeper the graph, the lower the resistance and vice versa.
Copper wire and all other metals “metallic resistors” give this shape of graph, unless they
change temperature.

▪ The - V & - I show what happens when the battery connections are reversed so current
flows in the opposite direction. Accordingly, values of V & I are negative.
▪ The graph shows that the conductor has a constant resistance (constant slope) which is
the same for both current directions.

b) I-V characteristics of a filament lamp:

The graph is not a straight line, so the lamp is a non-
ohmic conductor.
As more current flows, the metal filament gets hotter
and so its resistance increases. This means that the
graph gets flatter (slope=1/R, so decrease in slope =
increase in R).
Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 11
c) I-V characteristics of a thermistor:
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance depends on temperature.
The graph is not a straight line, so the thermistor is a non-ohmic
conductor.
As more current flows,the thermistor gets hotter and so its resistance
decreases. The graph gets steeper.
At room temperature, the number of free electrons is
small (it is made of a semi-conducting material) and the
thermistor has a large resistance. If it is warmed, the
number of free electrons increases and its resistance
decreases.

Uses: in temperature-sensitive circuits in devices such as fire alarms and

thermostats.

d) I-V characteristics of a diode:

The diode conducts only in one direction; when
connected in forward-biased.
A current flows in the forward direction whenever
the voltage is more than about 0.6 volts. This is
called the forward biased direction and the
resistance of the diode is quite low in this direction.
Almost no current flows if the voltage is applied in
the reverse direction (reverse biased). The
resistance of the diode is very high in this direction.

Diodes are used in circuits where it is important that current flows only in one
direction – for example:
1. Protecting equipment in d.c. circuits; i.e. to protect circuits that would be
damaged if the battery was connected the wrong way round (e.g. calculators).
2. Forcing the current to flow in one direction in electronic circuits.
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 3. In rectification: since diodes allow the flow of current in one direction only,
they can then be used to change a.c. into d.c., a process called rectification. For
this reason, diodes are sometimes called rectifiers.

e) Light-dependent resistors (LDRs):

In dark conditions, LDRs have few free electrons and so have high resistance. If
light is shone onto an LDR, more electrons are freed and the resistance decreases.
“As light intensity increases, its resistance decreases”.
LDRs are used in light-sensitive circuits in devices such as photographic
equipment, automatic lighting controls and burglar alarms.

N.B. Thermistors and LDRs are used as input transducers.

f) Light-emitting diodes (LEDs):

When a current flows through an LED, it glows
red, green or yellow. They are used as indicator
lights on computers, radio receivers and other
electronic equipment.
They can also be used in digital displays:
calculators, clocks and measuring instruments
have seven LEDs lighting up in different combinations to display any number from
0 to 9.
They will not light unless they are connected the right way round (forward biased
direction). They are easily damaged by current and a series resistor is usually
added to limit the current flowing through.

Other Circuit Components:

a) Fixed resistor:
They are included in circuits in order to control the sizes of currents and voltages.
In the following circuit, the resistor is included to apply the correct voltage &
correct current to make the bulb light.
Without the resistor, the voltage across the bulb may cause a large current to flow
through it and the bulb may blow.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 13
 b) Variable resistor (Rheostat):

A variable resistor is being used to control the size of the

current flowing by varying the offered resistance.
If a bulb is being connected in series with the variable
resistor, then the sliding contact is moved to the left, this reduces the total resistance in the
circuit and the current increases (bulb shines brighter).
And if the sliding contact is moved to the right, the resistance increases and the bulb
becomes dimmer.

✓ This circuit is used for changing the potential difference applied to

a device, called potential divider:
• Moving the sliding contact upwards increases the voltage applied
to the device (till max. v supply).
• Moving the sliding contact downwards decreases the voltage Variable
applied to the device (till zero). output
p.d.
c) Switches:
A switch is used to control the flow of current in a circuit. Current flows in a
circuit when the switch is closed or on… and does not flow when the switch is
open or off.

✓ Normal switch: opens and closes a circuit

✓ Two way (double) switch: directs the current along one of two paths

✓ Parallel switch:
A circuit can be switched on and off using either of the two
switches.
Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 14
Calculating Electrical power & Electrical energy:
To calculate the power used up by any electrical component:
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 & 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡
Using this rule and Ohm’s law, 2 other formulae can be obtained:
𝑃 = 𝐼²𝑅 & 𝐸 = 𝐼²𝑅𝑡
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑃= & 𝐸= 𝑡
𝑅 𝑅
kWh, the kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy; it is equivalent to 3.6 megajoules.
Series and Parallel circuits
A. Series circuits:

This is the type of circuit in which there is only one path for the charges to flow
along (no branches or junctions).

❖ Properties of a series circuit:

o One switch can turn all the components on and off together.
o If one bulb (or component) breaks, all of the other bulbs will go off.
o The voltage supplied by the cell is shared, so the more bulbs you add, the
dimmer they all become.
o The larger the resistance of the component, the bigger its share of the voltage.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 15
 ❖ Basic rules:
1. When components are connected in series, the current through any point in the
circuit is the same.
Readings of all ammeters are the same. A1, A2 and A3 are the same.
The size of the current is determined by the total p.d. of the cells and the total
resistance of the circuit, i.e. 𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅
2. The sum of the potential differences across all resistors in a series circuit must be
equal to the e.m.f. of the source. (V1 + V2 = e.m.f.)
3. The voltage of the battery is divided among the resistors R1 an d R2 such that:
If R1> R2 then V1> V2
R1 = R2 then V1 = V2
R1< R2 then V1< V2

4. To calculate the equivalent (total) resistance, RT, we use the following:

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4…………..
Keep in mind: whenever we add a resistor in series with another resistor in a
circuit, the total resistance increases (RT is bigger than the biggest resistance)

B. Parallel circuits:

This is the type of circuit in which there is more than one path that current can flow
along (have branches/junctions).

❖ Properties of a parallel circuit:

o Switches can be placed in different parts of the circuit to switch each bulb on and
off individually or all together.
o If one bulb (or component) breaks, only the bulbs on the same branch of the circuit
will be affected.
o Each branch of the circuit receives the same voltage, so if more bulbs are added to
a circuit in parallel they all stay bright.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 16
 ❖ Basic rules:

• When components are connected in parallel, the current is not the same at every
point within the circuit, but the main current (coming out of the battery) is divided
among the components that are connected in parallel.
In the parallel circuit above, the readings of A, A1 and A2 are not the same but
the main current I is divided between the resistors R1 and R2 according to the
following:
If R1> R2 then I1< I2
R1 = R2 then I1 = I2
R1< R2 then I1> I2

• The sum of currents entering a junction must equal to the sum of currents leaving
the junction.
In this circuit: I = I1 + I2
• The potential difference across all resistors connected in parallel is the same. So,
voltage is not divided among resistors connected in parallel.

• To calculate the equivalent (total) resistance, RT, we use the following:

1 1 1 1
i. = + + +⋯
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
ii. The equivalent (total) resistance of only two resistors connected in parallel
can be calculated using the following:
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇 =
𝑅1 +𝑅2
iii. The equivalent resistance of identical resistors connected in parallel is the
resistance of one divided by the number of resistors.

Keep in mind: whenever we add a resistor in parallel to other resistors in a circuit,

the total resistance in the circuit decreases and RT is smaller than the smallest one.

Dealing with the whole circuit:

When dealing with the whole circuit, you will use Ohm’s law as follows: to calculate
the current driven by the source Itotal

𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
𝑅𝑇
Where RT is the equivalent resistance of all the resistors.
Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 17
 Advantages of parallel circuits over series circuits:
1. In series circuit: if one component fails to work or blows, then all other components will
not work.
In parallel: if one component fails to work, all the other components still work.
2. When components are connected in parallel to a power supply, they receive more power
than when connected in series.
Try to think of advantages of series circuits over parallel circuits.. can you find any?

Electrical sources
1. Direct Current supply d.c.:
it is the supply which has an e.m.f. of constant polarity and the current is always
in the same direction. Cells and batteries provide direct current, which may
change in value but remains in the same direction.

2. Alternating Current supply a.c.:

It is the supply which has an e.m.f. of varying magnitude and alternating polarity. This
means that the voltage is continuously changing in magnitude and the direction of the
current is reversed continuously. Electricity generators provide alternating current.

The time period (T) of an alternating p.d. or current is the time for one complete cycle,
measured in seconds. The frequency (f) of an alternating p.d. or current is the number of
cycles per unit time, measured in Hertz.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 18
 Mains Electricity
The electricity that we use at home comes from the mains supply. The frequency of the a.c.
supply is 50 cycles per second or 50 Hertz. It enters our homes through an underground
cable that is connected to an electricity meter (that measures the amount of electrical energy
used). Then the cable is connected to a consumer unit or fuse box, which contains fuses or
circuit breakers for the various circuits in your home.

Most of the wires that leave the fuse box are connected to ring main circuits that are hidden
in the walls or floors around each room. Ring main circuits provide a way of allowing
several appliances in different parts of the same room to be connected to the mains using
plugs & them minimum amount of wiring.

Ring circuits usually consist of 3 wires (live, neutral and earth wires).

• The live wire provides the path along which the electrical energy from the power station
travels. It is alternately positive and negative causing a.c. to flow along it.

• The neutral wire completes the circuit.

• The earth wire usually has no current flowing through it. It is there to protect you if an
appliance develops a fault.
The following figure shows:
A) House lighting circuit
B) Power sockets circuit

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 19
 A)

B)

• The live wire (covered with brown insulation) is at high voltage (240 V or 110 V).
• The neutral wire (covered with blue insulation) is at zero V. Whenever a voltage
difference is applied across the terminals of a conductor, a current flows through it.
• All components are connected in parallel so if one component fails to work, the others still
operate.
• The main switch connects and disconnects the whole circuit to the live wire. The local
switches connect each socket separately.
• A circuit breaker is a device which breaks (opens) a circuit when the current exceeds a
certain value. Circuit breakers protect cables and appliances from overheating.
• A fuse (a type of circuit breakers) can be fitted to the plug of each electrical appliance for
further protection. It consists of a short length of wire which is made to have a certain
thickness such that it melts and breaks the circuit when the current exceeds a certain value.
Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 20
How to determine the suitable fuse rating of a device:
You have to know the power of the device and voltage supply. By using the equation P=IV,
calculate the value of the normal current withdrawn by the device. The fuse rating should be
slightly larger than the normal current taken by the device but lower than the live wire.
The most common fuse sizes for domestic appliances are 3 A, 5 A and 13 A.

✓ All switches, circuit breakers and fuses must be one the live side. If they were on the
neutral side, light switches and power sockets would be live when switches are off or if
fuses are blown. This means that anyone touching a bare socket would be electrocuted.
✓ In circuit B, the earth wire (covered with yellow/green insulation) protects you from
electrical shocks. It is connected to the metal casing of the device. If a fault develops and
the live wire touches the metal casing (damaged insulation), the earth wire provides a low-
resistance path for the current so a large current flows through the live wire making the
fuse blow and disconnects the device from the live wire. Otherwise the casing would
become live and anyone touching it would receive a shock which might be fatal.

Another safety measure if there is no earth wire: Double insulation:

Some modern appliances now use casings made from insulator materials rather than metal.
These appliances are designed so that it is very difficult for the user to come in contact with
the mains electricity inside the plastic cover. These appliances do not require an earth
connection and are fitted with a two-pin plug.

Hazards of electricity:
✓ A fatal electric shock can result from touching a live wire. This can happen due to:
a. Damaged insulation or frayed cables
b. Cables in contact with something hot or wet.
c. A device which is not earthed and has a metal casing
d. Damp conditions close to a socket or electrical device; i.e. water near sockets (like in
bathrooms - because water is a good conductor or electricity).
e. Damaged plugs
f. Lighting sockets without bulbs in.
g. Appliances without their covers on.
h. Pushing metal objects into sockets.

✓ Fire due to overheating of cables. This happens when the current in a circuit exceeds
its normal value. This can happen due to:
a. A fault in an electrical device which does not have a fuse or circuit breaker to break
the circuit (e.g. short circuit).
b. Making multiple parallel connections to a single socket.
c. Damaged insulation or faulty wiring.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 21
The heating effect of current:
The heating effect of current is sometimes nuisance and is desired to be minimized. For
example, the wiring in a house is designed to let current pass through it easily (has low
resistance).
However, things such as the heating elements in kettles or toasters are designed to have
high resistance. As current passes through the element, energy is transferred and the
element heats up.
The heating effect of a current is made use of in many different ways in our homes such as
the kettle, toaster, dishwasher, cooker and washing machines. It is also used in the lights.
Normal light bulbs have a very thin filament (very high resistance) which gets so hot when
current passes through it that it glows. This heating effect is also used in electric fires, fan
heaters and hair dryers.
Wiring a plug:********
When wiring a plug.. keep in mind the following:
1. The wires must be connected to the correct terminals.
2. The insulation on each wire must not be stripped back too far.
3. The outside thick insulation must be firmly held under the cord grip.
4. The screws must be done up tightly so that the metal ends of the wires do not
spread out from under them.
5. The right value fuse must be used.

Unit 5: Electricity & Magnetism – IGCSE Physics – Dr. Eman Salama Page 22