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1. Learn And review your knowledge about Detectors in Nuclear Medicine

Answer:
a. Gas-filled detectors are composed of two electrodes separated by a gaseous atmosphere.
Generally, the container that encloses the gas is one of the electrodes (cathode), and the
other electrode (anode) is a thin wire running through the center of the system. Gamma
radiation interacts with the gas contained in the detector causing, in certain circumstances
ionization and the consequent ejection of electrons. These are accelerated toward the
anode and, if fully collected by the anode, produce a measurable electric current. Hence,
the detector operates as an ionization chamber. When the external voltage transfers
enough kinetic energy to electrons, they produce new ionized atoms emitting more
electrons the avalanche effect. The negative charge created during this process is then
collected by the anode, causing an electrical impulse which is the signal that is actually
measured.
b. The semiconductor detectordetectors is based on the formation of electron-hole pairs
whose displacement leads to a measurable electrical signal. A semiconductor can be
defined as a solid whose valence band is complete whenT = 0 K but whose forbidden
band is so small (few eV) that electrons can be easily thermally excited (at room
temperature) and pass to the conduction band. If the forbidden band is larger, the number
of electrons capable of moving to the conduction band is much smaller and the material is
then classified as an insulator. For each electron excited to the conduction band in a
semiconductor, a hole is created in the valence band whose mobility is only a fraction of
the mobility of the electrons. In this situation, conduction of an electric current may exist
if an electric field is applied. However, the electric conductivity is lower than that of
metal materials and depends on temperature
c. Scintillators convert high-energy gamma photons into photons with wave length in the
visible range, which, in turn, are detected using PMT. The PMT collect the light created
in the crystal by the γ rays, generating electrical signals that contain information about
the energy of the interactions taking place in the crystal.

2. Find out How to perform the correction for the errors ( random, attenuation,
scatter and deadtime)

answer:
a. random correction
coincidences can be true (T), random (R), or scattered (S). The number of coincidence
events, C, detected per unit time in an LOR is the sum of these three types of
coincidence, C = T + R + S, (6.14) but only the true coincidences contain valid
information about the location of the source that generated the photon pair detected. The
correction of random and scattered coincidences consists of obtaining an independent
estimate of the random coincidences rate Rˆ and scattered coincidences rate Sˆ for each
LOR in order to estimate the true coincidences rate by Tˆ = C − Rˆ − Sˆ.
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b. attenuation correction
When there is no independent way of obtaining it other than from the projections
acquired with the SPECT scanner, the attenuation map has to be simultaneously
determined with the activity distribution. which case the correction is implemented in a
preprocessing procedure before the reconstruction. These may be analytical methods that
correct the SPECT projections before image reconstruction or iterative methods that
correct the projections during image reconstruction
The computation takes into account the probability of each annihilation photon
interacting with the patient (given by the attenuation map); and, should it interact, the
probability of the scattered photon being emitted along a direction θ is given by the
Klein–Nishina equation for the differential cross-section .scatter correction
ones whose direction bears a causality relation with their emission points. Executing the
energy discrimination of the detected photons is, therefore, the simplest way of
estimating the number S of scattered photons, a value that can then be subtracted from the
total number of detected photons C to obtain the number of nonscattered photons T in
each direction of the parallel projections. Scattered radiation can alternatively be
corrected using methods that model the existence of Compton scattering in the body of
the patient
c. deadtime correction
This dead time decreases the number of coincidences actually recorded relative to the
number of coincidences whose photons hit the detector and interacted with the crystals.
In the simplest model to describe the dead time effect in a PET scanner, which ignores
crossed interference between crystals in a block, the number of singles counts in a crystal
i, nsingle, is given as a function of the number of incident photons ninc that interact with
the crystal and of the dead time parameter τi of that crystal by nsingle = (1 − τi) × ninc,
where τi is the dead time of the crystal divided by the total acquisition time. Since each
coincidence involves the detection of two photons in different crystals, the normalization
coefficient for the dead time component in an LOR defined between the crystals i and j
that corrects the incident coincidences rate from the detected coincidences rate can be
given by NC(dead time) = 1 (1 − τi) × (1 − τj) .

3. What is the difference between FBP and OSEM algorithm?

Answer :
For a quality image, it is necessary to use the range of values found for the covariables order
and cut-off frequency of the Butterworth filter in the FBP and OSEM reconstruction. OSEM
reconstruction shows superiority in the images compared with FBP when the recommended
three iterations and eight subsets are used. In the quantitative analyses, the evaluation
showed that increasing the number of updates while allowing a better distinction of certain
areas, culminates with a degradation image, making it inappropriate for clinical.

Ana Carolina et al. Comparison between OSEM and FBP reconstruction algorithms for the qualitative and quantitative interpretation of brain DAT-SPECT
using an anthropomorphic striatal phantom: implications for the practice. 2020 Research on Biomedical Engineering volume 36, pages77–88
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For FBP, FWHM, mean pixel count, coefficient of variation, and contrast were almost
software independent. The only exceptions were a smaller, full width at half maximum for
one of the software types, higher mean pixel counts for 2 of the software types, and better
contrast for 2 of the software types under some filtering conditions. For OSEM, the full
width at half maximum independent to software or iterations. There was a marked
dependence of the mean pixel count on the type of software used, and there was a moderate
dependence of the coefficient of variation. Contrast was almost software independent. The
mean pixel count varied greatly with the number of iterations for 2 of the software types,
and the coefficient of variation increased with the number of iterations for all types of
software. The mean pixel count, coefficient of variation, and contrast were almost constant
for a fixed product number of iterations times the number of subsets, whatever the number
of subsets or iterations.
Alain Seret and Julien Forthomme. Comparison of Different Types of Commercial Filtered Backprojection and Ordered-Subset Expectation Maximization SPECT
Reconstruction Software. September 2009, Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology 37 (3) 179-187; DOI: https://doi.org/10.2967/jnmt.108.061275