Interpersonal and Group

Processes UNIT 14 COUNSELLING AND BEHAVIOUR

MODIFICATION

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• discuss the nature of counseling;
• differentiate between counselling, guidance and psychotherapy;
• discuss the stages in counselling;
• describe counselling skills;
• explain various approaches to counselling;
• describe ethical issues in counselling;
• discuss counselling in organisational set up; and
• explain behavioural modification and its techniques.
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Nature of Counselling
14.3 Difference Between Counselling, Guidance and Psychotherapy
14.4 Stages in Counselling
14.5 Counselling Skills
14.6 Approaches to Counselling
14.7 Ethical Issues in Counselling
14.8 Counselling in Organisational Setup
14.9 Behavioural Modification
14.10 Behaviour Modification Process
14.11 Organisational Behaviour Modification (OBM)
14.12 Summary
14.13 Self-Assessment Questions
14.14 Further Readings

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Ishan works in a private bank and was known to be one of the most effective
persons in his branch.

Because of his performance and consistent contribution to the branch targets, he

was recently promoted as manager of that branch. Overnight the responsibilities
of Ishan doubled. Though it brought him great happiness, excitement and
challenges, the work pressure also considerably increased. This work pressure
and the stress that was its outcome took a toll on Ishan. He started loosing his
temper often and his relationship with his colleagues and subordinates started
getting affected. He was not able to perform to his best and in fact he made a
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major mistake in one of his presentations because of which his superiors were Counselling and Behaviour
Modification
not very happy.

Amit is a worker in an manufacturing industry and it has been noticed by his

supervisor that he remains absent from his work for a prolonged period of time.
Further, whenever he would turn up, he would seem lost and aloof. When
enquired, some of his close friends reported that Amit had recently lost both his
parents in an accident and has not coped well since then. He also did not have
any siblings and all his relatives were at his native place so he did not have much
of support.

Sheena topped in MBA and got a job during placement. She entered the
organization with great enthusiasm, however when she submitted her first monthly
report her Boss criticised it and said that it was not up to the mark. She worked
extra hard for her second report and the same was also criticised. She could not
understand where she was making a mistake. Her Boss also ridiculed her during
weekly meeting in front of all her colleagues and mocked her for not even knowing
how to write a report. As a result Sheena felt very humiliated and upset. She
went in to depression and developed health related issues.

Santosh is a 28 year-old and has a very demanding, stressful job. Santosh has
always been a high achiever and has very high standards for herself and can be
very self-critical when she fails to meet them. Lately, she has struggled with
significant feelings of worthlessness and shame due to her inability to perform
as well as she always has in the past. For the past few weeks Santosh has been
feeling unusually fatigued and finds it increasingly difficult to concentrate at
work. Her coworkers have noticed that she is often irritable and withdrawn,
which is quite different from her typically upbeat and friendly disposition. She
has called in sick on several occasions, which is completely unlike her. On those
days he stays in bed all day, watching TV or sleeping. Santosh has found herself
increasingly dissatisfied with her life. She gets frustrated with her self because
she feels like she has every reason to be happy, yet can’t seem to shake the sense
of doom and gloom that has been clouding each day as of late. All this is also
taking a toll on her performance at work.
As seen from the above short case studies, you can see that Ishan, Amit, Sheena
and Santosh are going through certain difficulties that is having an impact on
their day to day life and more importantly their performance at work. Similarly,
the employees in an organisational setup could have numerous issues and
problems that could affect their wellbeing, functioning, performance and even
effectiveness.
In any organization, human resource is one of the most important resources and
if the human resource is not able to perform effectively then the overall
productivity of the organization can get affected and that will then have an impact
on the outcome and profitability of the organization.
Therefore the various factors that can have an impact on the behaviour, well
being and effectiveness of the human resource in an organization need to be
identified and more over suitable intervention or counselling should be made
available in an organisational setup.
Factors that can have an impact on the behaviour, wellbeing and effectiveness of
the human resource could be related to the organization or the personal life of 23
Interpersonal and Group the employee. But either ways, they can have a negative impact on the overall
Processes
productivity of the organization and thus suitable help at the right time needs to
be made available.

Issues and problems in this context could be either related to the work life of the
employee, like organisational structure, relationship, communication, work
pressure, role ambiguity and so on or at personal level, like problems related to
relationship, developmental changes, life events and so on.
Some of the signs that the employee may need help are:
– Irritability and aggression
– Increase in accidents
– Symptoms of fatigue, stress and burnout
– Substance abuse
– Signs or anxiety or depression
– Decrease in performance and productivity
– Difficulty in adjusting to the workplace
– Difficulty in maintaining relationship with the superiors, subordinates or
colleagues that is resulting in frequent conflicts.
The main focus while looking for signs of issues and problems in an employee
should be whether there is a sudden behavioural change and also what is the
degree and duration of the problem. For example, if the person who was earlier
very interactive and jovial, has now suddenly become aloof or if a person is
displaying symptoms of anxiety for past six months, these call for a counselling
and suitable intervention. In the present unit we will mainly discuss about
counselling. Further, it is also possible that in certain cases the behaviour of the
employee needs modification, thus the present unit will also cover specifically
behaviour modification. Behaviour modification is mainly based on learning
theories and can be used to modify the employee behaviour.

14.2 NATURE OF COUNSELLING

In counselling there is give and take of ideas and feelings between mainly two
individuals. One is of course the counsellor and the other is the person with an
issue/ problems (Though counselling can also be group counselling). It mainly
involves helping the individual deal or cope better with his/her problems.
Counselling has vast application whether it is educational counselling or career
counselling to HIV/ AIDS counselling and employee counselling. The principles
and techniques of counselling can thus be applied to varied issues and set up
including work place.
Pepinsky and Pepinsky (1954) has defined counselling as an interaction, that
takes place between two individuals termed as client and counsellor in a setting
that is professional in nature, that is initiated and maintained in order to facilitate
behavioural change in the client.
Perez (1965) defined counselling as “an interactive process conjoining the counsel
who needs assistance and the counsellor who is trained and educated to give
assistance”.
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Counselling can also be described as “a process aimed at helping people to explore Counselling and Behaviour
Modification
a problem or issue, and alternative ways of dealing with it, so that something can
be done about it” (McKenna, 2012).

As seen in the above definitions, some of the key points in these definition are as
follows:

• Interaction between two individuals: Counselling is necessarily an

interactive process, that is interaction between the counsellor (possesses
necessarily qualification and competence) and the individual (who is having
problems and issues). Though in certain cases there could also be group
counselling where there might be one counsellor but many individuals
displaying similar problems/ issues.

• It involves helping individuals: Counselling is mainly focused on helping

the individuals who seek counselling in order to help them deal with their
problems and issues, make decisions and solve problems.

• It is professional in nature: This not only indicates the formal and serious
nature of counselling process, but also highlights the need to follow the
required legal and ethical issues. This is also necessary to uphold the rights
and wellbeing of the individual seeking counselling.

• Helps in exploring problem/issues and/or bring about behavioural

change(s): Counselling is mainly used to help the individuals explore and
understand the problem/ issues and it can also be used in order to bring
about behavioural changes in the individual.

Functions of counselling
The broad functions of counselling are discussed as follows:
1) Creating a conducive environment for the individual: Counselling
involves creating an environment with the help of empathy, unconditional
positive regard and congruence on the part of the counsellor, so that the
individual is able to become better aware of his/ her situation/problem as
well as potentialities, which in turn will help in the coping, problem solving
and decision making process.
2) Providing reassurance to the individual: Counselling mainly involves
providing the individual with reassurance so as to help him/ her adequately
face his/ her issues/ problems.
3) Promoting rational and clear thinking: Counselling also helps the
individual develop rational thinking. Various techniques of cognitive and
cognitive behaviour therapy could be used in this regard to help the individual
to do away with irrational thoughts and develop rational thinking.
4) Behavioural change: This is one of the most import goals as well as
functions of counselling.
The behaviour of the counsellor that is leading to aggravation of the problem
can be changed or modified using various therapeutic techniques.
5) Helping the individual release emotional tension: Besides helping the
individual change behaviour and deal with irrational thinking, counsellor
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Interpersonal and Group also functions towards helping him/ her release the emotional tension.
Processes
Behaviour, thoughts and emotions are related to each other and counsellor
will need to focus on these during the counselling process.
Types of counselling
Counselling can be categories in to various types, discussed as follows:
1) Individual counselling: As the name suggests this is the counselling that
takes place on one to one basis. There is one counsellor and one individual.
Individual counselling helps the counsellor in focusing on the verbal and
non verbal behaviour of the individual besides promoting better
understanding of the issues and problems faced by him/her. Though it is
time consuming, it is none the less very effective in bringing about
behavioural change.
2) Group Counselling: In this there are many individuals who are similar in a
way either due to the problems faced by them or due to some social
demographic characteristics. For example, there could be a group of
employee having high stress levels or there could be certain senior employees
who are being counselled or prepared for retirement. Groups counselling
has various advantages and disadvantages. In this less time is consumed as
certain techniques can be taught to many individuals at the same time. Also
the participants have a chance to interact with each other and learn from
each others experience. However, there could be issues related to the pace
and capacity of each individual in the group and also issues related to
confidentiality and privacy.
3) Directive counselling: Directive counselling involves greater participation
of the counsellor, where he/ she is in fact is not only listening but also
guiding, motivating the individuals. In this case the onus of directing the
counsellor process as well as the individual mainly lies with the counsellor.
It can be used with individuals who display external locus or control or are
more indecisive or finding it difficult to open up with the counsellor.
Directive counselling can be effectively used in order to reassure the
employee, encourage emotional release and also help the employee to bring
about a clarity in his/ her thinking.
4) Non-directive counselling: This is in a way opposite to directive
counselling, where the individual takes the lead in the counselling process.
This can be used with individuals who have internal locus of control and
display low self confidence. Such individuals may require encouragement
and further support in dealing with their issues/ problems or making decisions
and solving problems. Counsellor mainly pays a role of creating a conducive
environment.
5) Participative counselling: This is mid way between the directive and non-
directive counselling, where there is equal contribution from the counsellor
and the individual and none dominates the counselling process. Such an
arrangement helps exchange of various ideas and thoughts that could help
the individual deal with his/ her issues and problems. Though listening is
used to a greater extent in this type of counselling, in later sessions the
counsellor may play a more active role by using various techniques of
counselling.
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The choice of the type will mainly depend on the nature of the individual as well Counselling and Behaviour
Modification
as the situation and the problem besides the expertise and competence of the
counsellor.
Activity 1
A) Define Counselling
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B) Differentiate between directive and non directive counselling.
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14. 3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COUNSELLING,

GUIDANCE AND PSYCHOTHERAPY
Counselling can be differentiated from two other significant terms, guidance
and psychotherapy.
Though often mentioned together, these terms have different meanings. We have
already discussed about what is counselling, but we also need to throughly
understand the other two terms.
Guidance can be described as help or some kind of assistance provided to
individuals so as to help them solve their problems adequately, take effective
decisions, make intelligent choices and adjustments. I am quite sure that each
one of us have some point of time or other have guided others in this way. Though
the guidance we talk about here is in a more professional manner where a student,
for example, can be guided to take decisions about further studies or make career
choices.
Thus guidance can be in simple terms is a helping process so as to help individuals
in certain situations and it also involves providing relevant information and
making the individuals more aware. It thus focuses on making the individual
self sufficient and self directed.
When compared with counselling, guidance does not work towards bringing
about change in an individual’s behaviour, it promotes to a greater extent
maximum utilisation and realisation of an individual’s potential. counselling on
the other hand has its main focus on brining about a positive change in individual’s
behaviour. For example, in an organisational set up, you could guide a person
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Interpersonal and Group regarding which job posts he/ she could apply for, but counselling will focus on
Processes
you helping a person change the ways he/ she is dealing with his work so as to
reduce his/her work pressure.

Psychotherapy on the other hand is an extension of counselling where there could

be certain deeper problems and issues that are beyond the skills or purview or
counselling and thus require some thing more than counselling. For example, if
an individual is under going major depression, counselling may not be help and
the person may require psychotherapy. Psychotherapy is thus required mainly in
case of major psychological disorders and counselling can be effectively used
with issues like stress, anxiety, relationship problems etc.

Two other terms that are used in an industrial set up along with counselling are
coaching and mentoring. Coaching involves providing support to the individual
in order to help him/ her achieve certain specific professional or personal goals.
Mentoring, on the other hand, can be described as “a work relationship that
encourages development and career enhancement for people moving through
the career cycle” (Quick, Nelson and Khandelwal, 2013).

Activity 2
Differentiate between Guidance and Psychotherapy?
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14.4 STAGES IN COUNSELLING

Counselling process can be divided in to various components, they are discussed
as follows:

Stage 1-Ensure readiness on the part of the individual: An individual may

have an issue, that could be related to work or personal life. However, unless and
until he/ she is ready to share the same with the counsellor and seek help it is not
possible for the counsellor to help him/her. There are various factors that can
interfere with the readiness of the individual. One of them is lack of awareness
about the issue. In this case the individual may not be aware about his behaviour
being out of place or affecting others around him/her. He/she may have certain
habits that may be undeniable in nature but he/she is not aware about the same,
Yet another very significant factor is resistance on the part of the individual to
seek help or even change his/ her behaviour. This resistance again could be due
to various other reasons from social stigma to insecurity that one may loose the
job (in case of employee in an organisational set up). Another factor that could
be relevant in the context of readiness is the amount of motivation to seek help.
The individual may be aware about the problem/ issue but may lack motivation
to seek help.

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Thus in an industrial set up suitable conducive environment needs to be created Counselling and Behaviour
Modification
that promotes individuals to seek help and counselling and also suitable facilities
need to be provided.

Stage 2-Initial session: Once the individual is ready for the counselling session,
the counsellor has to work on building rapport. The counsellor here needs to
exhibit trust, genuineness and unconditional positive regard towards the individual
which will create a conducive environment for the individual to express and
discuss his/ her issues/ problems. At this stage the counsellors also need to focus
on any defence strategies on the part of the individual. Initial session also includes
preliminary interview where the individual is made aware of his/ her
responsibilities, expectations related to counselling are clarified. The individual
is also given an idea about what will be the counselling strategy including the
duration and frequency of the sessions. If the counselling services are not free
then the details about fees is also provided.

Stage 3-Identification of problem: The counselling is now at a stage where the

individual is ready and willing to participate in the counselling participate and
rapport has also been developed between the counsellor and the individual. The
next stage that follows focuses on the identification of the problem. Case history,
Mental Status Examination (MSE) and even psychological tests can be used in
order to understand the issues and problems that the individual is undergoing.
The counsellor may have develop a certain idea about the problem during his/
her interaction with the individual so far, but the same needs validation with the
help of suitable diagnostic tools.

Stage 4-Strategy for intervention: During this stage, the strategy or the
counselling techniques that could be used to help the individual deal with the
issues/ problem are chalked down and then implemented. The individual may
also be given homework by the counsellor. Regular follow up is carried out to
know how the individual is coping and whether there is a change or not. In
certain cases psychotherapeutic techniques are also used.

Stage 5- Termination: Once the counsellor and the individual mutually feel
that the individual is now able to deal with the problem/ issue effectively, the
counselling process can be terminated.

Counselling process can also be prematurely terminated if despite of the efforts

there is no rapport formation of building of trust between the counsellor and the
individual or if the counsellor feels that the problem/ issue is beyond his/ her
capacity or expertise. In which case he/she can refer the client to someone else.
The premature termination can also take place if the counsellors feels that the
individual is becoming too dependent on him/ her. Though in a way it indicates
end of the counselling process, this is also a significant stage in counselling and
has to be dealt by the counsellor with utmost care. The counsellor needs to ensure
that the individual is ready for termination of the counselling process(mainly
when the goals of the counselling are achieved).

Stage 6- Followup: This is the last stage where post termination, the counsellor
will follow up with the individual about how he/ she is coping with his/ her
problem/ issues. If the counsellors feels that the individual is not coping well
then further counselling may be required.
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Interpersonal and Group Referral: Though not one of the stages as such in counselling, a good counsellor
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should also know or be able to judge the situation or moment when the individual
needs to be referred to some one else. This could be another counsellor or could
be a medical doctor, a psychiatrist, a clinical psychologists and so on. Some of
the situations that call for referral are:
• the counsellor and the individual are not able to form a positive counselling
relationship despite of their attempts.
• the personalities or attitude, values and beliefs of the counsellor and the
individual clash.
• the individual is displaying issues and problems that are beyond the expertise
of the counsellor
• the individual is becoming or has become dependent on the counsellor.

Activity 3
Describe termination and follow up stages in counselling process.
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14.5 COUNSELLING SKILLS

Some of the most significant counselling skills are discussed as follows:
1) Empathy: Often explained as ‘putting oneself in someone else’s shoes’.
But imagine you wearing someone else’s shoes, do you think you will find
them comfortable, most probably not, as the size definitely will vary besides
other aspects and you are least likely to feel comfortable in them. In a similar
manner, empathising with another person also is a challenge. Empathy mainly
denotes that the feelings experienced by individual are sensed by the
counsellor in an appropriate manner and this is again communicated back
to that individual by the counsellor. Empathy leads to strengthening of
relationship between the counsellor and the individual and is also related
with positive counselling outcomes.
2) Unconditional positive regard: Yet another skill is unconditional positive
regard, that can also be explained as acceptance, in which the the counsellor
has a regard towards the individual that is both positive and unconditional
and thus he/ she can share any information with the counsellor without any
inhibitions. The counsellor in this regard needs to be nonjudgemental and
accept the individual as he/ she is is without any bias. This skill again can
help build a positive relationship with the individual and encourage the
individual to freely discuss his/ her problem.
3) Genuineness: This is related with authenticity, openness and also to what
extent the counsellor is in touch with his/ her own feelings. It is important
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 that the counsellor appears to be in congruence and in state of balance, Counselling and Behaviour
Modification
where his/ her feeling, thought as well as behaviour are in synchronised.
The skill of genuine is also related to emotional intelligence where one is
aware about one’s own emotions and that of others and is able to identify
and manage one’s own emotions effectively. Genuineness again will help
create a better rapport with the individual and create a conducive environment
for the individual to reflect on his/ her problem and come up with a potential
solution for it. It is also important that like empathy and unconditional
positive regard, genuineness is also communicated to the individual by the
client. This can be done though various verbal and non verbal
communications.

According to Rogers, empathy, unconditional positive regard (discussed

below) and congruence or genuineness are most essential elements of a
counselling process.

4) Listening: This is yet another significant skill in counselling. Though in

psychotherapy, the psychotherapist will go beyond listening and use various
techniques, in counselling listening is very important. Also it is not just
passive listening but active listening that further includes skills discussed
as follows:
• Attending: Paying attention to what the individual is saying
• Paraphrasing: That includes the restatement of what is said by the
individual to confirm that the counsellor has understood what is being
said by the individual.
• Reflection: This is related to the reflection of feelings of the individual.
• Probing: Involves asking questions related to the problem/ issues.
• Perception checking: That includes finding out whether the
interpretations made by the counsellor are correct or not.
• Being silent: Silence is extremely important if one wants to listen.
• Summarisation: Based on the information and the non verbal behaviour
of the individual, a summary of the problem is created by the counsellor
and discussed with the individual.
The counsellor could also keep in mind SOLER technique while listening
S: Squarely face the individual, that is the counsellor is facing the
individual and thus indicating that he/ she is attentive and interested in
what the individual is saying.
O: Open posture, referring to the posture of the counsellor that should
indicate openness.
L: Lean towards the individual while listening, keeping in mind the
personal space.
E: Eye contact is to be maintained
R: The counsellor should also be relaxed while listening to the individual
5) Observation: Besides listening yet another significant skill is that of
observation. Certain things about the individual and the problems and issue
that he/ she is going can be apparent through his/ her non verbal behaviour
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Interpersonal and Group like the way he/she is sitting, their facial expressions, body posture, gestures,
Processes
whether he/she is maintaining eye contact or not and so on. Counsellors
needs to develop this skill of being observant about the individual’s non
verbal behaviour.

Further the counsellor also needs to be conscious about his/ her own non
verbal behaviour as well.

The way he/ she is sitting. his/her own gestures and body posture. The
nonverbal behaviour of the counsellor should also convey that he/she is
paying attention to the client and should reflect empathy, openness and non
judgemental attitude towards the individual.

6) Self Disclosure: This is another technique that can be effective, though

needs to be used with caution. Self disclosure can be described as sharing
of information about one self. It could be sharing of personal information or
experience or even showing involvement. Thus in a counselling set up in
certain situations, the counsellor may share information about his/ her own
self with the individual. This could help in providing assurance to the
individual, instilling hope in him/ her and also may further promote trust
between the counsellor and the client. Though it could also be dangerous as
it may shift the focus of the counselling from the issues and problems of the
individual to that of the counsellor and extreme self disclosure can be risky
as the individual knows too much about the counsellor.

Some of the guidelines that could be followed here are ( Nelson- Jones,
2012):
• Counsellors needs to talk about himself/ herself in general and be to
the point avoiding any distraction due to overtaking or shifting of focus
from issues/ problems of the individual.
• Past experiences could be shared in place of current experiences, like
if the counsellor is coping with a major life event, the same should not
be discussed as counsellor may find it emotionally draining may not be
able to maintain emotional distance from that experience.
• Suitable verbal and non verbal communication needs to be used. There
should be genuineness and consistency in what ever is being disclosed.
• Share experiences sensitively keeping in mind the cultural and religious
background of the individual
• Personal experiences and informations should be minimally used and
with caution.
Besides the above skills the counsellor also needs to be self aware, honest,
congruent, approachable, have ability to communicate and be observance
and have the necessary knowledge, skill and competence. Advise as such
should be avoided in counselling as the employee or the individual is in
better position to understand his/ her problems and should be in position to
make his/ her own decisions and solve his/ her problems. The counsellor
mainly has to create a conducive environment for the individual.

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 Counselling and Behaviour
Activity 4 Modification
A) What is unconditional positive regard?
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B) What is SOLER?
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14.6 APPROACHES TO COUNSELLING

There are numerous approaches to counselling that can be used. Some of the
prominent ones are discussed as follows:

1) Psychoanalysis: This approach was proposed by Sigmund Freud. Freud

proposed that there are three main levels of consciousness, namely the
unconscious, the material that is repressed and therefore is not in ones
consciousness; the subconscious, that is, the material that one is not fully
aware about but can be brought to consciousness and third level is the
consciousness, the material that we are fully aware about. Freud also spoke
of the three systems related to mental apparatus, Id, Ego and Super Ego. Id
or ‘it’ is the oldest of the three systems and consists of everything that was
inherited. For example, instincts. Id is not controlled by logic or morality
and is thus impulsive. Ego or ‘I’ can be described as that part of Id that has
been modified due to exposure to the social world. This is represented by
reason and common sense and may also try to bring about a balance between
Id and Super ego. The Superego can be described as remnant of Ego, which
is as a result of extended parental influences. It mainly functions to control
the demands of the id thorough its moral influences on Ego. Freud has also
spoken about the psychosocial stages of development from oral, anal, phallic,
latency to genital stage.

These are mainly related to sexual development and any fixation at any of
these stages can have repercussion on the behaviour of the individual later
in life. In psychoanalysis past experiences is very important and any
behaviour of a person in present can be attributed to his/ her experiences in
the past. Freud also believed that the feelings that were repressed could
surface later in form of conflicts, depression and so on.

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Interpersonal and Group Freud has also given a number of defence mechanisms that are used by
Processes
individuals, like repression, denial, projection, rationalisation, reaction
formation and so on. The main techniques used in psychoanalysis are free
associate and dream analysis. Transference on the part of the individuals
are also taken in to consideration in this regard besides the resistance.

There are various approaches as well that were developed by Carl Jung,
Alfred Adler, Anna Freud amongst others, that are termed as neo-freudian
mainly because they are diverged from basic principles of psychoanalysis
but do share certain similarities with it.

2) Behavioural approach: These are mainly based on the learning theories

by Pavlov (classical conditioning), Skinner (operant conditioning) and social
learning theory by Bandura. Where as psychoanalysis focuses on the past
experiences, behavioural approach gives relevance to the external stimulus.
Thus the behaviour of the persons is described as a result of external stimulus
and it is also believed that if this external stimuli is controlled or manipulated
then the behaviour can be modified. We will discuss about behaviour
modification that is mainly based on behavioural approach later in this unit.
Some of the techniques used under behaviour therapy are systematic de-
sensitisation, in vivo techniques, relaxation techniques, self monitoring
techniques etc.

3) Humanistic approach: This approach considers human beings to be unique

and having potentiality to develop and also deal with their own problems
and issues. This is also considered as the third force after psychoanalysis
and behaviourism. There are three main approaches that are covered under
this approaches namely, Person Centred Therapy by Carl Rogers, Gestalt
therapy by Fritz Perls and Existential therapy by Irvin Yalom and Rollo
May. Humanistic approaches see individuals as whole and unique and thus
they cannot be categorised. They also believe that the individuals do have
potentiality and are in a better position to understand and deal with their
own problems and thus the role of the counsellor is just to create a conducive
environment for the individual for self realisation. These could be categorised
under non directive type of counselling.

4) Cognitive approach: On on hand where behavioural approaches focus on

the overt behaviour, cognitive approach focuses on the covert behaviour or
the thoughts. the main focus here is on the thinking, precisely the irrational
thinking and cognitive dissonance on part of the individual.

This approach mainly helps the individuals deal with their irrational thinking
and make them more rational. There is also Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
(CBT), that combines the best of behaviour therapy and cognitive therapy,
thus focusing on behaviour as well thoughts.

5) Eclectic approach: Most often in practical life it may not be possible to

use one approach, thus more than one approach is used in counselling to
help the individuals. This is known as eclectic approach. However, care
needs to be taken in this regard based on the symptoms displayed by the
individual, his/ her locus of control (whether external or internal) and
psychological defences (whether related to behaviour of thoughts) while
34 selecting suitable approaches and techniques.
 Counselling and Behaviour
Activity 5 Modification

Explain Psychoanalysis.
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14.7 ETHICAL ISSUES IN COUNSELLING

As was discussed the outcome of the counselling process to a greater extent
depends on the counselling relationship and the rapport and trust between the
counsellor and the individual, which in fact helps the individual open up and
discuss his/ her issues with the counsellor. This relationship also needs to be
ethical. Further, there are a number of ethical issues that need to be followed by
the counsellor so as to ensure that the individual is not harmed in any way.

In this regard APA (American Psychological Association) has stated certain

guiding principles and standards that need to be followed by psychologists. These
are available on their website as well, the link for which is http://www.apa.org/
ethics/code/index.aspx.

Some of the relevant ethical issues are discussed as follows:

1) Autonomy: Autonomy indicates that the individual or the person undergoing

counselling has an autonomy to take the decision. This also refrains from
any manipulation of the individual against their will. The individual also
thus has autonomy to decide what is right for himself/ herself and has
autonomy also to exit the counselling process. This is one of the most
important ethical issues in counselling.

2) Beneficence and non-maleficence: Beneficence indicates that the

counselling should be for the benefit of the individual and in order to promote
his/ her wellbeing. Non maleficence indicates that the individual should not
be harmed in anyway during the counselling process.

Despite of seeking informed consent, the counsellor needs to take suitable

care that the individual is not subjected to any harm.

3) Justice: Counselling should be fair and not partial. The counsellor should
be fair and should be just in his/ her approach towards the individuals. He/
she should not discriminate amongst the individuals who approach him/her
and treat each of them equally and honestly though they may display varied
problems/ issues for which the counsellor may require to use different
techniques. But his/ her approach should reflect justice.

4) Confidentiality and Privacy: One of the most significant issue is

maintaining confidentiality and privacy. The counselling should take place
35
Interpersonal and Group in a private set up and the interaction between the counsellor and the
Processes
individual and the information shared should be kept confidential. The
records also need to be adequately maintained and should not be made
available to others without the consent of the individual. Though in case of
any danger to the individual or others around him/ her and in case of certain
legal issues etc. the information may be shared.

5) Informed consent: The informed consent needs to be taken from the

individual at the start of the counselling process. The expectations that the
individuals might have with reference to counselling need to be cleared and
the objectives should be mutually set. The individual then needs to provide
his/ her consent in written. this is also important so that individual feels
responsible for himself/ herself and is aware that he/ she has to take decisions
and solve problems and that the counsellor is just there to create a conducive
environment and to provide help and support.

Besides the above ethical issues, the legal requirements of the state and the
nation are also to be kept in mind besides the norms in this regard set by the
organization.

Activity 6
What is informed consent?
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14.8 COUNSELLING IN ORGANISATIONAL

SET UP
Counselling in organisational setup is not other wise different from any other set
up, except, the nature of the individuals and the issues and problems faced by
them may differ to some extent.

Employees in an organisational set up may under go stress and may also

experience burnout due to various reasons like role overload, role ambiguity,
shift work, strenuous work environment and conditions, work relationship and
so on. Thus there could be numerous factors that can lead to development of
stress, anxiety, depression and other psychological problems and disorders
amongst the employees. There could also be other problems that may have their
root cause in the personal life of the employee but might affect the work related
performance of the employee and thus may require counselling.

Besides helping deal with numerous problems, counselling or making counselling

services available also leads to increased morale amongst the employees as they
may feel that the organisation really cares for them and their wellbeing.
Counselling can also be used to promote positive mental health.
36
Thus the focus of counselling in an organisational set up is not jut on the problems Counselling and Behaviour
Modification
on issues but on promoting wellbeing and development of the employees.

Some of the main issues that may call for counselling in an organisational set up
are:

1) Productivity related issues and problems: One of the main issues that
may bring the employee to the notice of the organization and may highlight
the need for counselling is the productivity of the employee. Employee is a
significant resource and if his/ her productivity is affected, then it is matter
of concern to the organisation, as it is directly related to the organisational
out put and profitability. The productivity of an employee can get affected
due to various reasons which could be personal or related to work. It is
possible that the productivity is gone down due to various reasons that are
related to the psychological wellbeing or relationship issues or inability of
the employee to cope with certain situations, which may call for counselling.

2) Conflict: Counselling may also require in case of conflict, for example,

between two employees. Though this will also depend on the organisational
policy but certain conflicts and relationship issues can also be dealt with the
help of counselling.

3) Issues like absenteeism, substance abuse and other behavioural

problems: Employees can also be refer to a counsellor, when he/ she is
displaying absenteeism or is having substance abuse or displaying any other
behavioural problem. This again is in a way related to productivity and
further can also lead to loss or even accidents in an organisational set up.

4) During organisational change and restructuring: Counselling can also

find its application while dealing with the anxieties of the employees when
the organization is going through merger, acquisition or an organisational
chance. Besides individual counselling, group counselling can also be used
with the employees.

5) During career transition: Counselling can not only be used with new
employees in an organization to help them adjust well, but could also be
used with employees who are being promoted to senior levels so as to prepare
them for the role and responsibilities. It can also be used to certain senior
employees who are about to retire, so as to prepare them for this transition.
Counselling can also be used with employees who are being sent abroad, to
another country on an assignment or to the expatriates working in the
organisation.

6) Career Counselling: It can also be used to provide counselling regarding

choice of career or career path to the employees to promote their development
in the organization. Employees could be helped to prepare and develop skills
necessary for next position or for a job position vacant in the organisation.

7) As preventive measure: Counselling techniques can also be used as

preventive measures where the employees on regular basis practice certain
techniques so as to promote positive mental health of the employees and
their overall wellbeing.

37
Interpersonal and Group Issues and challenges in counselling in an organisational set up
Processes
There are various challenges that can interfere with effective application of
counselling in an organisational setup.
1) Pressures and interference from the management: In an organisational
set up besides the employee and the counsellor there is also a third party
that is management. And an effective counsellor will also have to deal with
management. The counsellor may face pressure from the management to
produce the results as per their goals rather than the goals of the employee.
Further, they may also expect faster results, which may not be possible in
all cases as it will depend on the counselling process and the pace at which
the employee is going. The management also will be concerned due to the
cost that they are incurring towards the counselling process and also the
loss of work hours as the employee is not able to function to his/ her fullest.
2) Maintaining confidentiality: As discussed above, confidentiality is one of
the most significant ethical issues and in the case of counselling in an
organisational setup there are limitations to which this can be maintained as
the management may want to know how the employee is coping and other
details. This is a significant challenge that needs to be handled in a very
sensitive manner.
3) Social stigma related to counselling: It is also possible that an employee
may not approach the counsellor due to social stigma, about, what his/ her
colleagues are going to think or they are going to think that he/ she is having
major psychological problem or disorders.
4) Insecurities: The employee may also have insecurities that is the
organisations comes to know about his/ her problem he will loose a
promotions or may even loose his/ her job.
5) Lack of awareness or misconceptions about counselling: Many employee
may not be aware about such facilities available in the organization or may
have numerous misconceptions (for example, that the counsellor will read
their mind) about counselling and the counsellor that may stop them from
seeking any help.
6) Counselling as a part of the organisational structure and process: Most
often the attitude towards counselling is negative and there is social stigma
attached with it. Thus the counsellor will have to make an effort towards
making counselling a part and parcel of the organisational structure and
process. Creating awareness in this regard is also necessary.
7) Diversity in the organisation: Diversity could serve as a challenge, though
psychologists and counsellors specifically are trained to accept the individual
as he/she is without being judgemental. The counsellor also needs to be
conscious about the diversity that exists in the organisation in terms of gender,
culture, religion and even regional backgrounds. Counselling needs to be
carried out keeping this in mind. There could also be employees with
disability and these may also require counselling services. Counselling the
employees with disability can also be a challenge in itself as the nature of
issues/ problems faced by them will be different from those who do not
have disability.
38
8) Multiple and/or conflicting roles: This can mainly occur when a manager Counselling and Behaviour
Modification
is playing a role of a superior as well as that of a counsellor. In this regard
the manager should have clarity in what role he/ she is playing and also
need to prioritise the goals of the counselling and that of organisation. This
is one of the major challenges that is faced by the manager.

Besides having a full time counsellor in an organization, it is also possible

to train the supervisors and managers in basic skills of counselling. This
again can be helpful because these are the people who spend time with the
employees and are thus in better position to identify any change in behaviour
or performance. Further, they may also have a rapport with these employees
which will help them understand and help the employee in the better way.
In certain cases employees may also hesitate to approach the counsellor due
to social stigma and other insecurities. The supervisors and managers could
be trained to handle certain minor issues and could also be informed about
whom they need to refer in case if they feel that they are not in position to
help the individual or the matter is beyond their skills and capacities. It is
also important that a general awareness about psychological problems and
how to seek help needs to be created in an organisational setup.

Recent trends and future prospects for counselling in organisations

Availability of counselling services in industrial set up is not very common in
industries, especially, in India. Though some organisations in some way or the
other are trying to incorporate counselling either by seeking services of private
counselling centres or by training managers and supervisors in barefoot
counselling, where they are taught basic counselling skills and techniques so
that they can help employees deal with their issues and problems. In this as well
there are a number of challenges and issues as discussed above.
Over the years the awareness about counselling amongst the general public and
also amongst the organisations is increasing. There have also been various
developments and trends in this regard.
Some of the recent trends and future prospects for counselling in organisations
are discussed as follows:
1) E-counselling: Given the familiarity with technology and also how often it
is being used by the employees, e-counselling can be effectively used in an
industrial set up. Also most of the industries now can afford the required
technology, that is availability of computers and also internet. Thus
counselling can be carried out via emails or even video chats. This can be
effective in a way as it may save time, the employee will also have enough
time to reflect on his/ her problems and issues that will promote self
awareness. Further, it will be easier for the employee to open up over the
email and the conversations can also be saved for future reference. Though
there are a number of disadvantages as well, like issues related to
confidentiality. Further, the counsellor is not able to observe the non verbal
behaviour of the employee and as such the therapeutic relationship that is
relevant to the counselling process may not adequately develop between
the counsellor and the employee.
2) Group counselling: Though group counselling is predominantly used in
other settings, this can be effectively used in an industrial set up to help deal
39
Interpersonal and Group with certain common issues and problems faced by the employee. In group
Processes
counselling, the individuals need to come from similar background or need
to display similar problems/ issues. In industries where the employees
experience greater amounts of stress and burnout, relaxation techniques,
meditation etc. can be used. Further, group counselling can also be used
with senior employees who are about to retire so that they can be prepared
for life after retirement. Thus employees can not only be trained but also
counselled using group counselling.

3) Counselling to promote positive mental health: Besides using counselling

as a remedy, it can also be used to prevent psychological problems. The
employees can be encouraged to vent out frustration from time to time or an
environment of open communication can be promoted where the employees
can speak out the difficulties, issues, problems faced by them.

4) Counselling for the family members of the employees: Counselling

services of the organization can also be extended to the family members of
the employees. As discussed above the roots of the problems/ issues faced
by the employees could also be in his/her personal life, and it may be possible
that certain family member (s) may also require help/ counselling. It may
also be possible, for example, in case of employee suffering from substance
abuse, that the involvement or support of the family members is necessary
for the counselling process to be successful. Counselling family members
and gaining their trust will also help in dealing with absenteeism and low
productivity on part of the employees. Though in this regard it is very
important that counselling is perceived positively and there is no stigma
attached with it. Counselling can also help the employees achieve work life
balance, thus pay equal attention to work as well as his/ her family.

5) Diversity and Multicultural counselling: This has become requirement

of the day as in any industrial set up there will be employees from all walks
of life, from different religions, caste, region, males and females and
individuals belonging to different age groups. The counsellors needs to be
aware in this regard and should possess necessary skills to help such diverse
group of individuals. The counsellor should also be able to respects and
accept the diversity and be non judgemental in his/ her approach.

6) Use of technology, online training programmes, Massive Open Online

Courses to train employees in counselling skills: In order to train the
employees, especially the managers and supervisors, in counselling skills,
technology and online training programmes can be used.

Besides MOOCs can also be used in order to train the employees in these
skills.

Activity 7
A) Identify any two issues and challenges in counselling in an organisational
set up.
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40
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 Counselling and Behaviour
B) Explain E-counselling. Modification

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C) What is diversity and multicultural counselling?
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14.9 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

Ashok was recently transferred to ABC firm’s office in Mumbai. Though the
Manager did not know much about Ashok she realised that, Ashok was a little
aggressive in his approach and whenever he was expected to work in a team, he
would end up arguing. This was having grave impact on the other team members
and the employees in the firm.
Udit worked as a clerk in accounts department of an organization. Any time a
job was assigned to him, though he would try to do his best, he could never
complete in time and would make lots of errors. This would not only affect his
performance but would also impact the overall work of that department.
In the above case studies it can be seen that something is wrong with the
behaviours of Ashok and Udit that may call for behaviour modification.
Before we try to understand what is behaviour modification, we first need to
understand the term behaviour. Behaviour can be described as any overt
manifestation of the individual. It can be related to what is said or done by the
individual behaviour can be further described in terms of behaviour deficit or
behaviour excesses. Behaviour deficit indicates absence or lack of something,
where as behaviour excesses indicates certain behaviour that is not under control
and is excessive. For example, in a work set up, if an employee is not been able
to adequately interact with others which has resulted in lowering of team
productivity and performance then it can be said that there is behaviour deficit.
On the other hand is an employee has been very aggressive, which has resulted
in damage to the organisational property then this can be termed as behaviour
excessive. Such behaviours can cause problem and need modification.
Behaviour Modification is mainly based on learning theories and there are five
main principles underlying this technique (Rao, 2003):
41
Interpersonal and Group 1) As human behaviour is mainly learned (except in case of maturation process),
Processes
it is possible to modify it.
2) Behaviour can be changed based on the changes in the environment.
3) The principles of social learning can be effectively used to change or modify
behaviour, for example, modelling can be used effectively to change
behaviour (as is done in various advertisements).
4) The behaviour change can be an indicator of effectiveness of counselling or
the behavioural modification process.
5) The counselling or the behaviour modification technique used needs to be
based on the needs of the individual whose behaviour is to be modified.

Behaviour modification involves encouragement of desirable behaviour and

removal or minimisation of behaviour that is undesirable. This can also be done
with the help of reinforcement, which can be positive or negative. Behaviour
modification thus involves techniques that are scientifically tested and can be
used to reduce certain behaviours that are maladaptive in nature and increase
behaviours that are healthy or adaptive.

The first reference to behaviour modification can be traced to an article written

by Thorndike in 1911 titled “Provisional Laws of Acquired Behaviour or Learning
in which he referred to ‘modifying behaviour’. Various learning theories like
Classical conditioning by Pavlov, Operant Conditioning by Skinner and social
learning theory by Bandura further contributed to the development of this field.
Various experiments were carried out by Skinner that indicated that behaviour
could be modified with the help of reinforcements (both positive and negative).

Concepts in Behaviour Modification

Let us understand the significant concepts in this regard
• Law of effect: One of the main principles of behaviour modification is that
the behaviour mainly depends of its outcome. Thus if the outcome is
controlled or manipulated the behaviour can also be managed. For example,
if the out come of tantrums by a child is gaining of the toy he/she wanted
then the likelihood of this behaviour (of throwing tantrums) being repeated
is high. But if the outcome is manipulated then this behaviour can be changed.
Thus the law of effect has significantly contributed to behaviour modification.
Law of effect states that “a person tends to repeat behaviour that is
accompanied by favourable consequences and tends to not repeat behaviour
that is accompanied by unfavourable consequences (Newstrom and Davis,
1997, pg 132). Thus this also requires the counsellor or the immediate
superior or manager of the employee to identify the possible consequences
that need to be modified or manipulated. In this regard either positive or
negative reinforcement can be suitably used.

• Positive reinforcement and shaping: Using positive reinforcement

increases the likelihood that the behaviour that is reinforced will be repeated.
“A positive reinforcement is a stimulus or event which, when it follows a
response, increases the likelihood that the response will be made again
(Morgan et al, 1996, pg 149). For example, if an employees is punctual then
this behaviour can be reinforced by his/ her manager/ supervisor by
42
 recognising it and even verbally complementing the employee. Yet another Counselling and Behaviour
Modification
concept in this context is that of shaping. This mainly involves application
of positive reinforcement in a more systematic and gradual manner. This
can help shape the behaviour of the employee. For example, when a new
recruit joins, the manager can systematically and gradually shape his/her
behaviour towards becoming more productive by giving positive
reinforcement as and when the right behaviour is displayed by him/her.
Rewards can also be effectively used to promote right behaviours.

• Negative reinforcement and punishment : Using negative reinforcement

increases the likelihood that the behaviour that is reinforced will not be
repeated. “A negative reinforcer is a stimulus or event which, when its
cessation or termination is contingent on a response, increases the likelihood
that the response will occur again” (Morgan et al, 1996, pg 149) This mainly
involves removal of an outcome that is not favourable. For example in order
to avoid the smell of chemicals the employee is encouraged to use a mask.
In this case the use of a safety device that is mask is reinforced due to the
negative reinforcement that is created by the smell of the chemicals.

Punishment is not same as negative reinforcement and in punishment, the

behaviour is followed by outcome that is not favourable. “ A punisher is a
stimulus or event which, when its onset is contingent on a response, decreases
the likelihood that the response will occur again” (Morgan et al, 1996, pg
150). For example, if an employee has not been following the safety norms
then he/ she has to pay a fine. Punishment have its own advantages and
disadvantages. Whee on one hand it conveys strong message, on the other,
the punisher may not be liked by others or the employee or subordinates.

• Extinction: It is also to be noted that if a particular reinforced behaviour is

not reinforced, extinction of that behaviour could take place due to lack of
reinforcement. For example, an employee who was earlier awarded for his/
her innovative ideas, was not reinforced recently when he/ she came up
with a creative solution to an impending problem, then this behaviour is
likely to become extinct. Thus the managers also need to be cautious in this
regard so as to avoid certain favourable behaviours of the employees from
going extinct.

Schedules of reinforcement
When we talk about reinforcement, it is also necessary to understand that there
are two types of reinforcement, continuous reinforcement that is received every
time a correct response is given, which may not be practically possible in day to
day life, esp. in an organisational setup. The other is intermittent schedules of
reinforcement where reinforcement is given after a particular period of time or
after a number of responses. There are four main schedules of reinforcement that
can be discussed in this context.

1) Fixed interval: In this the reinforcement is provided after a particular period

of time. In this the reinforcement is provided only after a certain time period,
no matter how many times the response or behaviour has occurred during
the time period. Thus there is a fixed time period after which the
reinforcement is given. For example, receiving the salary end of every month.

43
Interpersonal and Group The salary is given on the monthly basis whether or not the person has
Processes
performed to his/ her best once or more than once.

2) Variable interval: In this, as the name suggests, the the interval varies. In
this case the interval may be provided in certain cases after one month or
after 15 days or after two months and so on. There is no fixed time period.
That is, the reinforcement is provided during varied time periods. For
example, on a workshop floor where the employees are working, the manager
or the superior may visit any time, if the employee is working hard (or at
least seems to be working hard), he/ she will get recognition. Thus, here the
reinforcement received is completely random.

3) Fixed ratio: In this the reinforcement is given only after there are a particular
amount of correct responses. Thus in this case it is pre decided that if the
desired response or behaviour occurs say 20 times then the reinforcement is
provided. For example, if the employee achieves his/ her target of say, selling
1000 units of a product then he/ she is given an incentive.

4) Variable ratio: In this case the reinforcement is given after a particular

amount of correct responses but this is not fixed and can vary. Thus in this
case sometimes the reinforcement is given after the desired response or
behaviour is displayed once or after ten times or after 20 times and so on.
There is no fixed number of times as in fixed ratio. For example, the bonus
or incentive will be received by the employee either after he/she achieves a
target of selling 100 units or a product or 1000 units or 5000 units.

Using each of these has its own advantage and disadvantage and these should
be used in an organisational set up based on different desired and undesired
behaviours. For example, with regard to reinforcing effective performance,
a fixed ratio reinforcement can be used especially, in sales related job
positions. Where as while for continued use of safety devices, variable
interval can be used where there could be checking any time and the
employees who are using safety devices would be reinforced.

Further, in this context it is also necessary to mention that the reinforcement

could be monetary or non monetary. This will again depend on a number of
factors like the job position, and the value that is attached by the employee
to the reinforcement or the reward.

The principles and techniques of behaviour modification can be effectively

used in an industrial setup in order to modify the behaviour of the employees.

Activity 8
A) Explain Law of Effect.
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44
 Counselling and Behaviour
B) Differentiate between positive and negative reinforcement. Modification
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C) Give examples for the fours schedules of reinforcement.
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14.10 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION PROCESS

The behaviour modification process is discussed as follows:

1) Setting of the goal: The main goal of behaviour modifications is bringing

about a change in behaviour, as discussed before, this change can be in
terms of a behaviour that is newly developed like learning a new skill or
further strengthening of a behaviour, for example, a person may have
leadership skills but they can be further enhanced. It can also include
maintenance of a particular behaviour like safety related behaviour and
practices or hygienic behaviour and last but not the least, decreasing or
eliminating the unwanted behaviour, aggressive behaviour, for example,
can be completely eliminated.

2) Behavioural Assessment: As discussed above, before the behaviour

modification process is started, the goal has to be whether behaviour is to
be strengthened or reduce or a new behaviour is to be developed or a
particular behaviour is to be maintained is to be decided. This can be decided
based on the behavioural assessment. A behavioural assessment will help
understand the problem in a better manner. This assessment includes the
following:
– Frequency: How frequent is the behaviour. For example, if a person
has been aggressive just once, we can say that it was due to the situation
and the person may not be as such aggressive by nature. But if the person
has been aggressive a number of times then this is a matter of concern.
– Duration: For how long the behaviour has been persistent is also
important to be noted. For example, the duration that the employee has
been aloof or upset or displaying lack of interest in job related activities.
– Intensity: This has to do with the severity of the behaviour. For example,
how extreme was the aggressiveness displayed by the employee.
45
Interpersonal and Group The behaviour is further analysed with the help of functional analysis, that
Processes
can be done using ABC,
A, that stands for Antecedent, that is, what happened before the behaviour
B, stands for Behaviour, the behaviour of the employee
C, stands for consequences. What happened after the behaviour.
3) The intervention or techniques that could be used are specified: To
suggest or specify a particular intervention or technique it is necessary that
– the antecedent factors are mentioned and described,
– the consequences are also noted down,
– the goals of behaviour modification are specified and,
– target response that requires to be changed is noted
Once this is done then suitable technique for behaviour modification can be
used.

4) Evaluation and followup: Evaluation and follow up are carried out to see
if any change in the behaviour has taken place or not. If there are no changes
in the behaviour after use of a particular intervention or technique, the same
can be changed or modified.

Activity 9
Explain behavioural assessment.
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14.11 ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

MODIFICATION (OBM)
OBM can be defied as “a programme in which manager identifies a work related
behaviour and encourages the same by suitable intervention strategy having
positive motivation till the undesirable behaviour is weakened and desirable
behaviour is strengthened” (Singh, 2003 pg 330).

Organisational Behaviour Modification (OBM) can be described as a form of

operant conditioning that mainly used by Lutherans and Kreitner in order to
shape the behaviours of the employees (Quick, Nelson and Khandelwal, 2013).
Stajkovic and Lutherans (1997) carried out a meta analysis of the effect of OBM
on task performance. The review indicated that OBM had a positive and significant
effect on the task performance of employees in both service and manufacturing
organisations.

46
OBM can be effectively applied in an organisational set up in order to: Counselling and Behaviour
Modification
• Improve employee productivity
• Promote discipline amongst the employees
• Ensure and enhance the safety related behaviour of the employees.
• Development of training programs
• Employee self management
OBM also helps the immediate supervisors or managers to carry out an analysis
of the employees’ behaviour, the reasons for its occurrence and consequences so
that it can be changed. Thus the manager/ supervisor can become more observant
and learn to carefully monitor employee behaviour. In this context some of the
general principles to be followed by the manager/ supervisor (Newstrom and
Davis, 1997) are highlighted as follows:
1) The behaviour that needs modification has to be identified: The manager/
supervisor has to first identify the behaviour that requires modification. For
example, if the employee has been frequently smoking in the workshop
area, thus violating the norm of not smoking, this is the behaviour that needs
modification.
2) Using positive reinforcement whenever possible and sparingly using
punishment: Positive reinforcements should be used more often and
punishments should be avoided and to be used only when absolutely
necessary.
3) Certain minor behaviours that are undesirable could be ignored: Certain
behaviours that do not have major repercussions or negative consequences
could be ignored. This again will depend on the judgement of the manager/
supervisor.
4) Shaping can be adequately used: Systematic and gradual positive
reinforcement can be used effectively to reinforce desirable behaviour.
5) The time between the correct response or behaviour and the
reinforcement should be minimal: This is especially important as the
employee will then associate the reinforcement with the behaviour and only
then the likelihood of desirable behaviour being repeated and undesirable
behaviour being avoided will increase. For example, if an employee achieved
a target given to him in given time, then he/ she should be immediately
rewarded.
6) Reinforcement should be frequently provided: This is also to be done to
avoid extinction of behaviours besides to encourage desirable behaviours
and discourage undesirable behaviours.

Role of Manager in application of OBM

The role of the manager and is extremely important in this context and besides
above there certain other guidelines are to be followed by them (Furnham, 2005),
these are discussed as follows:
1) All the employees should not be reinforced or rewarded in the same manner.
In this regard there is no doubt that the manager has to be fair and just.
However, the reinforcement or the reward should be linked to the individual
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Interpersonal and Group performance or based on some criteria also needs to be informed to the
Processes
employees before hand. Further, the reinforcement provided should also
match the behaviour or the performance output.

2) The employees need to know what is expected of them, only then they will
be motivated to work in that direction. They should have a fair idea about
whether quality, quantity or both is expected and how exactly they perform
will be measured. There should be great transparency in this and further no
discrimination should exist to ensure successful behavioural modification.

3) Besides informing the employees about what they are doing in a right manner,
they also need to be informed of what they are doing wrong. For example, if
an employee is not using safety devices, he/ she needs to be informed that it
is wrong. Such feedback will help in bringing about behavioural change.

4) As it is said, praise in public but criticise in a closed room. In same lines any
unwarranted behaviour preferably should be criticised or punished in absence
of others as otherwise there could be detrimental effects as the employee
may feel insulted and the necessary change will not be in the direction that
it was expected.

The managers/ supervisors need to be adequately trained to use the principles

and techniques of OBM in order for it to be effective. Besides the managers/
supervisor as well as the employees and the management should have positive
attitude towards OBM and its application.

Criticisms of Organisational Behaviour Modification

Though to a greater extent organisational behaviour modification can be
effectively used to modify behaviour, it has also been criticised. Most often the
principles of behaviour modifications can be applied to very controlled situation,
however, when it comes to situations involving subtle interactions and
performances that are necessarily interdependent, it may not be possible to apply
behaviour modification. This can be effectively used with workers or employees
at lower levels, but not mush evidence is available with regard to how it can be
used successfully with higher level employees (Mckenna, 2012). OBM has also
been criticised due to ethical issues, as it mainly involves manipulation of
behaviour or even punishment and in this context what is right or wrong depends
on the manager or superior. This can also be misused by the managers and they
may abuse this power to control the behaviours of their subordinates. It is thus
necessary that the manipulation of the behaviour is done in a constructive and
positive manner.

Activity 10
A) Define Organisational Behaviour Modification.
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 Counselling and Behaviour
B) Discuss the role of managers in application of OBM. Modification
..............................................................................................................
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14.12 SUMMARY
To summarise, in the present unit we discussed about counselling and behaviour
modification.

Counselling can be described as interaction between two individuals, one of the

them is a counsellor who posses the necessary expertise and competence and the
other is the individual, who is having certain issues and problems and needs help
in dealing with them. Counselling plays an important role in an organisational
set up in helping employees deal with various personal and work related issues.
Availability of counselling services in an organisation can help deal with
absenteeism, stress and anxiety experienced by the employees, depression and
psychological issues faced by the employees, work place conflict, aggression
and so on. The performance and productivity of an employee can also be increased
with the help of counselling. Though there are a number of challenges and issues
that a counsellor may face in an industrial set up. The present unit covered the
definition of counselling along with its functions and types. The difference
between counselling and guidance and psychotherapy was also discussed. Further,
various approaches to counselling were also dealt with. The unit also covered
the stages in counselling and counselling skills essential to help the individuals.
The ethical issues like autonomy, beneficence and non maleficence, informed
consent, confidentiality and privacy and justice, that are significant in counselling
set up were also discussed. The unit also described how counselling is effectively
applied in an organisational set up and the issues, challenges and trends in this
context.

In the next section of this unit, yet another significant topic of behaviour
modification was discussed. Behaviour Modification is mainly based on based
on learning theories and as such B. F. Skinner has made significant contributions
to this filed. Behaviour modifications follows the use of reinforcements in
modification of behaviour. It can be effectively used in an organisational set up
to promote desirable behaviour and discourage undesirable behaviour. For
example, safety related behaviours of the employees can be promoted and
behaviours that may affect the productivity and interfere or compromise the
production or functioning of the organisation. In behaviour modification various
significant concepts along with the schedules of reinforcement, namely, fixed
interval, variable interval, fixed ratio and variable ratio were discussed. The stages
of behaviour modification were also discussed.

The unit also focused on the role of manager and the management is of extreme
importance in this context as they have to firmly believe in these practices and
49
Interpersonal and Group also support in its effective implementation. Further, the need for adequate
Processes
awareness (about counselling and behaviour modification) also needs to be created
amongst the employees, was also highlighted. The organisational behaviour
modification that mainly focuses on the application of behaviour modification
to an organisational set up was also discussed in the unit.

14.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Define counselling and differentiate it from guidance and psychotherapy.
2) Describe various functions and types of counselling.
3) Explain various stages in counselling process.
4) Describe various approaches to counselling.
5) Discuss the ethical issues in counselling.
6) Discuss issues and challenges in counselling in organisational set up.
7) Explain behaviour modification.
8) Describe Organisational Behaviour Modification (OBM).

14.14 FURTHER READINGS

Farnham, Adrian (2005). The Psychology of behaviour at Work: the Individual
in the Organization. East Sussex: Psychology Press.
McKenna, Eugene. (2012). Business Psychology and Organisational behaviour.
New York: Psychology press page 631).
Morgan, C. T; King, R. A; Weisz, J.R and Schopler, J. (1996). New Delhi: Tata
McGraw- Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Nelson-Jones, Richard (2012). Basic Counselling Skills: A Helper’s Manual.
New Delhi: Sage
Neukurg, Ed. (2012). An Introduction to the Counselling profession. United
States: Brooks/ Cole Cengage Learning.
Newstrom, J. W and Davis, K. (1997). Organizational Behaviour: Human
Behaviour at Work. New Delhi: Tata McGraw- Hill publishing company limited.
Perez, J. F. (165). Counselling: theory and Practice, Reading: Addison- Welley
page 15. Pepinsky, H. B and pepinsky, P. (1954). Counselling: theory and Practice.
New York: The Ronald Press page 3.
Quick, J. C; Nelson, D. L and Khandelwal, P. (2013). Organisational behaviour.
New Delhi: Cengage Learning.
Rao, S. Narayana. (2003). Counselling and Guidance. New Delhi: Tata McGraw
Hill.
Scott, D.A; Royal, C. W; Kissinger, D. B. ( 2015). Counsellor as Consultant.
New Delhi: Sage.
Singh, Nirmal. ( 2003). Organisational behaviour: Concepts, theory and Practices.
New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.
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Strajkovic, A. D and Lutherans, F. (1997). A Meta- Analysis of the Effects of Counselling and Behaviour
Modification
Organisational behaviour Modification on Task Performance, 1975- 1995.
Academy of Management Journal. 40. 1122-1149.
Thorndike, E.L. (1911). Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning.
Animal Intelligence. New York: The McMillian Company.
Gelso, Charles and Fretz, Bruce. (2001). Counselling Psychology: Practice, Issues
and Intervention. United States: Cengage Learning.
Nelson- Jones, Richard. ( 2015). Theory and Practice of Counselling and
Psychotherapy. New Delhi: Sage.
Parsons, R. D and Zhang Naijian. (2014). Counselling Theory: Guiding Reflective
Practice. New Delhi: Sage

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