PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
URDANETA CITY, PANGASINAN
FIRST SEMESTER
A.Y. 2021-2022

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PIPES

MT-02
DG
DATE DUE: NOVEMBER 20, 2021

SISON, JAMAICA C.
SEAT NO: 49

AR. ALDWIN M. CASTILLO

INSTRUCTOR
 Types of Pipes | Classification of Pipes
Written by Anup Kumar Deyin Engineering Materials,Piping Design Basics

Pipes are defined as circular tubular products used for conveying fluids (liquids, gases, and
fluidized solids). Pipes are designed for a particular design pressure corresponding to design
temperature. Various parameters related to pipes are Pipe Size, Pipe Schedule or thickness, Pipe
Material, Pressure withstanding capability, Temperature withstanding capability, etc. Different
types of pipes are used in the industrial sector for different purposes. Common industries that
find extensive use of pipes are oil and gas, process industries, chemical and petrochemical
complexes, food and beverage industries, power sectors, steel industries, HVAC industries,
plumbing industries, pipeline industries, refineries, etc. Today, the use of pipes is so wide that
modern industrial plants cannot be thought of without pipes. Types of pipes are decided based on
various factors. In this article, we will explore different types of pipes that are widely used in
industries.

Types of plumbing pipes

Commonly used pipes for plumbing system are listed below.
1. Cast Iron (CI) pipes
2. Ductile iron pipes
3. Steel pipes
4. Galvanized Iron (GI) pipes
5. Copper pipes
6. Asbestos Cement (AC) pipes
7. Concrete pipes
8. Stone ware pipes
9. PVC pipes
Cast Iron pipes (CI pipes)
These are mostly used as pressure pipes for transmission of water, gas and sewage and as water
drainage pipes
CI pipes have the following advantages—
(a) They are cheaper in cost.
(b) They have more resistance to rust and corrosion.
(c) They are highly durable.
CI pipes are uniform in thickness. Special care needs to be taken during carrying and shifting,
and joining of CI pipes, to prevent damage.
Precautions
(i) The socket spigot ends must be dry.
(ii) Always caulk or seal the joint as soon as it solidifies.

Ductile Iron pipes

These pipes are used for transmission and distribution of potable water.
They are made of ductile iron and are an improved version of Cast Iron pipes.

Steel pipes
These are popular due to their strength and light weight, as compared to CI pipes. Adequate
preventive measures are required so as to save these pipes from adverse atmospheric conditions.
Use of steel pipes in the water supply system is recommended when pipes are to bear more
pressure (i.e., above 7 kg/cm2) and when the diameter needs to be large.
Galvanized Iron (GI) pipes
These pipes are mostly used inside the building for water supply work. A zinc coating is made on
wrought steel pipes. These pipes are manufactured in light, medium and heavy grade category, as
per the thickness of the metal. For a 15 mm diameter GI pipe, the pipe thickness is kept as 2.0
mm, 2.65 mm and 3.25 mm respectively for the light, medium and heavy category. Mostly, the
medium grade type pipes are preferred for internal plumbing work in a building. Screw and
socket joints are mostly applied in GI pipes.
Precautions
(i) Ensure that burrs around the pipes are removed before threading.
(ii) Use oil or lubrication during threading.
(iii) Rotate the die stock clockwise and anticlockwise while cutting threads on the pipe, so as to
remove clips from the die.
(iv) The threaded portion should not be cut with a pipe cutter; always use a hacksaw for this
work.
Copper pipes
These are mostly used for hot water installation requirements. They have high tensile strength.
These are made from thin copper sheet and can be folded easily. Chromium is coated on copper
pipes for better appearance.
Asbestos Cement (AC) pipes
For removal of water (from the roofs), soil and waste, and for purifying the air, asbestos cement
pipes are used. Two types of AC pipes are made— one with a beading around the socket (With
Beading), and the other without beading around socket (Without Beading). The Without Beading
around socket (WOB) type is mostly preferred over the one with beading.
These pipes are available in the range of three meters of length. They are heavy and can break
easily. The cost of these pipes is less than the PVC pipes. Nowadays, AC pipes are being
replaced by PVC pipes.
Concrete pipes
As the name suggests, concrete pipes are made of plain concrete (mixture of broken stone or
gravel, sand, cement and water), which is considered to be one of the strongest and most durable
building material. Concrete pipes also come in different categories like unreinforced pipes,
reinforced pipes and pre-stressed pipes. While the unreinforced pipes are made of only concrete,
reinforced pipes contain iron mesh in addition to concrete, and pre-stressed pipes have iron rings
at different intervals without any mesh.
Small diameters of unreinforced pipes, reinforced and pre-stressed pipes of large diameters, are
manufactured for various uses as well as for water supply. Small unreinforced concrete pipes are
mostly used for removal of water. For water supply works, pipes with bigger diameters are used.
Stone Ware (SW) pipes
These are made of clay, and are primarily used in sewerage system for underground drainage,
industrial drainage, irrigation, chemical industry for transporting the highly corrosive chemical,
etc. Stone Ware (SW) pipes are mostly used to carry night soil and effluent water. These pipes
are laid below the surface. The pipes should be laid on regular surfaces as they are rigid in
nature.
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) pipes
These pipes are mostly used for carrying water in the plumbing system and are light in weight,
non-corrosive, cheaper in cost and need not require any threading for joining connections. It
makes them easily acceptable in the market.
Chlorinated PVC (CPVC) pipes
These pipes can be used for higher temperatures up to 120°C, and are therefore suitable for
supplying hot water and are mostly used in industrial liquid application.
Precautions
(i) The water supply and waste disposal pipes should not be laid very close to each other.
(ii) Ensure that there is no back flow of water through the pipes towards the source of water
supply.
(iii) Avoid any cross connection between the water supply pipes and waste carrying pipes.
(iv) Pipe joints should be properly tightened in the pipeline for getting maximum water pressure.
(v) During installation of pipelines and waste water pipes, proper slope should be given.
(vi) For developing an underground pipeline, good quality of GI pipes, i.e., Class C pipes should
be used.
Polypropylene pipes
These are manufactured with polypropylene ‘random copolymer’. Polypropylene pipes are
primarily used for carrying hot water and cold water supply conduits, industrial pipelines, etc.
(Fig. 3.13).
(a) Unplasticised PVC (UPVC) or rigid pipes are used for cold water.
(b) Plasticised PVC pipes are made with mixing of rubber material. It has low strength and can
work in low heat conditions than UPVC pipes.
PEX or XLPE
This type of pipe is made of specialized polyethylene and is used in building services, pipework
system, domestic water piping, transportation of sewage, slurries and chemical transportation as
well as for natural gas and offshore oil applications.
In water discharge system pipes, the thickness of the soil and waste discharge pipes should be
larger than the pipes used for roof drainage. Mostly, hard PVC pipes are always used for supply
of water with temperature less than 45°C. At a higher temperature, the strength of the pipes
reduces. The strength of PVC pipes reduces due to ultraviolet radiations from the sun as well as
changes in atmospheric temperature. PEX or XLPE pipes are costlier than AC pipes and cheaper
than GI pipes.
Unplasticised Polyvinyl pipes
These are primarily used in ventilation pipework, rainwater applications and waste water
discharge system. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) material is used for making pipes for
municipal and industrial water discharge systems. Polyethylene density is classified into three
types:
• Low Density Polyethylene raw material (LDPE)
• Medium Density Polyethylene raw materials (MDPE)
• High Density Polyethylene raw materials (HDPE)
The properties of HDPE pipes are—
(a) They are resistant to weather conditions.
(b) They have high resistance to tearing and pressure conditions.
(c) They are non-toxic in nature.
(d) They are suitable for carrying radioactive wastes.

Pipe Laying
It is an important process in plumbing. The steps involved in laying of pipes are:
1. Before installation of a new pipeline in the building, a layout plan of water distribution of the
pipes from the storage water tank is prepared.
2. Line of alignment of the pipes are maintained properly.
3. Chalk marking or powdered marking is done with the help of a thread or rope, on the proposed
area of wall.
4. Pipes are fixed horizontally or vertically as required from the source of main water.
5. Threading in the pipelines is carefully done so that joints are well settled and leakage is
prevented.
6. Jute and white paste are properly applied over the threaded portion to prevent leakage and for
having watertight joints.
7. Efforts are made to keep the number of joints on the pipeline as minimum as possible.
8. The size of the pipes is selected according to the length of the service pipeline, minimum
pressure of water in the distribution main, type of plumbing fixtures, i.e., elbows, bends unions,
T-joints used in the building, rate of flow and highest point of delivery above the distribution
main.
Pipe Types based on Material
Pipes are normally classified based on the material which is used to produce the pipe during
manufacturing. In general, there are two types of pipes:
1. Metallic Pipes and
2. Non-metallic Pipes
Metallic Pipes
The pipes made of metal are known as metallic pipes. They can be grouped into two categories:
 Pipes made from ferrous materials, and
 Pipes made from non-ferrous materials

Type of Pipes made from ferrous materials:

These types of pipes are stronger and heavier. These pipes have iron as their main constituent
element. Common examples of pipes made from ferrous materials are
 Carbon steel pipes
 Stainless steel pipes
 Alloy steel pipes
 DSS pipes
 Cast Iron pipes
 Ductile Iron pipes, etc
This category of pipes is suitable for higher temperature and pressure applications. Most of the
pipes used in the oil and gas, refinery, chemical, petrochemical, power plants, etc. are made of
ferrous materials.

Steel pipes are widely used in the process-piping industries. Various grades of steel pipes are
available in processing plants.

Carbon Steel Pipes
(Temperature Range -29 degree centigrade(C) to 427 degrees C) 

This is the most common and cheapest material used in process plants. Carbon steels are used in
the most general refinery applications. It is routinely used for most organic chemicals and neutral
or basic aqueous solutions at moderate temperatures. Carbon steels are extensively used in a
temperature range of (-) 29 degrees centigrade to 4270 centigrade  

Low-Temperature Carbon steel (LTCS) pipes

(LTCS-Temp range -45.5 degree C to 427 degrees C)
LTCS can be used at a low temperature of (- 45.5) degrees centigrade.   Killed Carbon Steel is
defined as those which are thoroughly deoxidized during the melting process. DE oxidation is
accomplished by the use of silicon, manganese, and aluminum additions to combine with
dissolved gases, usually, oxygen, during steelmaking. This results in cleaner, better quality steel
which has fewer gas pockets and inclusions. Killed carbon steel is specified for major equipment
in the following services to minimize the possibility or extent of hydrogen blistering and
hydrogen embrittlement:    

 Where hydrogen is a major component in the process stream.

 Where hydrogen sulfide H2S is present with an aqueous phase or where liquid water
containing H2S is present.
 Process streams containing any amount of Hydrofluoric acid (HF), boron trifluoride
(BF3) or  (BF) compounds; or
 Monoethanolamine (MEA) and diethanolamine (DEA) in solutions of greater than 5
weight percent.

Low Alloy Steel Pipe

(Temperature range -29 degree C to 593 degrees C)

Low Alloy Steel pipes contain one or more alloying elements to improve the mechanical or
corrosion-resisting properties of carbon steel. Nickel increases toughness and improves low-
temperature properties & corrosion resistance. Chromium and silicon improve hardness, abrasion
resistance, corrosion resistance, and resistance to oxidation. Molybdenum provides strength at
elevated temperatures. Some of the low alloy steels are listed below.  

Carbon   1/2% Moly and Manganese   1/2% Moly:

These low alloy steels are used for higher temperature services and most frequently for
intermediate temperatures for their resistance to hydrogen attack. They have the same maximum
temperature limitation as killed steel (ASME Code   1000 deg. F) but the strength above 700 deg.
F is substantially greater.

1% chrome   1/2% Moly and 1 1/4% Chrome   1/2% Moly:

These alloys are used for higher resistance to hydrogen attack and sulfur corrosion. They are also
used for services where temperatures are above the rated temperature for C   1/2 Mo steel.

2 1/4 Chrome 1% Moly and 3% chrome   1% Moly: 

These alloys have the same uses as 1 1/4% Cr but have greater resistance to hydrogen attack and
higher strength at elevated temperatures.

5% chrome   1/2% Moly:

This alloy is used most frequently for protection against combined sulfur attacks at temperatures
above 550 deg. F. Its resistance to hydrogen attack is better than 2 1/4% Cr_ 1% Moly.
9% Chrome 1% Moly:
This alloy is generally limited to heater tubes. It has a higher resistance to high sulfur stocks at
elevated temperatures. It also has a maximum allowable metal temperature in oxidizing
atmospheres.

Stainless Steel Pipes
(Temperature range -257 degree C to 538 degrees C)

They are heat & corrosion resistant, non-contaminating, and easily fabricated into complex
shapes. There are three groups of Stainless steel.

1. Martensitic Stainless Steel

2. Ferritic Stainless Steel and
3. Austenitic Stainless Steel

Martensitic stainless steel pipes

Martensitic alloys contain 12-20 percent chromium with a controlled amount of carbon and other
additives. Type 410 is a typical member of this group. These alloys can be hardened by heat
treatment, which can increase tensile strength. Corrosion resistance is inferior to Austenitic
Stainless steel and these are generally used in mildly corrosive environments.

Ferritic stainless steel pipes

Ferritic steels contain 15-30 per cent chromium with low carbon content
(0.1percent). The higher chromium content improves its corrosion resistance. A
typical member of this group is Type 430. The strength of these can be increased by
cold working but not by heat treatment. Type 430 is widely used in nitric acid
plants. In addition, it is very resistant to scaling and high temp oxidation up to 800-
degree cent

Austenitic stainless steel pipes

Austenitic steels are the most corrosion-resistant of the three groups. These steels contain 16-26
percent of chromium 6-22 percent nickel. Carbon is kept low (0.08 percent max) to minimize
carbide precipitation. Welding may cause chromium carbide precipitation, which depletes the
alloy of some chromium and lowers its corrosion resistance in some specific environments,
notably nitric acid. The carbide precipitation can be eliminated by heat treatment (solution
annealing). To avoid precipitation special steels stabilized with titanium, niobium, or tantalum
have been developed (Types 321,347 & 348). Another approach to the problem is the use of low
carbon stainless steel such as types 304L & 316L with .03 percent max carbon.

The addition of molybdenum to austenitic alloy (types 316, 316L) provides generally better
corrosion resistance and improved resistance to pitting.   The chromium-nickel steels,
particularly the 18-8 alloys, perform best under oxidizing conditions since the resistance depends
on an oxide film on the surface of the alloy. Reducing conditions and chloride ions destroy this
and bring on the rapid attack. Chloride ions tend to cause pitting and crevice corrosion. When
combined with high tensile stresses they can cause stress-corrosion cracking.

Type of Pipes made from Non-ferrous materials:

In this group of pipes, iron is not the main constituent element. They are usually made of copper,
aluminum, brass, etc. Common pipes made from non-ferrous materials are

 Aluminum and Aluminum alloy pipes.

 Copper and copper alloy pipes.
 Nickel and Nickel alloy pipes.
 Titanium and titanium alloy pipes.
 Zirconium and Zirconium alloy pipes.

Common Non-Ferrous Materials used in Process Piping Industry

Pipes made of Plastic materials
In comparison with metallic materials, the use of plastics is limited to relatively moderate
temperatures and pressures [230deg C (450deg F) is considered high for plastics]. Plastics are
also less resistant to mechanical abuse and have high expansion rates, low strengths
(thermoplastics), and only fair resistance to solvents. However, they are lightweight, are good
thermal and electrical insulators, are easy to fabricate and install and have low friction factors.
Since plastics do not corrode in the electrochemical sense, they offer another advantage over
metals. The important thermoplastics used commercially are polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), fluorocarbons (Teflon, Halar, Kel-F, Kynar), and polypropylene. Important thermosetting
plastics are general-purpose polyester glass-reinforced, bisphenol-based polyester glass, epoxy
glass, vinyl ester glass, furan, and phenolic glass, and asbestos reinforced. While using non-
metallic piping, viz HDPE, PVC, FRP, etc, the designer shall take care of the service, pressure &
temperature. The manufacturer’s recommendation shall be taken into account.
Thermoplastic Pipes
The most chemical-resistant plastic commercially available today is tetrafluoroethylene or TFE
(Teflon). This thermoplastic is practically unaffected by all alkalies and acids except fluorine and
chlorine gas at elevated temperatures and molten metals. It retains its properties up to 260 deg C
(500 deg F). Perfluoroalkoxy, or PFA (Teflon), has the general properties and chemical
resistance of FEP at a temperature approaching 300 deg C (600 deg F). Polyethylene is the
lowest-cost plastic commercially available. Mechanical properties are generally poor,
particularly above 50 deg C (120 deg F), and the pipe must be fully supported. Carbon-filled
grades are resistant to sunlight and weathering. Polypropylene has a chemical resistance about
the same as that of polyethylene, but it can be used at 120 deg C (250 deg F).
Thermosetting plastic Pipes
Among the thermosetting materials are phenolic plastics filled with asbestos, carbon or graphite,
glass, and silica. Relatively low cost, good mechanical properties, and chemical resistance
(except against strong alkalies) make phenolics popular for chemical equipment. Furan plastics
filled with asbestos and glass have much better alkali resistance than phenolic resins. Polyester
resins reinforced with fiberglass, have good strength and good chemical resistance except to
alkalies. Epoxies reinforced with fiberglass have very high strengths and resistance to heat. The
chemical resistance of the epoxy resin is excellent in non-oxidizing and weak acids but not good
against strong acids. Alkaline resistance is excellent in weak solutions.
Pipes produced from Rubber and elastomers
Rubber and elastomers are widely used as lining materials. The ability to bond natural rubber to
itself and to steel makes it ideal for lining tanks. Natural rubber is resistant to dilute mineral
acids, alkalies, and salts, but oxidizing media, oils, and most organic solvents will attack it. Hard
rubber is made by adding 25 percent or more sulfur to natural or synthetic rubber and, as such, is
both hard and strong. Chloroprene or neoprene rubber is resistant to attack by ozone, sunlight,
oils, gasoline, and aromatic or hydrogenated solvents, but is easily permeated by water, thus
limiting its use as a tank lining. Nitrile rubber is known for its resistance to oils and solvents.
Butyl rubber’s resistance to dilute mineral acids and alkalies is exceptional. Hypalon has
outstanding resistance to ozone and oxidizing agents except fuming nitric and sulphuric acids.
Fluoroelastomers (Viton-A, Kel-F, Kalrez) combine excellent chemical and temperature
resistance.
Medium Alloys
A group of (mostly) proprietary alloys with somewhat better corrosion resistance than stainless
steel are called medium alloys. A popular member of this group is 20alloy. Made by a number of
companies under various trade names. Durimet 20, Carpenter 20 are a few names. This alloy was
originally developed to fill the need for a material with sulphuric resistance superior to stainless
steel. Other members of this group are Incoloy 825 and Hastelloy G-3. These alloys have
extensive applications in sulphuric acid systems. Because of their increased nickel and moly
contents, they are more tolerant of chloride-ion contamination than standard stainless steel. The
nickel content decreases the risk of stress-corrosion cracking and molybdenum improves
resistance to crevice corrosion and pitting.
High alloys
The group of materials called high alloys all contain a relatively large percentage of Nickel.
Hastelloy B2 contains 61% Nickel & 28% Mo. The alloy has unusually very high resistance to
all concentrations of HCL at all temperatures in the absence of oxidizing agents. Other materials
of this group are Chlorimet 2 & Hastelloy C-276.
Nickel & Nickel alloy Pipes
The metal is widely used for handling alkalies particularly in handling and storing caustic soda.
Neutral alkaline solutions, seawater, and mild atmospheric conditions do not affect nickel. A
large number of nickel-based alloys are commercially available. One of the best known out of
these is Monel 400 with 67% Ni and 30 % Copper. This Ni-Cu alloy is ductile and tough. Its
corrosion resistance is better than its components, being more resistant than a nickel in reducing
environments and more resistant than copper in oxidizing environments.
Pipes from Copper and copper alloys
Copper and its alloys are widely used in chemical processing, particularly when heat and thermal
conductivity is very important. Main copper alloys are brasses (Cu-Zn), Bronzes (Cu- Sn), and
Cupronickels. Some of the bronzes are very popular in the process industry, like Aluminium and
silicon bronzes because they combine good strength with corrosion resistance. Cupronickels
have 10-30% nickel and have become very popular because it has the highest corrosion
resistance of all copper alloys. This finds its application in heat-exchanger tubing and its
resistance to seawater is especially outstanding.
Titanium Pipes
Titanium has become increasingly important as a construction material. It is strong and of
medium weight. Corrosion resistance is very superior in oxidizing and mild reducing media.
Titanium is usually not bothered by impingement attacks, crevice corrosion, and pitting attacks
in seawater. Its general resistance to seawater is excellent.

Non-metallic Pipes
Non-metallic pipes are widely used for services where the temperature is not significant. Non-
critical services like water industries and drainage systems make use of most of the non-metallic
pipes. Common non-metallic and widely used pipes are:
 PE/HDPE Pipes
 UPVC/PVC/CPVC Pipes
 PP pipes
 Reinforced thermoplastic pipes or RTPs
 ABS Pipes
 Composite pipes like GRE/GRP/FRP Pipes
 Cement and Asbestos Cement Pipes
 Vitrified clay pipes
The main advantages of reinforced plastic and composite pipes are that they are highly corrosion
resistant and durable. While metallic pipes are usually designed for up to 25 years of service.
Composite and Reinforced plastic pipes can easily serve up to 50 years. However, their main
limitation is the temperature. Non-metallic pipes are not suitable for high-temperature
applications.
Cement pipes, manufactured from reinforced concretes are usually used for storm water, gravity
service, irrigation industries, and culverts.

Types of Pipes depending on the industry they are used

Depending on the type of industry there are three types of pipes.
 Pipes for Chemical and Power Piping industries.
 Pipes for Plumbing industry.
 Pipes for Pipeline industry.

Types of Pipes for Chemical and Power Piping Industries

These types of pipes are suitable for high-temperature and pressure applications. Mainly pipes
made from ferrous materials are used in chemical, power, petrochemical, steel, oil, and gas
industries. They are usually designed following codes like ASME B31.3, ASME B31.1, and
various other international codes. They are usually selected based on their ability to sustain
pressure, temperature, corrosion resistance, etc.

Types of Pipes for the Plumbing industry

Common plumbing pipes are PVC pipes, PEX pipes, Copper pipes, ABS pipes, Cast Iron and
galvanized steel pipes, etc. They are mainly used for water distribution purposes.

Pipes for the Pipeline industry

Pipes used in pipeline industries are usually known as line pipes and designed by API 5L
standard. There are various grades of API 5L pipes that are used to convey oil, gas, or water
through pipelines. Other types of pipeline materials are SS, DSS, SDSS, GRE, FRP, etc.

Types of Pipes based on the fluid they transport

Depending on the type of fluid they transport, pipes are categorized as follows:
 Water Pipes those transporting water.
 Gas pipes transporting gaseous substances.
 Vapor pipes carrying different vapors of products.
 Oil pipes transporting crude or processed oils.
 Steam pipes transporting steam.
 Hydrogen pipes carrying hydrogens.

Types of Pipes based on the manufacturing method

Pipes can also be classified based on the method of manufacture. These are again sub-
categorized depending on the material of the pipe. For example, Metallic pipes can be
categorized as:
 Seamless pipe and
 Welded pipe
 ERW pipes
 LSAW pipes
The most common types of seamless pipes are:
 ASTM A106, A333, A53, and API 5L (CS and LTCS pipes)
 ASTM A312 Series 300 and 400 (SS pipes with grades 304, 316, 321, 347)
 ASTM A335 Grades P5 to P91 (Alloy steel pipes)
 ASTM A790/A928 (DSS and SDSS pipes)
 Nickel alloys (Inconel, Hastelloy, Cupronickel, Monel, Nickel 200)
In general, pipes with a diameter less than 16 inches are seamless, and larger diameter pipes are
welded. Seamless pipes are preferred due to the absence of the weld seam which is considered a
weak point. However, they are costlier than the welded pipes. Also, for large-diameter pipes,
producing seamless pipes becomes difficult.

Carbon steel pipes (A53, A333, A106, and API 5L) have the largest market share due to the fact
that they are cheaper and suitable for a wide range of applications ranging from -29 Deg. C to
427 Deg. C.

Similarly, GRP pipes are classified as

 Filament winding GRP pipes
 Continuous winding GRP pipes
 Helical Filament winding GRP pipes

Conclusion
So, the subject types of pipes are very broad and there are various parameters that contribute to
the classification of pipes. However, the most widely accepted pipe classification is based on the
material used to manufacture the pipe.
SOURCES
https://whatispiping.com/types-of-pipes/
https://whatispiping.com/steels-used-in-process-piping-industry/
https://whatispiping.com/common-non-ferrous-materials-used-in-process-piping-industry/
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/iepg103.pdf