Section 3 - Design Principles B 3-1

Section 3

Design Principles

A. General ratio b/a >

– 2,24.

1. Scope For curved plate panels and/or plate panels having aspect
ratios smaller than b/a = 2,24, the thickness may be reduced
This Section contains definitions and principles for using as follows:
the formulae in the following Sections as well as indications
concerning structural details. t = C @ a p @ k f1 @ f2 % tk

2. Permissible stresses and required sectional C = constant, e.g. C = 1,1 for tank plating
properties a
f1 = 1 S
In the following Sections permissible stresses have been 2 r
stated in addition to the formulae for calculating the section
moduli and cross sectional areas of webs of frames, beams, a 2
girders, stiffeners etc. and may be used when determining f2 = 1,1 - 0,5
b
the scantlings of those elements by means of direct strength
calculations. The permissible stresses may be increased r = radius of curvature
by up to 10% where exact stress analyses are carried out
a = smaller breadth of plate panel
in accordance with approved calculation methods, e.g. where
the finite element method is applied or else proof is b = larger breadth of plate panel
presented by full scale measurements.
p = applicable design load.
The required section moduli and web areas are related on
tK = corrosion allowance according to K
principle to an axis which is parallel to the connected
plating.
The above does not apply to plate panels subjected to ice
For profiles usual in the trade and connected vertically to pressure according to Section 15 and to longitudinally
the plating in general the appertaining sectional properties framed side shell plating according to Section 6.
are given in tables.
4. Fatigue strength
Where webs of stiffeners and girders are not fitted vertically
to the plating (e.g. frames on the shell in the flaring fore Where a fatigue strength analysis is required or will be
body) the sectional properties (moment of inertia, section carried out for structures or structural details this shall be
modulus and shear area) have to be determined for an axis in accordance with the requirements of Section 20.
which is parallel to the plating.
For bulb profiles and flat bars the section modulus of the
inclined profile can be calculated simplified by multiplying
the corresponding value for the vertically arranged profile B. Upper and Lower Hull Flange
by sin α where α is the smaller angle between web and 1. All continuous longitudinal structural members up
attached plating. to zo below the strength deck at side and up to zu above
base line are considered to be the upper and lower hull
Note
flange respectively.
For bulb profiles and flat bars α in general needs only be
taken into account where α is less than 75°. 2. Where the upper and/or the lower hull flange are
made from normal strength hull structural steel their vertical
Furthermore, with asymmetric profiles where additional
extent zo = zu equals 0,1 H.
stresses occur according to L. the required section modulus
must be increased by the factor ksp depending on the type On ships with continuous longitudinal structural members
of profile, see L. above the strength deck a fictitious depth H' = eB + e'D is
to be applied.
3. Plate panels subjected to lateral pressure
eB = distance between neutral axis of the midship
section and base line in [m]
The formulae for plate panels subjected to lateral pressure
as given in the following Sections are based on the e'D see Section 5, C.4.1
assumption of an uncurved plate panel having an aspect
3-2 Section 3 - Design Principles D

3. The vertical extent z of the upper and lower hull
flange respectively made from higher strength hull structural
steel of one quality is not to be less than:
z = e (1 S n @ k)
e = distance of deck at side or of the base line from
the neutral axis of the midship section. For ships
with continuous longitudinal structural members
above the strength deck, see Section 5, C.4.1
W(a)
n =
W
W(a) = actual deck or bottom section modulus
W = rule deck or bottom section modulus.
Where two different steel grades are used it has to be
observed that at no point the stresses are higher than the
permissible stresses according to Section 5, C.1.
In special cases, the rigidity of the adjoining girders is to
be taken into account when determining the span of girder.
D. End Attachments
1. Definitions
For determining scantlings of beams, stiffeners and girders
the terms "constraint" and "simple support" will be used.
"Constraint" will be assumed where for instance the
stiffeners are rigidly connected to other members by means
of brackets or are running throughout over supporting
girders.
"Simple support" will be assumed where for instance the
stiffener ends are sniped or the stiffeners are connected
to plating only, see also 3.
2. Brackets

2.1 For the scantlings of brackets the required section

C. Unsupported Span modulus of the section is decisive. Where sections of
different section moduli are connected to each other, the
1. Stiffeners, frames
scantlings of the brackets are generally governed by the
The unsupported span R is the true length of the stiffeners smaller section.
between two supporting girders or else their length including
end attachments (brackets). 2.2 The thickness of brackets is not to be less than:
3
The frame spacings and spans are normally assumed to W
t =c @ % tk [mm]
be measured in a vertical plane parallel to the centreline k1
of the ship. However, if the ship's side deviates more than
10° from this plane, the frame distances and spans shall c = 1,2 for non-flanged brackets
be measured along the side of the ship.
= 0,95 for flanged brackets
Instead of the true length of curved frames the length of
k1 = material factor k for the section according to
the chord between the supporting points can be selected.
Section 2, B.2.
2. Corrugated bulkhead elements tK = corrosion allowance according to K
The unsupported span R of corrugated bulkhead elements W = section modulus of smaller section in [cm3]
is their length between bottom or deck and their length
between vertical or horizontal girders. Where corrugated tmin = 6,5 mm
bulkhead elements are connected to box type elements of tmax = web thickness of smaller section.
comparatively low rigidity, their depth is to be included
into the span R unless otherwise proved by calculations. The thickness of brackets in tanks is not to be less than the
minimum thickness tmin as per Section 12, A.7, Section.23,
3. Transverses and girders B.5.3, or Section 24, A.13. respectively.
The unsupported span R of transverses and girders is to be
determined according to Fig. 3.1, depending on the type 2.3 The arm length of brackets is not to be less than:
of end attachment. 3
W
R = 46,2 @ k2 @ ct [mm]
k1

Rmin =100 mm

t
ct =
ta

ta = "as built" thickness of bracket [mm]

$ t according to 2.2
Fig. 3.1 Unsupported span R
 Section 3 - Design Principles E 3-3

W see 2.2 Deviating from the formula stipulated in Section 11, B.4.3
the section modulus of a corrugated element is then to be
k2 = material factor k for the bracket according to
determined by the following formula:
Section 2, B.2.
The arm length R is the length of the welded connection. W = t @ b (d % t) [cm3]

Note
For deviating arm length the thickness of brackets is to
E. Effective Width of Plating
be estimated by direct calculations considering sufficient
safety against buckling.
1. Frames and stiffeners
2.4 The scantlings of the brackets (thickness, arm length)
Generally, the spacing of frames and stiffeners may be taken
as well as their relation to the various sections may be taken
as effective width of plating.
from the tables in the Annex.
2. Transverses and girders
2.5 The throat thickness a of the welded connection is
to be determined according to Section 19, C.2.7.
2.1 The effective width of plating “em” of the transverses
and girders may be determined according to Table 3.1
2.6 Where flanged brackets are used the width of flange
considering the type of loading.
is to be determined according to the following formula:
W Special calculations may be required for determining the
b = 40 % [mm] effective width of one-sided or non-symmetrical flanges.
30
b is not to be taken less than 50 mm and need not be taken Table 3.1 Effective width em of frames and girders
greater than 90 mm.
R/e 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 >
–8
3. Sniped ends of stiffeners
em1/e 0 0,36 0,64 0,82 0,91 0,96 0,98 1,00 1,00

Stiffeners may be sniped at the ends, if the thickness of
the plating supported by stiffeners is not less than:
p @ a (R - 0,5 @ a)
t = c [mm]
ReH
p = design load in [kN/m2]
R = unsupported length of stiffener in [m]
a = spacing of stiffeners in [m]
ReH = minimum nominal upper yield point of the plating
material in [N/mm2] according to Section 2, B.2
c = 15,8 for watertight bulkheads and for tank
bulkheads when loaded by p2 according to Section
4, D.1.2
= 19,6 otherwise,
4. Corrugated bulkhead elements
Care is to be taken that the forces acting at the supports
of corrugated bulkheads are properly transmitted into the
adjacent structure by fitting structural elements such as
carlings, girders or floors in line with the corrugations.
Note
Where carlings or similar elements cannot be fitted in line
with the web strips of corrugated bulkhead elements, these
web strips cannot be included into the section modulus at
the support point for transmitting the moment of constraint.
em2/e 0 0,20 0,37 0,52 0,65 0,75 0,84 0,89 0,90
em1 is to be applied where girders are loaded by uniformly
distributed loads or else by not less than 6 equally spaced single
loads.
em2 is to be applied where girders are loaded by 3 or less single
loads.
Intermediate values may be obtained by direct interpolation.
R= length between zero-points of bending moment curve,
i.e. unsupported span in case of simply supported girders
and 0,6 x unsupported span in case of constraint of both
ends of girder
e= width of plating supported, measured from centre to
centre of the adjacent unsupported fields.
2.2 The effective cross sectional area of plates is not to
be less than the cross sectional area of the face plate.
2.3 Where the angle α between web of stiffeners or else
of girders and the attached plating is less than 75E the
required section modulus is to be multiplied by the factor
1/sin α.
2.4 The effective width of stiffeners and girders subjected
to compressive stresses may be determined according to
F.2.2, but is in no case to be taken greater than determined
by 2.1.
3. Cantilevers
Where cantilevers are fitted at every frame, the effective
3-4 Section 3 - Design Principles F

width of plating may be taken as the frame spacing. Guidance

Where cantilevers are fitted at a greater spacing the effective If the stresses in the x- and y-direction contain already the
width of plating at the respective cross section may Poisson - effect, the following modified stress values may
approximately be taken as the distance of the cross section be used:
from the point on which the load is acting, however, not ( (
σx & 0,3 @ σy
greater than the spacing of the cantilevers. σx=
0,91
( (
σy & 0,3 @ σx
σy=
F. Proof of Buckling Strength 1) 0,91
( (
1. Definitions σx , σy = stresses containing the Poisson-effect
a = length of single or partial plate field in [mm] ψ = edge stress ratio according to Table 3.3
b = breadth of single plate field in [mm] F1 = correction factor for boundary condition at
α = aspect ratio of single plate field the long. stiffeners according to Table 3.2

a Table 3.2 Correction Factor F1

=
b
Correction factor F1
n = number of single plate field breadths within the
partial or total plate field 1,0 for stiffeners sniped at both ends
Guidance values * : 1,05 for flat bars
where both ends 1,10 for bulb sections
are effectively 1,20 for angle and tee-sections
connected to 1,30 for girders of high rigidity
adjacent structures (e.g. bottom transverses)
* Exact values may be determined by direct calculations.

F2 = weighting factor according to Table 3.3 and/ or

3.4 accounting for the effect of linear buckling
on plate buckling for the stress direction con-
sidered, linear buckling occurs when F2 > 0.
σe = reference stress
2
longitudinal : stiffiner in the direction of the length a t
= 0,9 @ E [kN/m2]
transverse : stiffiner in the direction of the length b b

Fig. 3.2 Definition of plate fields subject to buckling E = Young's modulus

t = nominal plate thickness in [mm] = 2,06 @ 10 5 [N/mm2] for steel

= ta – tK in [mm] = 0,69 @ 10 5 [N/mm2] for aluminium alloys

ta = plate thickness as built in [mm]
ReH = nominal yield point in [N/mm2] for hull structural
tK = corrosion allowance according to K. in [mm] steels according to Section 2, B.2.
σx = membrane stress in x-direction in [N/mm2] = 0,2 % proof stress in [N/mm2] for aluminium
σy = membrane stress in y-direction in [N/mm2] alloys

τ = shear stress in the x-y plane in [N/mm2] S = safety factor

= 1,1 in general
Compressive and shear stresses are to be taken positive,
tension stresses are to be taken negative. = 1,2 for structures which are exclusively exposed
to local loads
= 1,05 for combinations of statistically independent
loads

1)
The calculation method is based on DIN-standard 18800.
 Section 3 - Design Principles F 3-5

Table 3.3 Plane Plate Fields

Edge stress Aspect ratio Reductions factor κ

Load case Buckling factor K
ratio ψ α Weighting factor F2
~
1
K =
8,4 κx = 1 for λ # λc
1 >
– ψ >
– 0 ψ % 1,1 1 0,22
κx = c & for λ > λc
λ λ2
0 > ψ > & 1 α > 1 K = 7,63 & ψ (6,26 & 10 ψ) (1,25 & 0,12 ψ) <
c = – 1,25

c 0,88
ψ <
– & 1 K = (1 & ψ)2 @ 5,975 λc = 1% 1 –
2 c
~
2
K = F1 1 %
1 2
2,1 κy = c
1
&
R % F 2 (H & R)
1 >
– ψ >
– 0 α >
– 1
α 2 (ψ%1,1) λ λ2
c = (1,25 & 0,12 ψ) <– 1,25
0 > ψ > & 1 1 <
– α <
– 1,5 2
1 2,1 λ
K = F1 1 % (1 % ψ) R = λ 1– for λ < λc
α2 1,1 c
ψ R = 0,22 for λ $ λc
& ( 13,9 & 10 ψ) K
2
α !1
0,91
α > 1,5 2
F = 1! c1 $ 0
1 2,1 2
F1 1 % (1 % ψ) λp
K =
α2 1,1
2 2
ψ λ = λ2 – 0,5 1#λ #3
& (5,87 % 1,87 α2 P P
α2 c1 = 1 for σy due to direct
8,6 loads
% & 10 ψ)
α 2 F
c1 = 1 – 1 $ 0 for σy due
3 2 α
ψ < 1 & ψ
– & 1 1 <
– α <
– (1 & ψ) K = F1 @ 5,975 to bending (in general)
4 α c1 = 0 for σy due to bending
in extreme load cases
(e.g. w. t. bulkheads)
3 2 2λ
α > (1 & ψ) 1 & ψ H = λ! $R
4 K = F1 @ 3,9675
α c (T % T 2 ! 4 )
4 14 1
1 &ψ T = λ% %
% 0,5375 % 1,87 15λ 3
α

~
3
4 0,425 %
1
1 >
– ψ >
– 0 α2
K =
3ψ % 1
α > 0
1 κx = 1 for λ # 0,7
0 > ψ > K = 4 0,425 % (1 % ψ)
– & 1 α2 1
κx = for λ > 0,7
& 5 @ ψ (1 & 3,42 ψ) λ2 % 0,51
~
4

1 > 1 3!ψ
– ψ >
– & 1 α > 0 K = 0,425 %
α2 2
3-6 Section 3 - Design Principles F

Table 3.3 Plane Plate Fields (Cont.)

Edge stress Aspect ratio Reductions factor κ

Load case Buckling factor K
ratio ψ α Weighting factor F2
~
5 K = Kτ @ 3

α > 4
— – 1 Kτ = 5,34 %
α2
0 < α < 1 5,34
Kτ = 4 % κτ = 1 for λ # 0,84
α2
~
6 K = K’ @ r
κτ =
0,84
for λ > 0,84
K’ = K according to line 5 λ
r = Reductions factor
da db
— = 1@ 1@
a b
da db
with # 0,7 and # 0,7
a b
~
7
α >
– 1,64 K = 1,28 κx = 1 for λ # 0,7
— 1
1 κx = for λ > 0,7
α < 1,64 K = % 0,56 % 0,13 α2 2
λ % 0,51
α2
~
8
2 K = 6,97
α >
–
3
—
2 1
α < K = % 2,5 % 5 α2
3
α2

~
9
α >
– 4 K = 4
κx = 1 for λ # 0,83
4
4 & α
— 4 > α > 1 K = 4 % 2,74
3 1 0,22
κx = 1,13 &
4 λ λ2
α <
– 1 K = % 2,07 % 0,67 α2
α2 for λ > 0,83
1~
0
α >
– 4 K = 6,97
4
4 & α
— 4 > α > 1 K = 6,97 % 3,1
3
4
α <
– 1 K = % 2,07 % 4 α2
α2
Explanations for boundary conditions : plate edge free
plate edge simply supported
plate edge clamped
 Section 3 - Design Principles F 3-7

Table 3.4 Curved plate field R/t <– 2500

Aspect ratio Reduction factor κ *

Load case Buckling factor K
b/R Weighting factor F 2
~
1a

b (R @ t) 0,175
b R K = % 3
<
– 1,63 0,35
R t R @ t b κx = 12) for λ # 0,4

κx = 1,274 & 0,686 λ

~
1b
for 0,4 < λ #1,2

0,65
κx = for λ > 1,2
2
λ2
b R b2 R2
> 1,63 K = 0,3 % 2,25
R t R 2 b @ t

pe = external pressure in
[N/mm2]
~
2
κy = 1 2)
b R 2 b 2 for λ # 0,25
<
– 0,5 K = 1 %
R t 3 R @ t
κy = 1,233 & 0,933 λ
for 0,25 < λ # 1

κy = 0.3 / λ3
b2 b t
K = 0,267 3 & for 1 < λ # 1,5
b R R @ t R R
> 0,5
R t b2 κy = 0.2 / λ2
>
– 0,4
R @ t for λ > 1,5

~
3
b R K = 0,6 @ b R @ t R @ t
<
– % & 0,3
R t R @ t b b2
as in load case 1a
2 2 2
b R b R
> K = 0,3 % 0,291
R t R2 b @ t

~
4
K = Kτ @ 3 κτ = 1
for λ # 0,4

0,5 κτ = 1,274 & 0,686 λ

b
<
R 0,67 @ b 3
– 8,7 Kτ = 28,3 % for 0,4 < λ # 1,2
R t R 1,5
@ t 1,5

0,65
κτ =
b R b2 λ2
> 8,7 Kτ = 0,28
R t R R @ t for λ > 1,2

Explanations for boundary conditions : plate edge free

plate edge simply supported
plate edge clamped
1)
For curevd plate fields with a very large radius the κ-value need not to be taken less than derived for the expanded plane field.
2)
For curved single fields. e.g. the bilge strake, which are located within plane partial or total fields, the reduction factor κ may be taken as follows:
Load case 1b : κx = 0,8/λ2 <
– 1,0 ; load case 2: κy = 0,65/λ2 <
– 1,0
3-8 Section 3 - Design Principles F

For constructions of aluminium alloys the safety factors 2.2 Effective width of plating
are to be increased in each case by 0,1.
The effective width of plating may be determined by the
λ = reference degree of slenderness following formulae:
b m = κx @ b for longitudinal stiffeners
ReH
= am = κy @ a for transverse stiffeners
K @ σe
see also Fig. 3.2.
K = buckling factor according to Tables 3.3 and 3.4.
The effective width of plating is not to be taken greater
In general, the ratio plate field breadth to plate thickness
than the value obtained from E.2.1.
shall not exceed b/t = 100.
Note
2. Proof of single plate fields
The effective width em
’ of stiffened flange plates of girders
2.1 Proof is to be provided that the following condition
may be determined as follows:
is complied with for the single plate field a @ b:
Stiffening parallel to web of girder :.
# σx # @ S # σy # @ S σx @ σy @ S 2
e1 e2
% & B
κx @ ReH κy @ ReH ReH2
# τ # @ S @ 3
e3
% <
– 1,0
κτ @ ReH

Each term of the above condition must be less than 1,0.

The reduction factors κx, κy and κτ are given in Table 3.3
and/or 3.4.

Where σx # 0 (tension stress), κx = 1,0.

Where σy # 0 (tension stress), κy = 1,0.

The exponents e1, e2 and e3 as well as the factor B are

calculated or set respectively:

Exponents e1 – e3 plate field

and factor B plane curved
4
e1 1%κ 1,25
x
4 b < em
e2 1%κ 1,25
y
’
em = n @ bm
2
e3 1 + κx @ κy @ κ 2,0
τ
n = integral number of the stiffener spacing b inside
B the effective width “em” according to Table 3.1
5
σx and σy positive κx @ κy 0 in E.2.1
(compression stress)
B em
= int
σx or σy negative 1 –– b
(tension stress)
 Section 3 - Design Principles F 3-9

Stiffening perpendicular to web of girder: for σx(y=b).

Shear stress distribution in the flange plates may be
assumed linearly.

2.3 Webs and flanges

For non-stiffened webs and flanges of sections and girders
proof of sufficient buckling strength as for single plate fields
is to be provided according to 2.1.

Note
Within 0,6 L amidships the following guidance values are
recommended for the ratio web depth to web thickness
and/or flange breadth to flange thickness:
hw
flat bars: – 19,5
< k
tw

angle-, tee and bulb sections:

a $ em
hw
’
em = n @ am < em
web: – 60,0
< k
tw
em
n = 2,7 @
a
#1 bi
flange: – 19,5
< k
e = width of plating supported according to E.2.1 tf
For b $ em or a < em respectively, b and a must be bi = b1 or b2 according to Fig. 3.3, the larger value
exchanged. is to be taken.
am and bm for flange plates are in general to be determined 3. Proof of partial and total fields
for ψ = 1.
3.1 Longitudinal and transverse stiffeners
Stress distribution between two girders:
Proof is to be provided that the longitudinal and transverse
⎧ y⎡ y ⎤⎫ stiffeners of partial and total plate fields comply with the
σx(y) =σ x1 ⎨1 − ⎢3 + c1 − 4c 2 − 2 (1 + c1 − 2c 2 ) ⎥ ⎬
⎩ e⎣ e ⎦⎭ conditions set out in 3.2 and 3.3.

σ x2 3.2 Lateral buckling

c1 = 0 # c1 # 1
σ x1 σa % σb
S <
– 1
ReH
c2 =
15
. "
e
( )
e m1 + e"m2 − 0.5
σa = uniformly distributed compressive stress in the
σx1, σx2 = normal stresses in flange plates of adjacent direction of the stiffener axis in [N/mm2]
girder 1 and 2 with spacing e.
= σx for longitudinal stiffeners
" '
em1 = proportionate effective width of em1 and em1 = σy for transverse stiffeners
respectively of girder 1 within the distance
σb = bending stress in the stiffeners
e
" ' M0 % M1
em2 = proportionate effective width of em2 and em2 = [N/mm2]
3
respectively of girder 2 within the distance Wst @ 10
e
M0 = bending moment due to deformation w of
y = distance of considered location from girder stiffener
1
pz @ w
= FKi [N @ mm]
Scantlings of plates and stiffeners are in general to be cf & pz
determined according to the maximum stresses σx(y) at
girder webs and stiffeners respectively. For stiffeners under cf & pz > 0
compression arranged parallel to the girder web with
spacing b no lesser value than 0,25 @ ReH shall be inserted
3 - 10 Section 3 - Design Principles F

M1 = bending moment due to the lateral load p for longitudinal stiffeners:

for continuous longitudinal stiffeners: a
>
– 2,0 : m1 = 1,47 m2 = 0,49
p @ b @ a2 b
= [N @ mm]
24 @ 103 a
< 2,0 : m1 = 1,96 m2 = 0,37
b
for transverse stiffeners:
for transverse stiffeners:
p @ a (n @ b) 2
= [N @ mm] a 1,96
cs @ 8 @ 103 – 0,5 : m1 = 0,37 m2 =
>
n @ b n2
p = lateral load in [kN/m²] according to Section 4 a 1,47
< 0,5 : m1 = 0,49 m2 =
FKi = ideal buckling force of the stiffener in [N] n @ b n2

π2 w = w o + w1
FKix = E @ Ix @ 104 for long. stiffeners
2
a wo = assumed imperfection in [mm],
a b
π2 >
– wox <
– for long. stiffeners
FKiy = E @ Iy @ 104 for transv. stiffeners 250 250
(n @ b) 2
n@b a
>
– woy <
– for transv. stiffeners
Ix, Iy = moments of inertia of the longitudinal or 250 250
transverse stiffener including effective width
however wo <
– 10 mm
of plating according to 2.2 in [cm4]
Note
b @ t3
Ix $ For stiffeners sniped at both ends wo must not be taken
12 @ 104
less than the distance from the midpoint of plating to the
a @ t3 neutral axis of the profile including effective width of
Iy $
12 @ 104 plating.
pz = nominal lateral load of the stiffener due to σx, w1 = deformation of stiffener due to lateral load p
σy and τ in [N/mm2] at midpoint of stiffener span in [mm]
for longitudinal stiffeners: In case of uniformly distributed load the following values
for w1 may be used:
ta π@b 2
pzx = σx1 % 2 @ cy @ σy % 2 τ1 for longitudinal stiffeners:
b a
p @ b @ a4
for transverse stiffeners: w1 =
384 @ 107 @ E @ Ix
ta π@a 2 Ay
pzy = 2 @ cx @ σx1 % σy 1% % 2 τ1 for transverse stiffeners:
a n@b a @ ta
5 @ a @ p (n @ b)4
Ax
w1 = 2
σx1 = σx 1 % [N/mm2] 384 @ 107 @ E @ Iy @ cs
b @ ta
cf = elastic support provided by the stiffener in
cx, cy = factor taking into account the stresses vertical [N/mm2]
to the stiffener's axis and distributed variable
along the stiffener's length π2
cfx = FKix @ @ (1 % cpx) for long. stiffeners
= 0,5 (1 + ψ) for 0 # ψ # 1 a2
1
0,5 cpx =
= for ψ < 0
1–ψ 12 @ 104 @ Ix
0,91 @ – 1
ψ = edge stress ratio according to Table 3.3 t3 @ b
1%
cxα
Ax,Ay = sectional area of the longitudinal or transverse
stiffener respectively in [mm2] a 2b 2
cxα = % for a $ 2 b
2b a
m1 m2
τ1 = τ ! t ReH @ E % >
– 0 2
2
a2 b2 a
= 1% for a < 2 b
2b
 Section 3 - Design Principles G 3 - 11

2
k = 0,5 1 % 0,21 ( λT ! 0,2 ) % λT
π2
cfy = cs @ FKiy @ @ (1 % cpy) for transv. stiffeners
(n @ b) 2 λT = reference degree of slenderness

1 ReH
cpy =
4 λT =
12 @ 10 @ Iy σKiT
0,91 @ – 1
3
t @a
1% E π2 @ Iω @ 102
cyα σKiT = g % 0,385 @ IT [N/mm2]
IP a 2
2
n@b 2a
cyα = % for n @ b $ 2 a For IP, IT, Iω see Fig.3.3 and Table 3.5.
2a n@b
2
2
n@b
= 1% for n @ b < 2 a
2a

cs = factor accounting for the boundary conditions

of the transverse stiffener
= 1,0 for simply supported stiffeners
= 2,0 for partially constraint stiffeners
Fig. 3.3 Main dimensions of typical
Wst = section modulus of stiffener (long. or transverse)
longitudinal stiffners
in [cm3] including effective width of plating
according to 2.2.
IP = polar moment of inertia of the stiffener related
If no lateral load p is acting the bending stress σb is to be to the point C in [cm4]
calculated at the midpoint of the stiffener span for the fibre
IT = St. Vernant’s moment of inertia of the stiffener
which results in the largest stress value. If lateral load p
in [cm4]
is acting, the stress calculation is to be carried out for both
fibres of the stiffener’s cross sectional area (if necessary Iω = sectorial moment of inertia of the stiffener
for the biaxial stress field at the plating side). related to the point C.in [cm6]
g = degree of fixation
Note
Longitudinal and transverse stiffeners not subjected to a4
lateral load p have sufficient scantlings if their moments = 1 % 10&4
of inertia Ix and Iy are not less than obtained by the following b 4 hw
Iω %
formulae : t3 3 tw
3

pzx @ a 2 wox @ hw a2 hw = web height [mm]

Ix = % [cm4]
2
π @ 10 4 ReH 2
π @ E tw = web thickness [mm]
! σx
S
bf = flange breadth [mm]
2
pzy @ (n @ b) woy @ hw (n @ b)2 tf = flange thickness [mm]
Iy = % [cm4]
2
π @ 10 4 ReH 2
π @ E Aw = web area hw × tw
! σy
S
Af = flange area bf × tf .
3.3 Torsional buckling
.2 Transverse stiffeners
.1 Longitudinal stiffeners:
For transverse stiffeners loaded by compressive stresses
σx @ S and which are not supported by longitudinal stiffeners, proof
<
– 1,0 is to be provided in accordance with 3.3.1 analogously.
κT @ ReH

κT = 1,0 for λT <

– 0,2

1 G. Rigidity of Transverses and Girders

= for λT > 0,2
2 2 The moment of inertia of deck transverses and girders, is
% ! T not to be less than:
3 - 12 Section 3 - Design Principles H

I = c@W@R [cm4] H. Structural Details

c = 4,0 if both ends are simply supported
1. Longitudinal members
= 2,0 if one end is constrained
1.1 All longitudinal members taken into account for
= 1,5 if both ends are constrained
calculating the midship section modulus are to extend over
W = section modulus of the structural member the required length amidships and are to be tapered
considered in [cm3] gradually to the required end scantlings (see also Section
5, C.1).
R = unsupported span of the structural member
considered in [m]

Table 3.5 Formulas for the calculation of moments of inertia IP, IT, and Iω

Profile IP IT Iω
3 3 3 3
hw @ tw hw @ tw tw hw @ tw
flat bar 1 - 0,63
3 @ 104 3 @ 104 hw 36 @ 106

hw @ tw
3
tw for bulb and angle profiles:
1 - 0,63 2 2
3 @ 104 hw Af @ ef @ bf Af % 2,6 Aw
profile with 2 + 12 @ 106 Af % Aw
Aw @ hw 2
bulb or % Af @ ef 10&4 3
flange 3 bf @ tf tf for T - profiles:
1 - 0,63
3 @ 10 4 bf 3 2
bf @ tf @ ef
12 @ 106

1.2 Abrupt discontinuities of strength of longitudinal face plates of cantilevers, see Fig. 3.4.
members are to be avoided as far as practicable. Where
longitudinal members having different scantlings are
connected with each other, smooth transitions are to be
provided.

Special attention in this respect is to be paid to the

construction of continuous longitudinal hatch coamings
forming part of the longitudinal hull structure.

1.3 At the ends of longitudinal bulkheads or continuous

longitudinal walls suitable scarphing brackets are to be
provided.
Fig. 3.4 Support of face plates of cantilevers
2. Transverses and girders
2.4 Upon special approval the stiffeners at the knuckles
2.1 Where transverses and girders fitted in the same may be omitted if the following condition is complied with:
plane are connected to each other, major discontinuities
of strength shall be avoided. The web depth of the smaller be
σa <
– σp [N/mm 2]
girder shall, in general, not be less than 60% of the web bf
depth of the greater one.
σa = actual stress in the face plate at the knuckle in
2.2 The taper between face plates with different [N/mm2]
dimensions is to be gradual. In general the taper shall not
exceed 1: 3. At intersections the forces acting in the face σp = permissible stress in the face plate in [N/mm2]
plates are to be properly transmitted.

2.3 For transmitting the acting forces the face plates bf = breadth of face plate in [mm]
are to be supported at their knuckles. For supporting the be = effective breadth of face plate:
 Section 3 - Design Principles H 3 - 13

be = tw % n1 tf % c (b & tf) [mm] 3 # n3 # 3000

tw = web thickness in [mm] d = distance of the stiffener from the knuckle [mm]
tf = face plate thickness in [mm] For proof of fatigue strength of the weld seam in the
knuckle, the stress concentration factor KS (angle 2 α
1 according to Fig. 3.5 < 35°) related to the stress σa in the
b = (b - t ) [mm]
n1 f w face plate of thickness tf may be estimated as follows and
n3@ tf may be evaluated with case 5 of Table 20.3:
1
c = %
α2@ R tf 6 @ n4 tf1
( b - tf )2 KS = 1% @ tan @ 2α
- n2 tf1 tf 2 R
( R @ tf ) 1%
tf1
cmax = 1
d
2α = knuckle angle in [E], see Fig. 3.5 n4 = 7,143 for >8
tf
αmax = 45E 4
d d d
R = radius of rounded face plates = ! 0,51 @ for 8 $ > 1,35
tf tf tf
= tf for knuckled face plates d d
= 0,5 @ + 0,125 for 1,35 $ $ ! 0,25
n1 = 1 for un-symmetrical face plates (face plate tf tf
at one side only)
The welding seam has to be shaped according to Fig. 3.6.
= 2 for symmetrical face plates
Scantlings of stiffeners (guidance) :
n2 = 0 for free face plates
σa
b ! tf 2 thickness: tb = t @ 2 sin α
= # 1,0 σp f
R @ tf
height: h = 1,5 @ b.
for face plates of multi-web girders
2.5 For preventing the face plates from tripping
n3 = 3 if no radial stiffener is fitted adequately spaced stiffeners or tripping brackets are to be
= 3000 if two or more radial stiffeners are fitted provided. The spacing of these tripping elements shall not
or if one knuckle stiffener is fitted exceed 12@ bf.
according Fig. 3.5. 2.6 The webs are to be stiffened to prevent buckling
(see also F.).

2.7 The location of lightening holes shall be such that

the distance from hole edge to face plate is not to be less
than 0,3 x web depth.

2.8 In way of high shear stresses lightening holes in

the webs are to be avoided as far as possible.

3. Knuckles (general)
Flanged structural elements transmitting forces
perpendicular to the knuckle, are to be adequately supported
at their knuckle, i.e. the knuckles of the inner bottom are
to be located above floors, longitudinal girders or bulkheads.
If longitudinal structures, such as longitudinal bulkheads
or decks, include a knuckle which is formed by two butt-
welded plates, the knuckle is to be supported in the vicinity
of the joint rather than at the exact location of the joint.
The minimum distance d to the supporting structure is to
Fig. 3.5 Typical stiffeners of rounded of be at least
knuckled face plates
t
4 d = 25 + f
d 2
n3 = – 8
tf
if one stiffener is fitted according to Fig. 3.5 but not more than 50 mm, see Fig. 3.6.
3 - 14 Section 3 - Design Principles J

Fig. 3.6 Welding and supporting of knuckles

On bulk carriers at knuckles between inner bottom and tank = 0,9 for higher strength hull structural steel
side slopes in way of floors the welding cutouts must be with ReH = 315 N/mm2
closed by collar plates or insert plates, see Fig. 3.7.
= 0,8 for higher strength hull structural steel
In both cases a full penetration weld is required to inner with ReH = 355 N/mm2.
bottom and bottom girder.
= 0,73 for higher strength hull structural steel
with ReH = 390 N/mm2

If plate edges are free of notches and corners are

rounded-off, a 20 % higher notch stress σK may be
permitted.

A further increase of stresses may be permitted on the basis

of a fatigue strength analysis as per Section 20.

Fig. 3.7 Knuckles of the double bottom

J. Evaluation of Notch Stresses

The notch stress σK evaluated for linear-elastic material
behaviour at free plate edges, e.g. at hatch corners, openings
in decks, walls, girders etc., should, in general, fulfill the
following criterion:
– f @ ReH
σK <

f = 1,1 for normal strength hull structural steel

= 1,0 for higher strength hull structural steel
with ReH = 265 N/mm2 Fig.3.8 Notch faktor Kt for rounded openings
 Section 3 - Design Principles J 3 - 15

Fig. 3.9 Notch factor Kt for rectangular openings with rounded corners at uniaxial state of stresses (left) and at
multiaxial state of stresses (right)

Fig. 3.10 Parameters m and c to determine the notch factors of rectangular openings loaded by superimposed
longitudinal and shear stresses

For some types of openings the notch factors are given in m, c = parameters according to Fig.3.10
Figs. 3.8 and 3.9.
R, a = length and height of opening
They apply to stress conditions with uniaxial or biaxial
τ1 = shear stress related to gross area of section
normal stresses.
σ1 = longitudinal stress (in direction of length of
In case of superimposed stresses due to longitudinal and
opening) related to gross area of section
shear loads, the maximum notch stress σKmax of rectangular
openings with rounded corners can approximately be r = radius of rounded corner
calculated as follows:
ρ = ratio of smaller length to radius of corner ( R/r
or a/r)
σKmax = + K tv . σ 12 + 3. τ12
ρmin = 3
For σ1 = tensile stress

Note
= − K tv . σ 12 + 3. τ12
Because the notch factor and the equivalent stress are
For σ1 = compressive stress always positive, the sign of σ1 governs the most
unfavourable superposition of the stress components in
Ktv = notch factor for equivalent stress any of the four corners. A load consisting of shear only,
results in notch stresses of equal size with two positive and
= m. ρ + c two negative values in the opposite corners.
3 - 16 Section 3 - Design Principles L

An exact evaluation of notch stresses is possible by means

however, not less than 1,0 mm.
of finite element calculations. For fatigue investigations
the stress increase due to geometry of cut-outs has to be 1.4 Corrosion allowances for hatch covers and hatch
considered, see Section 20, C., Table.20.3. coamings are to be determined according to Section 17

Note 2. Corrosion control

These notch factors can only be used for girders with 2.1 Where an effective protection against corrosion is
multiple openings if there is no correlation between the employed approval may be given for the reduction of
different openings regarding deformations and stresses. material thickness - even to less than the minimum thickness
by the following values ∆tK:

Extent of protection * ∆tK

both sides protected tK, max. 2 mm
K. Corrosion Allowances and Corrosion Control one side protected tK/2, max. 1 mm
* For corrosion protection see Section 38.
1. Corrosion allowance
1.1 The scantling requirements of the subsequent 2.2 Where structural elements are subjected to
Sections imply the following general corrosion allowances compression, the reduction of thicknesses is permissible
tK : only where proof of adequate buckling strength is submitted
tK = 1,5 mm for t' < in accordance with F.1.4.
– 10 mm
2.3 Where this rules is applied, the Classification of
0,1. t ' Notation "CORR" will assigned.
= + 0,5 mm, max. 3,0 mm
k
2.4 In the drawing to be submitted for approval both
for t' > 10 mm the envisaged reduced material thicknesses and the rules
t' = required rule thickness excluding tK in [mm]. thicknesses required by the Construction Rules are to be
indicated. The drawings are to be placed on board the ship.
k = material factor according to Section 2, B.2.
2.5 Together with the drawings, a description of the
1.2 For structural elements in specified areas tK is not envisaged corrosion protection system as well as particulars
to be less than given in Table 3.6: on its suitability for the respective ranges of application
are to be submitted.
Table 3.6 Minimum corrosion allowance
2.6 When selecting the materials in accordance with
tKmin Section 2, B. the unreduced Rule Thicknesses are decisive.
Area
[mm]

In ballast tanks where the weather deck forms

2,5
the tank top, 1,5 m below tank top1). L. Additional Stresses in Non - Symmetric Sections
In cargo oil tanks where the weather deck forms The additional stress σh occurring in non-symmetric sections
the tank top, 1,5 m below tank top. Horizontal 2,0 may be calculated by the following formula:
members in cargo oil and fuel oil tanks.
Q @ Rf @ tf 2 2
Deck plating below elastically mounted σh ' b1 - b2 [N/mm 2]
3,0 c @ Wy @ Wz
deckhouses
1)
tK = 2,5 mm for all structures within topside tanks of bulk carriers. Q = load on section parallel to its web within the
unsupported span Rf in [kN]
With longitudinal bulkheads exposed to grab operation and assigned
to the notation G the corrosion allowance is tK = 2,5 mm. = p @ a @ Rf [kN] in case of uniformly distributed
For corrosion protection see Section .38. load p [kN/m2]

1.3 For structures in dry spaces such as box girders of Rf = unsupported span of flange in [m]
container ships and for similar spaces as well as for hatch tf, bl, b2 = flange dimensions in [ mm ] as shown in
covers of dry cargo holds the corrosion allowance is Fig. 3.10.

0,1 @ t ) b1 >
tK = , max. 2,5 mm – b2
k
 Section 3 - Design Principles L 3 - 17

Wy = Section modulus of section related to the y-y This additional stress σh is to be added to other stresses
axis including the effective width of plating in such as those resulting from local and hull girder bending.
[cm3]
The total stress [N/mm2] according to local bending thus
Wz = section modulus of the partial section consisting results in:
of flange and half of web area related to the z-z
Q @ Rf @ 1000 12 @ tf (b12 – b22)
axis in [cm3] (Bulb sections may be converted σges = 1%
into a similar L-section) 12 @ W y 1000 @ c @ W z

Therefore the required section modulus Wy according to

A.2. must be increased by the factor ksp depending on the
type of profile and the boundary conditions expressed by c.
Q @ Rf @ 1000
σges = ksp [N/mm2]
12 @ W y

For ksp at least the values in Table 3.7 are to be taken.

Table 3.7 Increase factor Ksp

Type of Profile ksp

Fig. 3.11 Non - symmetrical profile Flat bars and symmetric T-profiles 1,00

Bulb profiles 1,03

c = factor depending on kind of load and of the
unsupported span, support condition, and rigidity b2 1,05
of the section's web. As a first approximation Unsymmetric T profiles . 0,5
b1
c = 80 may be taken for L-sections constrained
at both ends.
Exact determination of the factor c may be Rolled angels (L-profiles) 1,15
required, e.g. for longitudinals in tankers.