sana 1722 Rift Basin Architecture & Evolution
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3.3. Tectonics of Rifting and Drifting: Pangea Breakup
3.3.1. Rift Basin Architecture and Evolution
Roy W. Schlische & Martha Oliver Withjack
Department of Geological Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854-8066 U.S.A.
Rift basins have been increasingly the focus of research in tectonics, structural geology, and basin analysis.
The reasons for this interest include: (1) Rift basins are found on all passive (Atlantic-type) continental
margins and provide a record of the early stages of (super)continental breakup. (2) The architecture of these
basins and the basin fill are strongly influenced by the displacement geometry on the bounding normal fault
systems (e.g., Gibson et al., 1989). Thus, aspects of the evolution of these fault systems, including their
nucleation, propagation and linkage, can be extracted from the sedimentary record. (3) Many modern and
ancient extensional basins contain lacustrine deposits (e.g., Katz, 1990) that are sensitive recorders of
climate, Milankovitch cycles (e.g., Olsen and Kent, 1999) recorded in these strata provide a quantitative test
of the predictions of basin-filling models (e.g., Schlische and Olsen, 1990) that can, in turn, be used to infer
aspects of crustal rheology during rifting (e.g., Contreras et al., 1997). (4) Many of the major petroleum
provinces of the world are associated with rift basins (e.g., the North Sea basins, the Jeanne d'Are basin, the
Brazilian rift basins),
This section provides a brief overview of the rift basins related to Pangean breakup, especially those along
the central Atlantic margin (¢.g,, Olsen, 1997). In particular, we examine (1) the structural architecture of
rift basins; (2) the interplay of tectonics, sediment supply, and climate in controlling the large-scale
stratigraphy of rift basins; (3) how the sedimentary fill can be subdivided into tectonostratigraphic packages
that record continental rifting, initiation of seafloor spreading, basin inversion, and drifting; and (4) how
coring can be used to answer fundamental questions related to these topics.
Structural Architecture
A typical rift basin is a fault-bounded feature known as a half graben (Fig. 3.3.1.1a). Ina cross section
oriented perpendicular to the boundary fault (transverse section), the half graben has a triangular geometry
(Fig. 3.3.1.1). The three sides of the triangle are the border fault, the rift-onset unconformity between
prerift and synrift rocks, and the postrift unconformity between synrift and postrift rocks (or, for modem
rifts, the present-day depositional surface). Within the triangular wedge of synrift units, stratal boundaries
rotate from being subparallel to the rift-onset unconformity to being subparallel to the postrift unconformity.
This fanning geometry, along with thickening of synrift units toward the boundary fault, are produced by
syndepositional faulting. Core from the Newark basin confirms the thickening relationships (see Section
3.3.2). Synrift strata commonly onlap prerift rocks. In a cross section oriented parallel to the boundary fault
(longitudinal section), the basin has a synclinal geometry (Fig. 3.3.1.1c), although more complicated
geometries are associated with segmented boundary fault systems (e.g., Schlische, 1993; Schlische and
Anders, 1996; Morley, 1999),
hitps:lwww ideo. columbia edul-polseninbeprbreakupintro. him! 19sana 1722 Rift Basin Architecture & Evolution
sediment suppy — sedimentation is fluvial or lacustrine. For
_ Water wouve > excess capac __ Jacustrine sedimentation, the relationship between
water volume and excess capacity determines the
lake depth, Modified from Schlische and Anders
(1996).
Watorscuere = cee capacly ¢ Ser
Cagney > odinert supply Gnlap
Water cure excess copay
The simple structural architecture described above may be complicated by basin inversion, in which a
contractional phase follows the extensional phase (e.g., Buchanan and Buchanan, 1995). Typical inversion
structures include normal faults reactivated as reverse faults, newly formed reverse and thrust faults, and
folds (Fig. 3.3.1.4, 3.3.1.5). Basin inversion occurs in a variety of tectonic environments (e.g., Buchanan
and Buchanan, 1995), including several passive margins related to the breakup of Pangea (c.g., Doré and
Lundin, 1996; Vagnes et al., 1998; Withjack et al., 1995, 1998; Hill et al., 1995; Withjack & Eisenstadt,
1999). The causes of inversion on these passive margins is not well understood. Section 4.2.1 describes how
coring, in combination with other methods, may help further our understanding of basin inversion on
passive margins.
hnipslweidao,colmbia.edul-polseninbeploreakuninta:himlsarnares 1722 Rift Basin Architecture & Evolution
Artic and Aine assoc with
a synclines associated
wait iverson
m Menoal a ‘Normal faut reactivated
‘wih Miocene version as reverse fault
na
Petit
syn
Pret
Basement
rere a
b Deeg
reveroe fau
Figure 3.3.1.4, Examples of positive inversion structures. a) Cross section across
part of Sunda are. During inversion, normal faults became reverse faults,
producing synclines and anticlines with harpoon geometties (after Letouzey,
1990). b) Interpreted line drawings (with 3:1 and 1:1 vertical exaggeration) of
AGSO Line 110-12 from Exmouth sub-basin, NW Shelf Australia (after Withjack
& Eisenstadt, 1999). During Miocene inversion, deep-seated normal faults
became reverse faults. In response, gentle monoclines formed in the shallow,
postrift strata,
Figure 3.3.1.5. Experimental models of inversion
structures. Cross sections through three clay models
showing development of inversion structures (after
Eisenstadt and Withjack, 1995). In each model, a
clay layer (with colored sub-layets) covered two
overlapping metal plates. Movement of the lower
plate created extension ot shortening. Thin clay
layers are prerift; thick clay layers are synrift; top-
most layer is postrift and pre-inversion. Top section
shows model with extension and no shortening; a half
graben containing very gently dipping synrift units is
present. The middle section shows model with
extension followed by minor shortening; a subtle
anticline has formed in the half graben, and is
associated with minor steepening of the dip of synrift
layers. Bottom section shows model with extension
followed by major shortening. The anticline in the
ey half graben is more prominent, and is associated with
significant steepening of the dip of synrift strata, New
reverse faults have formed in the prerift layers.
Although the inversion is obvious in this model,
erosion of material down to the level of the red line
‘would remove the most obvious evidence of
inversion in the half graben, Furthermore, the
prominent reverse faults cutting the prerift units could
Tlorral out eachnetec Teens tatenes be interpreted to indicate prerift contractional
‘sroverse faut uring corvaotora phas> deformation, as is common in the rift zones related to
the breakup of Pangea.
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Stratigraphic Architecture
‘Numerous non-marine rift basins of varied geography and geologic age share a remarkably similar
stratigraphic architecture (Lambiase, 1990; Schlische and Olsen, 1990; Fig. 3.3.1.6). Known as a tripartite
stratigraphy, the section begins with basin-wide fluvial deposits overlain by a relatively abrupt deepening-
upward lacustrine succession overlain by a gradual shallowing-upward lacustrine and fluvial succession.
The key to understanding the significance of this tripartite stratigraphy rests in the relationships among
basin capacity and sediment and water supply (Schlische and Olsen, 1990; Carroll and Bohacs, 1999).
Tectonics creates accommodation space or basin capacity. Sediment supply determines how much of that
basin capacity is filled and whether or not lake systems are possible (Figure 3.3.1.7). In general, fluvial
deposition results when sediment supply exceeds capacity, and lacustrine deposition results when capacity
exceeds sediment supply.
“Southern* Region
Northers” Region
8009
uegsiyan
ions
pawsog
puna
uemen
Sramiran
razacar Figure 3.3.1.6. Stratigraphic architecture of
Jurassic, Triassic-Jurassic rift basins of easter North
Tessie America, For tectonostratigtaphic (TS) package
Frestay TH, nearly all basins exhibit all or part of a
tripartite stratigraphy: 1, basal fluvial deposits; 2,
“deeper-water" lacustrine deposits; 3, "shallow-
water" lacustrine and fluvial deposits. The
southem basins do not contain TS-IV. TS-1 is only.
|-—— tecognized in the Fundy basin and may or may not
be a synrift deposit. Where TS-II is recognized, a
significant unconformity (in terms of missing time)
commonly separates it from TS-III. Modified from
Olsen (1997), Olsen et al. (2000), and Schlische
(2000).
Norn
comnan
1 iach tm gerne
im errno
Ill] CA? toons ne inerbosded ncsy “Sepa ele? uate sete
Figure 3.3.1.7, [BELOW] Relationships among basin capacity, sediment supply, and
volume of water determine the large-scale depositional environments of terrestrial rift
basins, In example I, basin-wide fluvial sedimentation is predicted. In example 2,
shallow-water lacustrine sedimentation is predicted. For the basin capacity and
available sediment supply shown in this example, no very deep lakes are possible
because the excess capacity of the basin (and thus lake depth) is limited. Thus, under
these conditions, climate is relatively unimportant control on lake depth. In example
3, deep-water lacustrine sedimentation is predicted.
hnipslweidao,colmbia.edul-polseninbeploreakuninta:himlsarnares 1722 Rift Basin Architecture & Evolution
WBsampIe TF Sosmontsupeiy> Capacty
ccnamerece
Seen ty) em tent
Somme ee \
ae
SE coxcciss Se
SE cicada \
Dopeetd sect = ener
1B Aushoie weer cannes exo Si
1B Alnatrremarain tress ake hyotpealy aed
The relationships shown in Figure 3.3.1.7 allow us to interpret the large-scale stratigraphic transitions
observed in many non-marine rift basins. The fluvial-lacustrine transition may result from an increase in
basin capacity and/or a decrease in sediment supply. The shallow-water lacustrine to deep-water lacustrine
transition may result from an increase in basin capacity, a decrease in sediment-supply, and/or increase in
the available volume of water. The deep-water lacustrine to shallow-water lacustrine transition may result
from a decrease or an increase in basin capacity (depending on the geometry of the basin's excess capacity),
an increase in the sediment supply, and/or decrease in the available volume of water. How do we go about
choosing the more likely interpretation? Interestingly, all of the major stratigraphic transitions can be
explained by an increase in basin capacity, for which a simple basin-filling model is shown in Figure
3.3.1.3, Other basin filling models are described by Lambiase (1990), Smoot (1991), and Lambiase and
Bosworth (1995). As discussed in Section 3.3.3, long cores from rift basins, combined with basin modeling
(e.g., Contreras et al., 1997) and seismic reflection data (¢.g., Morley, 1999), are required to test the
predictions of these basin-filling models.
Post ft uncontormi Postrit
Figure 3.3.1.8, Idcalized rift basin showing unconformity-bounded
tectonostratigraphic packages. Thin black lines represent stratal truncation
beneath unconformities; red half-arrows represent onlaps, In eastern North
America, TS-1 may not be a synrift deposit, and thus the geometry shown here
would be incorrect. TS-II is much more areally restricted and more wedge-
shaped than TS-IIL. The transition between TS-III and TS-IV is likely related
to an increase in extension rate, An offSet coring technique (vertical orange
lines), as used in the Newark basin coring project, does not sample TS-1 and.
most of TS-IL, A deep core (vertical yellow line) is necessary to recover TS-1
and TS-II. Modified from Olsen (1997),
‘Tectonostratigraphie Packages and Basin Evolution
hnipsutwwwideo columbia. edu/-polseninbeplbreakupinto him 69sana 1722 Rit Basin Architecture & Evolution
Olsen (1997) subdivided the synrift strata of central Atlantic margin rift basins into four tectonostratigraphie
(TS) packages (Fig. 3.3.1.6, 3.3.1.8). An individual TS package consists of all or part of a tripartite
stratigraphic succession, is separated from other packages by unconformities or correlative conformities,
and generally has a different climatic milieu compared to other TS packages. TS-I is a Permian deposit that
may or may not be synrift, whereas TS-II, TS-IIl, and TS-IV are Late Triassic and Early Jurassic synrift
deposits (Olsen et al., 2000). The unconformities between TS-I, TS-I, and TS-III represent significant
geologic time. However, it is not yet clear if these unconformities are related to regional tectonic changes
(e.g., pulsed extension) (Olsen, 1997) or to relatively local processes such as strain localization (a change
from distributed extension on lots of small faults to extension on a few large ones; e.g, Gupta et al., 1998)
(Fig. 3.3.1.9). Given their geometry and location in the rift basin, TS-I and TS-II can generally only be
sampled through deep coring and not the relatively shallow offset coring utilized in the Newark basin
(Section 3.3.3). The rift-onset unconformity between prerift rocks and various synrift units should not be
taken as evidence of regional uplift preceding rifting; rather, it more likely reflects erosion and non-
deposition occurring over a topographically elevated region resulting from the assembly of Pangea.
Figure 3.3.1.9. Stages in the evolution of a rift basin. (a) Early rifting associated with
several minor, relatively isolated normal faults. (b) Mature rifting with through-going
boundary fault zone, widespread deposition, and footwall uplift and erosion,
TS-IIl and TS-IV were deposited in much larger basins or subbasins than was TS-II, and the unconformity
between them is small to non-existent (Olsen, 1997). TS-IV includes the widespread CAMP basalts that
were erupted in a geologically short interval at ~202 Ma (c.g., Olsen et al., 1996; Olsen, 1999) (The CAMP
basalts comprise a large-igneous province or L.LP.,; see Section 3.1.3). Significantly, TS-IV is absent in all
of the southern basins of the central Atlantic margin, As discussed more fully in Withjack et al. (1998), TS-
IV was probably never deposited in this region, indicating that synrift subsidence had ceased prior to TS-IV
time. [A postrift basalt sequence, which may or may not be the same age as CAMP, is present in the
southern region and plausibly can be connected to a seaward-dipping reflector sequence at the continental
margin (Oh et al., 1995). The temporal and spatial relationships of these igncous rocks is a critical coring
target; see sections 4.2.1 and 4,2.2.] Also significantly, basin inversion in the southern basins occurred
shortly prior to and during TS-IV time, while inversion in the northern basins occurred after TS-IV time.
(During TS-IV time, the northern basins underwent accelerated subsidence; see Figure 3.3.2.7). Thus, the
end of rifting, the initation of inversion, and probably the initiation of seafloor spreading are diachronous
along the central Atlantic margin (i.e., during earliest Jurassic time in the southeastern United States and
Early to Middle Jurassic time in the northeastem United States and Maritime Canada) (Withjack et al,
1998). Coring, field analysis, and seismic-reflection profiles of synrift and immediately overlying postrift
deposits and the structures formed in them, are necessary to clarify the important events occurring at the
rift-drift transition,
The inferred diachronous initiation of seafloor spreading along the present-day margin of the central North
America Ocean is part of larger trend that reflects the progressive dismemberment of Pangea. As the North
Atlantic Ocean continued to develop, seafloor spreading propagated northward. For example, sealloor
hnipslweidao,colmbia.edul-polseninbeploreakuninta:himl 719sana 1722 Rift Basin Architecture & Evolution
spreading between the Grand Banks and southwestern Europe began during the Early Cretaceous (e.g.,
Srivastava and Tapscott, 1986); seafloor spreading between Labrador and western Greenland began during
the early Tertiary (anomaly 27N) (¢.g., Chalmers, et al., 1993); whereas seafloor spreading between eastern
Greenland and northwestern Europe began slightly later during the early Tertiary (anomaly 24R) (c.g.,
Talwani and Eldholm, 1977; Hinz et al., 1993),
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