380 W. Sima et al.

: Effects of Conductivity and Permittivity of Nanoparticle on Transformer Oil Insulation Performance

Effects of Conductivity and Permittivity of Nanoparticle

on Transformer Oil Insulation Performance:
Experiment and Theory
Wenxia Sima, Jian Shi, Qing Yang, Sisi Huang and Xuefei Cao
State Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment & System Security and New Technology
Chongqing University, Shapingba District, Chongqing, 400044, P. R. China

ABSTRACT
The mechanisms by which conductive and dielectric nanoparticles (NPs) trap
electrons are explained by the potential well distribution caused by induced or
polarized charges on NPs. Thus, the distributions of surface and saturation charges
on conductive and dielectric NPs are determined. Given conductive Fe3O4,
semiconductive TiO2, and dielectric Al2O3 NPs, insulation performance tests are
conducted and ionization models of nanofluids (NFs) based on transformer oil are
developed. These models are compared with those of NFs based on pure oil. The NP
whose conductivity or permittivity does not match that of the dielectric liquid has a
potential well and an increased amount of saturation charges on its interface. This
NP influences streamer development strongly and enhances the breakdown of oil-
based NF.
Index Terms - Conductivity, nanoparticle, oil insulation, potential well,
permittivity, streamer.

1 INTRODUCTION oxide nanoparticle materials (such as Al2O3, CuO, Fe3O4,

TO meet the demand for transformers with a small
volume and high voltage rate in electrical systems, the
development of transformer oil with high dielectric strength
and thermal characteristics is extremely important [1-3].
Therefore, dielectric nanofluids (NFs) have been innovated.
This modified transformer oil is mixed with nanoparticle
(NP) suspensions to enhance the insulating and thermal
characteristics of oil.
From the traditional perspective, conductive substances
enhance conductivity and strengthen the contamination of
liquid dielectric by impurities. Both factors reduce
insulation performance. However, in the 1990s, Segal et al
[4-5] investigated that the breakdown strength of the
transformer oil based NFs modified by conductive Fe3O4
NPs was highly improved. In the 2000s, Takada et al [6],
Du et al [7-8], and Zhou et al [9] noted that semiconductive
and dielectric NPs also enhanced the insulation
performance of oil. Those findings directly contradict
conventional experience.
These results are very important, because they indicate
the presence of the different nanoparticle suspensions in
the oil inhibits the streamer development [10-11].
Theoretically, almost all nanoparticle materials can be
used as the additions to NFs. Among them, the metallic
Manuscript received on 27 August 2013, in final form 14 July 2014,
accepted 15 July 2014.
TiO2, ZnO, CoO) are most commonly used. They’re
cheaper, more stable than metal elementary substance
[12] and nanotube [13], and are simply prepared, which
make them possible for mass production. The difference
that matters between these metallic oxides is the
basically electrical property, e.g., conductivity or
permittivity.
Conductive NPs trap electrons according to the time
constant of charge relaxation in [5]. This time constant
strongly influences the extent to which the
electrodynamic processes in liquid insulation change. If
the time constant of charge relaxation in an NP is short
relative to the timescales of interest for streamer growth,
these scales alter oil electrodynamics significantly.
Otherwise, these electrodynamics are affected only
slightly. However, this principle does not apply to
dielectric NPs. References [6–9] theorize that the
polarized charges on semiconductive or dielectric NP
suspensions trap electrons in the process of streamer
development in transformer oil.
This paper considers that no matter what electrical
property the NP has which mismatches the surrounding
transformer oil, it will form potential well on its surface.
The potential well that forms on the NP interface, traps
passing electrons, and enhances the breakdown
performance of transformer oil. The explanation of electron
trapping theory is different from that in [5].

DOI 10.1109/TDEI.2014.004277
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 22, No. 1; February 2015 381

To understand why different NPs can improve the 2.1 NANOFLUID PREPARATION
breakdown voltage of transformer oil, the effects of In this study, all of the experiments utilized #25 Karamay
different NPs on transformer oil still require further oil. The transformer oil-based NFs were prepared in the
investigation in terms of electrical performance and proper concentrations by adding specific amounts of
mechanism. modified NPs (average NP size d = 10 ± 0.1 nm) into the
In this study, the levels of withstand voltage of base oil. The surfaces of the NPs were modified with
switching impulse in pure oil and in three selected NFs are surface modifiers to enhance oil-wet behavior, as shown in
tested by a needle-plate electrode under both positive and Table 1.
negative voltages. In these NFs, conductive Fe3O4,
semiconductive TiO2, and dielectric Al2O3 NPs are
suspended. Conductive and either semiconductive or
dielectric NPs with high permittivity enhance the
breakdown performance of NFs based on transformer oil.
Thus, in consideration of the capability of NPs to trap
electrons, a positive streamer model is constructed which
is based on electrodynamic equations and is similar to the
model in Zahn’s work [5]. The results of this study
provide a reference with respect to the selection of NP
material. They also confirm the experimental and
theoretical feasibilities of the novel NFs based on
insulation oil in high voltage engineering.

2 EXPERIMENT
To determine the electrical property that predominantly Figure 1. Three different transformer oil-based NFs with NP suspensions
affects streamer dynamics in NFs based on transformer oil, of Fe3O4;TiO2 and Al2O3.
representative conductive, semiconductive, and
nonconductive NPs are chosen. Their electrical The NFs disperse steadily after ultrasonic dispersion,
conductivities and relative permittivities are listed in Table dehydration, and degassing, as presented in Figure 1. The
1. The electrical properties of the semiconductor are highly processed oil was sealed for months before testing and
dependent on temperature; therefore, the value ranges of experimenting.
conductivity and permittivity are extensive. TiO2 NP is 2.2 MEASUREMENTS OF BREAKDOWN
considered a dielectric insulator based on the experimental STRENGTH
condition (room temperature) and the low-temperature
plasma simulation in this study. This insulator may be high The gap of the needle–plate electrode was 5 mm. The
in permittivity and low in conductivity. needle possessed a curvature radius of 40 µm, whereas the
radius of the plate was 5 cm. The waveform of the
switching impulse voltage was 250 µs/2500 µs. This
Table 1. Electrical properties of representative conductive and dielectric waveform was generated by the customized impulse
NP materials. generator. The impulse breakdown voltages were also
NP type Fe3O4 TiO2 Al2O3 measured based on the standard procedures to test the
Relative permittivity 80 31 to 114 9.9 breakdown voltages of lightning impulse (IEC 60897-1987)
Conductivity (S·m−1) 104 10−8 to 101 10−12 [14]. The initially selected voltage, which was low, was
Relaxation time (s)
7.47 × 3.13 × 10−11 to
42.5 applied to the oil sample and then increased by 5 kV until
10−14 0.20 breakdown occurred. The process was repeated 10 times.
Material type Conductor Semiconductor Insulator The minimum interval between two successive tests was 1
Surface modifier Oleic acid Stearic acid Span 80 min. The crest values of the impulse voltages were recorded
Note: The italicized parameters are presented in this paper. by an oscilloscope. Their average values were considered

Table 2. Test results of switching impulse withstand voltage in a system with a 5 mm electrode gap system given pure oil and NFs.

Test sample Average breakdown Time to Enhancement of Standard

−1 voltage (kV) breakdown (µs) breakdown voltage (%) deviation
– Particle radius (nm) Density (g·L )
Pure oil – – 38.44 112 0 6.32%
Fe3O4 NF 10 ± 0.1 0.03 55.44 482 44.3 5.79%
TiO2 NF 10 ± 0.1 0.06 51.24 392 33.3 2.65%
Al2O3 NF 10 ± 0.1 0.06 52.08 323 35.5 1.58%
382 W. Sima et al.: Effects of Conductivity and Permittivity of Nanoparticle on Transformer Oil Insulation Performance
the experimental results. The following conclusions can be
drawn from Table 2:
1) During the switching impulse tests, the positive
voltage of electrical breakdown of the Fe3O4 NF is 44.3%
higher than that of the base oil. The increase in the positive
voltage of impulse breakdown of this NF is similar to the
increases in Al2O3 and TiO2 NFs at 33.3% and 35.5%,
respectively.
2) The breakdown times of Fe3O4, TiO2, and Al2O3 NFs
are 482, 392, and 323 µs, respectively. This finding
suggests that the discharge processes in all NFs are
significantly hindered by the addition of NPs. The standard
deviations for all NFs are less than 7%.
The insulation performances (especially the positive
withstand voltages) of all three NFs containing conductive,
semiconductive, and dielectric NPs are significantly
improved, compared to the breakdown strength of pure oil.
Based on these results, we assume that both the
conductivity and permittivity of NPs are significant in the
development of streamers.
3 CHARGING DYNAMICS OF
NANOPARTICLE
In Section 2, we conclude that both NP conductivity and
permittivity modify fundamental electrodynamic processes
in oil. The action mechanisms are deduced in Section 3.
3.1 CHARGE ACCUMULATION ON
NANOPARTICLES
3.1.1 CONDUCTIVE AND DIELECTRIC
NANOPARTICLES IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC
FIELD
The massive electrons in the conductive metal oxides
(such as the Fe3O4 NP used in this paper) move inversely
along the direction of the local electric field, which
generates positive and negative charges at opposite sides of
the conductor. These surface charges are called induced
charges. Charge induction is almost instantaneous. Aside
from electrons, positive holes are involved in the
conduction of semi-conductors (such as the TiO2 NP used
in this study).
With dielectrics (such as the Al2O3 NP used in this
study), the bound charges are formed at the surface of NP
due to the vertical electric field known as dielectric
polarization. This process consists of displacement and
turning-direction polarizations. The (electronic and ionic)
displacement polarizations are generated very swiftly in
only 10−15 to 10−12 s. Turning-direction polarization
(including dipole polarization) is highly dependent on
temperature and the applied local electric field. Thus,
polarization can only be obtained after 10−10 s to 10−2 s.
Many important materials contain a sea of free
electrons that produce a finite conductivity value. These
materials also possess tightly bound electrons that generate
dielectric permittivity. Thus these materials serve as both
conductors and insulators as well, such as the Fe3O4 NP
suspensions in transformer oil in this study.
In the time range of streamer development in NFs based
on transformer oil (tens of nanoseconds), NP surfaces
contain not only induced charges, but also polarized
charges. In other words, both induced and polarized charges
are fast enough to follow the electric field during streamer
discharge in transformer oil.
3.1.2 SURFACE CHARGE DENSITY ON
NANOPARTICLES
The electric field outside the conductive or dielectric
spherical NP at its radial direction in transformer oil is
deduced in [5] and introduced in [15], and as shown in
Figure 2. These fields are expressed as follows:
 2 R     t 
3
Er  r  R  ,    E0 1  3  2 1 exp   
 r 21   2  r 
(1)
2R3  2  1   t   
 3  1  exp     cos 
r 2 1   2    r   
21   2
r = (2)
2 1   2
where E0 is the applied electric field; R is the radius of the
NP; ε1 and ε2 are the permittivities of transformer oil and
NP, respectively; and σ1 and σ2 are the conductivities.  r is
the charge relaxation time.
(，
_+ + +_
_ _
_ _
__ _
_ __
Figure 2. Sketch of nanoparticle surrounded by insulating transformer oil
under electric field, E0
The time constant τr describes the typical time that the
redistribution of polarized charges on a NP needs, and is
closely related to the electrical conductivity and
permittivity. The simplest theoretical description of
relaxation as function of time t is an exponential law
exp(-t/τr). In a semiconductor, it is a measurement of
how long it takes to become neutralized by conduction
process. The charge relaxation times are very small in
conductors and can be large in semiconductors and
insulators. The charge relaxation times of three different
NPs are listed in Table 1. For nanoparticles with
different dielectric parameters, some deductions can be
drawn from equations (1)-(2), as follows:
(1). Given perfectly conductive material such as Fe3O4
NP, τr is 7.47 × 10−14 s. t  is in ns (the timescales of interest
for streamer growth). Therefore, the exponential function is
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 22, No. 1; February 2015 383

exp  t  r   0 . The external radial electric field is significantly enhanced by the mismatch between
conductivity and permittivity and transformer oil. These
calculated as follows:
charges are similarly formed. We therefore predict that the
 2 R   1 
3
 
Er r  R  ,   E0 1  3  2
 r
 cos 
2 1   2 
influences of both conductive and dielectric NPs on the
electrodynamic process of streamer development in
(3) transformer oil are similar. The following sections
 2 R3  
 E0 1  3  cos   ir ( 2   1 ) introduce the charge accumulation in and the charging
 r  dynamics of NPs.
As shown in equation (3), the external radial electric 3.1.3 POTENTIAL WELL ON NANOPARTICLE
field is distorted by strong NP conductivity. Hence, the
Charges of opposite polarity mutually attract, whereas
induced surface charge density on the interface of the
similar charges repel each other. In this section, we explain
dielectric particle is written as:
the trapping of NPs by charge carriers in a novel and
  
 s  ir  ( D1R   D 2 R  ) quantitative manner. Charge carriers are trapped by the
potential well distribution, which is induced by surface
  
 1 Er r  R  ,    2 Er r  R  ,   (4) charges on conductive and dielectric NPs. Hence, the
relation between the external potential and the modified
 31 E0 cos 
electric field outside the spherical NP is written as follows:
(2). The τr values of TiO2 and Al2O3 NPs are 0.2 and 42.5 s,    
respectively. These NPs are spherical dielectric materials, and ext  r  = 
r
  
E r  R  ,  d r =  Er r  R  ,  dr (8)
r

the dielectric relaxations are negligible in both cases as a result
of the long τr relative to the timescale of interest for streamer By combining equation (3) with equation (8), the
growth. However, (oriented or distorted) dipole and ionic external potential distribution in a conductive NP can be
(displacement) polarizations can still be observed. As calculated as follows:
described in Section 3.1.1, the polarized charges from
 2  1 3 1
displacement and dipole turning-direction polarizations are fast ext =  E0 rcos  R E0 2 cos (r  R ) (9)
enough to follow the swift changes in the electric field of the 2 1   2 r
streamer (tens of nanoseconds). Therefore, the exponential
where  E0 rcos is the potential produced by the applied
function is exp  t  r   1 (t has a nanosecond timescale). The
electric field. The potential well distribution induced by
external radial electric field is calculated as follows:
surface charge is
 2R3    
Er  r  R  ,    E0 1  3  2 1  cos  (5) p =
 2  1 3 1
R E0 2 cos (r  R)
r 21   2  (10)
 21   2 r
The external radial electric field is distorted by strong NP Similarly, the potential distribution produced by the
permittivity, which is modified by polarized rather than free polarized surface charge on a dielectric NP is given as:
charges. In addition, the extent of modification by the
polarized charges on the surface is highly dependent on NP  2  1 3 1
p = R E0 2 cos (r  R) (11)
permittivity and the surrounding dielectric liquid. 21 + 2 r
The electric field at the inner surface of the dielectric
sphere is introduced in [16] and is expressed as follows: As shown in equations (10) and (11), the potential well
 31  distribution outside an NP is modified regardless of whether

E r  R  ,  
21   2
E0 cos   ir the NP surface contains induced or polarized charges. This
(6) phenomenon influences the charge carriers. The potential
31  well distribution that induces surface charges either along
+ E0 sin   i
21   2 the same direction (θ = 0) as or in the opposite direction (θ
= π) from the applied electric field is provided as:
The density of these charges on the interface of the
dielectric particle is expressed as follows:  x2  x1 3 1
 2 x +x R E0 r 2 (  0, r  R )
 s   R + R 
    p  E0 =  1 2 (12)
 ir  ( P R   P R  )   x2  x1 R 3 E 1 (   , r  R )
 2 x1 +x2 0 2
r
   
   2   0  Er r  R  ,    1   0  Er r  R  ,  (7)
where x1 and x2 are either the conductivity or permittivity of
 
 3 0 2 1 E0 cos  the transformer oil and NP, respectively.
21   2 The shapes at the top of Figure 3 depict the
As indicated in equations (4) and (7), the accumulated distributions of surface charges and the electrical potential
surface charges in both conductive and dielectric NPs are distributions outside different NPs in the direction of the
384 W. Sima et al.: Effects of Conductivity and Permittivity of Nanoparticle on Transformer Oil Insulation Performance
applied electric field along the axis. (a) denotes an NP
given constant permittivity and conductivity of
transformer oil; (b) represents an NP with various
permittivities and conductivities of transformer oil, and (c)
corresponds to an NP with extremely high conductivity. (a)
has a straight potential line [V(r) + V0(r)] and a potential
well distribution [V(r)] of zero, as denoted by the shapes
at the bottom of Figure 3. Based on this result, charges
were not generated on the NP surface. In (b), the potential
distribution deviates from the potential V0(r), thus
indicating the induction of surface charges on the interface
and the distribution of a shallow potential well in the
vicinity. In (c), numerous charges are generated on the
surface of the spherical conductive NP, thereby rendering
it equipotential. As a result, a deep potential well is
distributes near the NP surface [V(r = R) = V0(r = R)].
The maximum potential depth of the well on the NP
interface is generally proportional to its radius. Therefore,
NP materials with relatively large radii should be added to
the transformer oil on the condition that these NPs have
extraordinary stable solubility without precipitation.
Given this consideration, the ideal NP radius should not
exceed 10 nm.
Figure 3. Electrical potential distributions V(r) + V0(r) (top shapes) and
potential well distributions V(r) (bottom shapes) near (a) NP given
constant permittivity and conductivity of transformer oil, (b) NP with
various permittivities and conductivities of transformer oil, and (c) NP
with extremely high conductivity.
0.6
0.4
Potential well distribution(V)
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-5 -15 0 -10 5 10
Axial distance(nm)
Figure 4. Potential well distributions in the direction of the applied electric
field along the central axes of the spherical Fe3O4, TiO2, and Al2O3 NPs.
The distributions of induced potential well on Fe3O4,
TiO2 and Al2O3 NPs at the applied electric field direction
along the central axis of sphere are shown in Figure 4.
Assuming that the electric field is uniform, i.e., E0 = 100
kV·mm−1 and r = R = 5 nm, the potential well depths on the
surfaces of Fe3O4, TiO2, and Al2O3 NPs are 0.50, 0.47, and
0.27 V, respectively, using the parameters given in Table 1.
Accordingly, the potential wells of dielectric NPs are
shallower than those of conductive NPs. The positive
potential well traps on conductive NPs can capture passing
electrons rapidly and convert them into negatively charged
NPs, which are slower, through repeated trapping. If the
positive and negative potential wells are deep enough,
positive and negative ions, respectively, cannot escape.
Nevertheless, the trapping of electron carrier by NPs
significantly reduces the speed of streamer propagation and
enhances the dielectric strength of transformer oil modified
by NPs.
3.2 CHARGING DYNAMICS OF NANOPARTICLES
As described in Section 3.1, the NPs in transformer oil
are induced or polarized under the applied electric field
(Figure 5a) in a very short timescale. Figure 5b indicates
that positive and negative charges are generated at the
lower and upper hemispheres of NPs, whereas no space
charge is observed in the bulk. The electrons that originate
from either ionization or injection move quickly in the
positively charged hemisphere (Figure 5c). As a result, the
distribution immediately evens out. This process
represents the charging dynamics of NPs. Upon
completion of this charging process, the spherical NP is
saturated with negative charges, and electrons are no
longer trapped (Figure 5d). The positive ions and negative
ions are not taken into consideration and are regarded
motionless during the charging process, for their mobility
(p = n = 1 × 10−9 m2·V−1·s−1 [17]) are five orders of
magnitude smaller than electron’s mobility (μe = 1 × 10−4
m2·V−1·s−1 [18]).
E0
+ + ++++
+
Fe3O4 纳米粒子 +++ ++
+
_
+
_+
TiO2 ( ， ) __ _
_ _ _
Al2O3
a 植物绝缘油 b
(， )
___
_+ + +_ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
__ __ _ _
_ _ __ _
c d
15 Figure 5. Electric field lines after a uniform z-directed electric field is
activated at t = 0 around an NP with radius R, permittivity ε2, and
conductivity σ2. This NP is surrounded by transformer oil with permittivity
ε1 and conductivity σ1.
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 22, No. 1; February 2015 385

Once the NPs are saturated with negative charges, the attachment. The time constant of attachment is given as
electron saturation charge for the nanoparticle is expressed follows:
as follows:
 NP  2ns (17)
2
Qs   0 s   R  sin   2
  R  cos   d
2

(13) The value of attachment time is determined based on

2
 R2  0  s d the charging process presented in Figure 6. Charging all
three kinds of NPs to 80% requires approximately 2 ns.
As such, the saturation charges on conductive and The mobility and recombination rates of negatively
dielectric NPs can be calculated using equations (4), (7), charged NPs are presumably similar to those of negative
and (13) as follows: ions. The nanoparticles used in solid composites cannot
mobilize and keep neutral during conduction process
 121 E0 R 2 , conductive NP because the NPs are the recombination centers of
 electrons and positive holes [19].
Qs   2 2 (14)
 121 E0 R 2   , dielectric NP -18
x 10
 1 2 2

Magnitude of deposited charge[C]

As shown in equation (14), the saturation charges on NPs
are proportionate to the square of the radius, thus 1.5
suggesting that NP radius contributes significantly to the
trapping of electron carriers. According to [5], the charge
on a spherical NP can be calculated as follows: 1
Fe3O4
Q t
Q (t )  s TiO2
 pc 1  t (15) 0.5 Al2O3
 pc
where the time constant for NP charging τpc is computed as
0
follows[5]: 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time[ns]
41
 pc  (16) Figure 6. Various charging dynamics of Fe3O4, TiO2, and Al2O3 NPs in
| e | e transformer oil with different charging limits (Qs). τpc = 0.779 ns.

where the electron density in transformer oil is presumably

e = −1000 C·m−3; the electron mobility μe = 1 × 10−4
m2·V−1·s−1; ε1 = 2.2 × ε0 = 1.95 × 10−11 F·m−1; and the
charging time of NP in oil is τpc = 7.79 × 10−10 s. If the NP
radius is R = 5 × 10−9 m, the saturation charges (Qs) for the
Fe3O4, TiO2, and Al2O3 NPs are −1.836 × 10−18 C (11.4 e),
−1.607 × 10−18 C (10.0 e), and −1.270 × 10−18 C (7.9 e),
respectively. This result indicates that each Fe3O4 NP can
potentially trap 11.4 electrons. Thus, it is superior to TiO2
(10.0 electrons) and Al2O3 (7.9 electrons). Furthermore,
high levels of conductivity or permittivity in NPs facilitate
the increased trapping of charges. As a result, streamer
development is greatly affected.
The charging processes of the three different kinds of
NPs are shown in Figure 6. In this figure, the NPs trap the
electrons quickly, especially in the first 2 ns. The charging
process then slows down until the NP is saturated with
negative charges and henceforth repels electrons. The
charging processes of the Fe3O4, TiO2, and Al2O3 NPs are
quick enough to capture the electrons in NF streamers. In
addition, the charging time constants of NPs are short
relative to the timescales of interest for streamer growth.
Therefore, all of the Fe3O4, TiO2, and Al2O3 NPs
significantly influence the electrodynamics in NFs.
NPs trap the electrons and transform them into slow,
negatively charged particles. This process is similar to the
attachment of electrons to neutral molecules. Thus, electron
charging on NPs is typically substituted with electron
4 MODEL OF POSITIVE STREAMER
PROPAGATION IN TRANSFORMER OIL-
BASED NANOFLUIDS
Electric field dependent molecular ionization has proved
to be the key mechanism for positive streamer development
in transformer oil by many researchers [20-22]. The large
electric field will lead to the extraction of electrons from
neutral molecules and generates the same amount of free
electrons and positive ions, which is known as ionization.
4.1 GEOMETRICAL MODEL
The geometrical model of a streamer in oil is constructed
in an axisymmetric space dimension in COMSOL Multi-
physics [23] as shown in Figure 7. The curvature radius of
the hyperbolic shaped conductive needle is assumed to be
40 μm and the shape of needle electrode satisfies：
2 2
z r a2
      1; cr  (18)
b a b
where b is the gap spacing (1mm) and cr is the curvature
radius of the needle electrode (40μm). The hyperbolic shape
of the needle electrode is dependent on constants a and b.
The liquid electrical breakdown process (as shown in
Table 2) involves the ionization initiation and the
development of hierarchical streamers. Streamer initiation
is significantly affected by the different forms of applied
386 W. Sima et al.: Effects of Conductivity and Permittivity of Nanoparticle on Transformer Oil Insulation Performance

voltage; however, their effects on streamer development
rarely vary. Therefore, the voltage waveform used in the
simulation does not affect the analysis of NPs’ effect on
streamer development. And in this model, a step voltage is
therefore applied to the needle electrode. The electrode
reaches its maximum value (90 kV) very quickly. Thus,
streamer initiation time can be neglected. To avoid reaching
singularity, the step voltage to be integrated into the model
is determined using a hyperbolic tangent function. This
function increases quickly but smoothly, as shown in Figure
8 and expressed as follows:.
V=90×tanh (1×1013×t [1/s]) kV.
As depicted by the waveform in this figure, the step
voltage reaches its maximum value in only 3 × 10−13 s,
which is far shorter than the timescale of the streamer (ns).
Thus, this time can be ignored. The application of the step
voltage to the needle electrode generates a nonuniform
distribution of Laplacian electric field at t = 4 × 10−13 s, as
shown in the 2D plot of electric field distribution in Figure
9. The field is most strongly enhanced near the sharp tip of
the needle tip (7 × 108 V·m−1). This enhancement is
adequate to induce local ionization in the oil and the
immediate localization of main activities in the region of
the needle tip. The initial simulation is conducted at
(19) atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) and at room temperature
(300 K).
4.2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The molecular ionization that is dependent on the electric
field directly ionizes streamer discharge. In this mechanism,
a highly electric field extracts an electron from a neutral
molecule. It then generates a free electron and a positive ion.
Negative ions are formed through the attachment of
electrons to neutral molecules in oil and to neutral NPs.
Thus, the drift-dominated equations of charge continuity for
the positive and negative ions, negative NP, and electron
are included in the model of molecular ionization that is
dependent on the electric field along with Poisson’s
equation [5]. These equations are given as follows:

  ( r  0 V )        e + NP ; E  V (20)

      e Re   (     NP ) R
Figure 7. Geometrical model of positive streamer discharge.
t
 
      E  GI ( E ) 
e

e
(21)

100
 e     e Re e
80 t
 
     e e E  GI ( E ) 
e

a (22)
Applied step voltage(kV)

e
 1  H (| NP || NPsat |)
60  NP

      R
40
t
 a e

       E  e    
(23)
20
 NP     R
t
  NP

     NP  NP E  e 1  H (| NP || NPsat |)    NP NP
e
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 (24)
Time(s) -12
x 10
Figure 8. Waveform of the step voltage applied to the needle electrode. where εr and ε0 are the relative permittivities of transformer
oil and the permittivity of vacuum, respectively, (ρ+, ρ-, ρe,
ρNP), (μ+, μ-, μe, μNP) are the charge density, and the drift
mobility of positive ion, negative ion, electron and

negatively charged nanoparticle. GI ( E ) is ionization
source,  a (200ns) and  NP (2ns) are the electron
attachment time to neutral molecules and nanoparticles,
respectively.
The model considers the trapping of electron carriers by
NPs according to the Heaviside function used in equations
(22) and (24). When the density of a negatively charged NP
Figure 9. 2D plot of Laplacian electric field distribution (i.e.,  2  0 ) is lower than its limit ( | NP |  | NPsat | , H | NP || NPsat | =0 ),
in the needle–plate electrodes (40 µm radius). The earth electrodenot the NP continues to charge. By contrast, the charging
shown here has the following properties: r = 0, z = 0 mm. process stops when the NP is saturated with negative
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
electrons, i.e., (  NP   NPsat , H   NP   NPsat   1 ).
 NPsat is the absolute value of the saturation charge
density of the NP. This density is the product of the
numerical density of NPs (n0) and the saturation charge of
each NP (Qs).  NPsat is expressed as follows:
| NPsat |=n0 | Qs |
20 −3
Assuming that n0 = 3.4 × 10 m [24], the Qs and
| NPsat | values of the three different NPs are listed in Table
3. The differences in NP saturation charge densities indicate
the varied capability of these NP materials with respect to
electron trapping and the dissimilar effects on streamer
development in transformer oil. The electric fields are
different in different positions, meaning the saturation
charge density in Table 3 is under the assumption that the
electric field is uniform.
Table 3. The saturation charge Qs and the absolute value of the
nanoparticle saturation charge density IρNPsatI.
NP material Qs |ρNPsat| ( C·m-3)
Fe3O4 -1.836×10-18C=11.4e
TiO2 -1.767×10-18C=10.0e
Al2O3 -1.270×10-18C=7.9e
Figure 10. Streamer discharge in pure transformer oil
Net charge (C/m3)
Figure 11. Net space charge distributions in streamer channel along the
symmetry at different times.
Vol. 22, No. 1; February 2015 387
4.3 STREAMER DEVELOPMENT IN
TRANSFORMER OIL
Figure 10 shows the three dimensional streamer
development in pure transformer oil after it initiates from
the needle electrode. It takes about 174ns for the streamer
to traverse the oil gap. As seen, the time scale of streamer
propagation is negligible according to the rise time of the
(25) applied voltage (250 µs/2500 µs) in the experiment (Table
2).
The average streamer velocity is about 5.7 km/s which is
very close to the experimental value under step voltage
(100 ns rise time)[25]. The electric field at streamer head
stabilizes at 5.5×108V/m [26]. The phenomenon of “pulse-
like” net space charge distributions along the streamer
channel in Figure 11 can be explained with the mobility of
electrons and positive ions.
As described in [5], the electrons with high mobility are
swept away from the ionization zone and absorbed by the
positive electrode. During the process, the positive ions stay
because of their low mobility relative to electrons. A region
of net positive space charge is created mostly attributed to
the fast moving electrons, which increases the magnitude of
the local electric field and ionizes more molecules in the oil.
624
The electric field drives away the positive space charge
547
zone from the positive electrode and creates the
432
development of streamer.
4.4 EFFECT OF NANOPARTICLES ON
STREAMERS IN OIL-BASED NANOFLUIDS
Streamer propagation in transformer oil-based nanofluids
is also dependent on field ionization in the same manner as
it is in pure oil. The difference is the charging of
nanoparticles which takes place in the nanofluid. As
described in Section 3, many of the mobile electrons
produced by ionization are trapped before they can be
swept away from the ionization region. This alters the
electrodynamics involved in the development of the space
charge wave in the nanofluid such that they are significantly
slower from those in pure oil.
Figure 12 displays the 2D plots of streamer discharge in
pure transformer oil and in three different NFs based on
transformer oil at t = 170 ns. The physical dimensions of
388 W. Sima et al.: Effects of Conductivity and Permittivity of Nanoparticle on Transformer Oil Insulation Performance

3) Practically, determining NPs with high conductivity

(such as Fe3O4) is easier than obtaining NPs with high
relative permittivity. The study results can guide the
selection of NPs that can improve the insulation
performance of transformer oil.

Pure oil NF with Al2O3

NF with TiO2 NF with Fe3O4

Figure 12. Two dimensional streamer discharge in pure transformer oil
and in NFs (t=170ns).
Figure 14. Distributions of negative charge density in Fe3O4 NF along the
symmetry at various times (t is in s).
8
  6
x 10
Pure oil As evidenced by the distribution of negative charges
Fe3O4 NF exhibited in Figure 14, NPs trap electrons. The magnitude of
5
Electric field magnitude (V/m)

TiO2 NF the distribution of negative charge density initially increases

Al2O3 NF rapidly and then transitions to a gradual increase. This
4 vigorous initial increase is attributed to the rapid trapping of
electrons by neutral molecules, especially by NPs, in
3 transformer oil. The transitions of negative charge densities
at various times are ascribed to the fact that at this point, the
2 NPs have been saturated with charges. Following this period,
the NPs can no longer trap free electrons. Subsequently,
1 negative charge density increased gradually as a result of
electron attachment to neutral molecules in transformer oil.
0 In NFs based on transformer oil, the highly dense electron
0.2 0.4 0 0.6 0.8 1
Axial distance from anode (mm)
region shrinks, the ionization region condenses, and both the
Figure 13. Comparison of streamer electric fields in pure oil and in
streamer velocities and radii decrease.
nanoparticle modified oil along the symmetry at t=150ns.
5 CONCLUSIONS
the streamers in transformer oil and of those in the NFs are In this study, we test the withstand voltages of switching
very similar to those observed experimentally in [26-27]. impulse of pure oil and oil-based NFs using NPs with
Figure 13 shows the electric fields of streamers along the different electrical properties. Furthermore, the charge
symmetry. Based on Figure 12 and Figure 13, the following accumulation dynamics of conductive and dielectric NPs
rules regarding the differences between the streamers that are deduced. To analyze the effect of NP suspensions on
develop in transformer oil-based NFs and those in oil-based streamer development, the molecular ionization model of
NFs can be drawn: streamer discharge in oil is introduced. This model is based
1) In NFs based on transformer oil, the propagation on hydrodynamics. Based on the study findings, the
velocities of streamers in NFs are hindered and the streamer following main conclusions are drawn:
radii shrink. The capability of these NFs to retard streamer 1) The results of the breakdown tests of impulse
development is highly dependent on the conductivity or withstand voltages show that oil-based NFs with
permittivity of NPs. conductive, semiconductive, and dielectric NP suspensions
2) In accordance with the test results of insulation have much higher voltage levels of positive breakdown than
performance in Table 2, the streamers in Fe3O4 (high that of pure transformer oil.
conductivity) and TiO2 (high permittivity) NFs are 2) The mismatch between either NP conductivity or
significantly hindered, whereas those in Al2O3 NFs permittivity and transformer oil generates induced or
(moderate permittivity) are less affected. polarized charges on the surfaces of NPs that produces the
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
potential well. The potential well that forms on the NP
interface, traps passing electrons, and enhances the
breakdown performance of transformer oil.
3) The results of the simulation of positive streamers
indicate that in NFs, the streamers are hindered and the
radii of the streamer shrink. The interfaces of NPs with
either high conductivity or permittivity contain high
amounts of saturation charges. Hence, they strongly affect
streamer development and enhance the breakdown strength
of oil-based NF.
4) The density distributions of negatively charged
particles confirm that the NPs trap electrons and transform
them into negatively charged particles. These NPs suppress
the development of streamer discharge in oil considerably.
Given the tested switching withstand voltage, charge
accumulation theory, and streamer simulation results, our
current research focuses on space charge measurements in
transformer oil using Kerr techniques as held by Chongqing
University [28].
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Natural Science
Foundation of China (51277190) and the Independent
Research of State Key Laboratory of Power Transmission
Equipment & System Security and New Technology
(Chongqing University) (2007DA10512711201).
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Wenxia Sima was born in Henan province, China,
on 13 July 1965. She graduated from Chongqing
University in 1988 and obtained the Ph.D. degree
in 1994 from Chongqing University. Her
employment experience includes the college of
Electrical Engineering of Chonging University. Her
fields of interest include high voltage outdoor
insulation and overvoltage protection
390 W. Sima et al.: Effects of Conductivity and Permittivity of Nanoparticle on Transformer Oil Insulation Performance
Jian Shi received the Bachelor degree in electrical
engineering from Chongqing University in 2009.
He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the State Key
Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment &
System Security and New Technology, Chongqing
University. His research interests include the
measurement of space charge in liquid based on
Kerr effect and theoretical work on streamer
discharge in liquid.
Qing Yang received the B.S and Ph.D. degrees in
electrical engineering, respectively, in 2002 from
North China Electrical Power University and in
2006 from Chongqing University, China. He is now
an Associate Professor in the State Key Laboratory
of Power Transmission Equipment & System
Security and New Technology, Chongqing
University. His research interests include outdoor
insulation in complex ambient conditions, electric-
field calculations andspace charge dynamics. He is
the author and coauthor of more than 30 journal and international
conference papers.
Sisi Huang received the Bachelor degree in
electrical and electronic engineering from
Huazhong University of Science and Technology in
2010. She is currently a postgraduate student in the
State Key Laboratory of Power Transmission
Equipment and Security and New Technology,
Chongqing University. Her research interests
include the measurement of space charge in liquid
based on Kerr effect.
Xuefei Cao received the Bachelor degree in
electrical engineering and Automation from
Chongqing University in 2011. She is currently a
Master candidate in the State Key Laboratory of
Power Transmission Equipment & System Security
and New Technology, Chongqing University. Her
research interests include the measurement of space
charge in liquid based on Kerr effect.