(EE3105) Microelectronic Systems III 2018 March

HNDE (Electrical) 3rd Year

Time allowed: 3 hrs. Answer any 5 questions
1. What is mean by MIPS?
Million Instructions per second is a measure of the execution speed of the computer. The
measure approximately provides the number of machine instructions that could be executed in a
second by a computer.
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 × 106

2. What is mean by Millions of floating points?

MFLOPS (millions of floating point operations per second). Useful in comparing performance
of "scientific applications" machines.

3. Define CPI.
Clocks per Instruction. Instruction-level parallelism. Without instruction-level parallelism,
simple instructions take 4 or more cycles to execute. Instructions execute loops take at least one
clock per loop iteration.

3. Describe measurements of pipelining (Speedup ratio, Efficiency and Throughput).

The speedup is defined as the ratio between maximum time taken by non-pipeline process over
process using pipelining.

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑆𝑆 =
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

Example for k stages and n numbers of tasks in pipeline system.

𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑆𝑆 =
(𝑘𝑘 + 𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

The efficiency is defined as the percentage of time when processor are busy over total time
taken.

𝑛𝑛
𝜂𝜂 =
[𝑘𝑘 + 𝑛𝑛 − 1]

Throughput is the number of task completed by a pipeline per unit time.

𝜂𝜂
𝑊𝑊 =
𝑡𝑡

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3. A non-pipeline system takes 60 ns to process a task. The same task can be processed in six
stages pipeline with a clock cycle of 10 ns. Determine the speedup ratio of the pipeline for 100
tasks. What is the maximum speed up that can be achieved?

Total time taken for non-pipeline to complete 100 task is = 100 × 60

= 6000 ns
Total time taken with pipeline to complete 100 task is = (100 + 6 –1) ×10
= 1050 ns
Thus speed up ratio will be = 6000 / 1050
= 4.76
The maximum speedup that can be achieved for this process is = 60 / 10
=6

4. Consider a program of 15,000 instructions executed by a linear pipeline processor with a

clock rate of 25MHz. The instruction pipeline has five stages and one instruction is issued per
clock cycle. Calculate speed up ratio, efficiency and throughput of this pipelined processor?

Time taken to execute without pipeline is = 15000 × 5 × (1/25) microseconds

Time taken with pipeline = (15000 + 5 -1) × (1/ 25) microseconds
Speed up ratio = (15000×5×25) / (15000+ 5 -1) × 25 = 4.99

Efficiency = Speed up ratio/ number of segment in pipeline

= 4.99/5
= 0.99
Throughput = number of task completed in unit time
= 0.99 × 25
= 24.9 MIPS

5. Draw space-time diagram for this system.

Time
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Instruction 1
Instruction 2
Instruction 3
Instruction 4
Instruction 5
Instruction 6
Instruction 7
Instruction 8
Instruction 9
Instruction 10

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5. Draw a 4 stage pipelining.

5. Considering above CPI has 1.5nS clock cycles. Calculate the CPI and maximum
Throughput.
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

Time taken to execute one instruction = 1.5nS

Therefore, CPI = 1.5nS
Throughput = 1/ × 1.5 × 10-9
= 6.7 × 108
= 6.7 MIPS

5. Briefly explain the process of RISC and CISC.

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) is a CPU design that recognizes only a limited
number of instructions such as Simple instructions which are executed quickly by reducing the
number of address modes and breaking down multi-cycle instructions into multiple single-cycle
instructions.
• Limited and simple instruction set
• Large number of general purpose registers
• Use of compiler technology to optimize register use
• Emphasis on optimizing the instruction pipeline
• Instructions are executed within one clock cycle

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CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
These instructions are complicated combination instructions such as loops. “High level”
Instruction Set -Executes several “low level operations”
Ex: load, arithmetic operation, memory store
• Instructions can operate directly on memory
• Small number of general purpose registers
• Instructions take multiple clocks to execute
• Few lines of code per operation

6. What are the hazards in pipelining design and give solutions for avoid them?
Hazards reduced the performance from the ideal speedup gained by pipelining. Disrupt the
smooth execution of the pipeline. They may give wrong result. Three types of hazards.
• Structural hazards
Arise from resource conflicts when the hardware can’t support all possible combinations
of overlapping instructions. Due to hardware conflicts.
• Data hazards
Attempt to use data before it is ready.
• Control hazards
Change in flow of statement like branch, jump, or any other control flow changes
conditions.
• Exception hazard
Due to some exception or interrupt occurred.
Solutions
Increase available resources
• Multiple main memory port
• Multiple ALUs

7. What is mean by pipeline interlock?

A hardware pipeline interlock detects a data hazard and stalls the pipeline until the hazard is
cleared. The CPI for the stalled instruction increase by the length of the stall.

8. What is mean by multithread?

Multithreading enables the processing of multiple threads at on time.
Multithread models
• One to one - Each user-level thread maps to kernel thread
• Many to one - Many user-level threads mapped to single kernel thread
• Many to many - Allows many user level threads to be mapped to many kernel threads

9. State advantages and disadvantages of Microprocessor based system.

Advantages
• Easy to implement
• Easy to modify
• Cost effective
• Storage and retrieval of information/data

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Disadvantages
• It has limitations on the size of data
• Most microprocessor does not support floating-point operations.
• Overheating physically
• Not bit addressable

10. Describe things in high level hierarchy for multilevel design.

Multilevel view point
Following are the typical steps involved in this concept (Multilevel view point).

Program oriented language level (Level 5)

Assembly language level (Level 4)

Operating system machine level (Level 3)

Conventional machine level (Level 2)

Micro program level (Level 1)

Digital logic level (Level 0)

11. Describe Flynn’s classification and Feng’s classification.

Flynn’s classification
This is based on notion of a stream information.
Two types of information flow into a processor are instructions and data.
The instruction or data streams can be single or multiple.
• Single-instruction single-data streams (SISD)
• Single-instruction multiple-data streams (SIMD)
• Multiple-instruction single-data streams (MISD)
• Multiple-instruction multiple-data steams (MIMD)
Feng’s classification
The maximum number of binary digits that can be processed within a unit time by a computer
system is called the maximum parallelism degree P.
A bit slice is a string of bits one from each of the words at the same vertical position
• Word Serial and Bit Serial (WSBS)
• Word Parallel and Bit Serial (WPBS)
• Word Serial and Bit Parallel (WSBP)
• Word Parallel and Bit Parallel (WPBP)

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12. CPU block diagram

13. Microprocessor block diagram

14. Define mean time to failure (MTTF).

The statistical average of the time between failures of a population or fleet of systems or
components that are not repairable or replaceable, calculated by dividing the total accumulated
population operating or field time by the number of failures.

𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 =
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

15. Define mean time between failures (MTBF).

The statistical average of the time between failures across a population or fleet of systems or
components that are repairable or replaceable, calculated by dividing the total accumulated
population operating or field time by the number of failures.

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16. Define failure rate.
The inverse of MTTF is known as failure rate (λ).

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𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (𝜆𝜆) =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

17. Draw the bathtub curve.

18. Classification of OS.

Multi-user
Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating systems permit
hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.

Distributed
A distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to
be a single computer. Supports running a program on more than one CPU.

Multitasking
Allows more than one program to run concurrently.

Templated
Distributed and cloud computing in an OS. Distributed and cloud computing context, templating
In an OS, distributed and cloud computing context, templating refers to creating a single virtual
machine image In an OS.

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Embedded
Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are
designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy.

Real time
Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not
real-time.

Library
A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system provides,
such as networking, are provided in the form of libraries and composed with the application and
configuration code to construct a uni-kernel.

19. Describe following terms.

a) Debugger
b) Linker
c) Compiler
d) Assembler

Debugger
A debugger is a computer program used by programmers to test and debug a target program.
Debuggers may use instruction-set simulators, rather than running a program directly on the
processor to achieve a higher level of control over its execution.

Linker
A linker is a computer program that takes one or more object files generated by a compiler and
combines them into one, executable program. The linker combines separately-compiled object
files using symbols into a single, unified program.

Compiler
A compiler is a software program that transforms high-level source code that is written by a
developer in a high-level programming language into a low level object code (binary code) in
machine language, which can be understood by the processor.

Assembler
An assembler is a type of computer program that interprets software programs written in
assembly language into machine language, code and instructions that can be executed by a
computer.

20. Describe PLD with advantages.

A PLD (Programmable Logic Device) is an integrated circuit consisting of arrays of several

AND and OR gates, and maybe flip-flops, which the user can "program" to connect in various
ways. One PLD might replace a small handful of TTL logic chips.

Types of programmable logic devices

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 • SPLD (Simple Programmable Logic Devices)
o ROM (Read Only Memory)
o PLA (Programmable Logic Array)
o PAL (Programmable Array Logic)
o GAL (Generic Array Logic)
• CPLD (Complex Programmable Logic Array)
• FPGA (Field Programmable Logic Array)

Advantages of PLD
• Faster and reduces the time required to bring a product to market.
• Require fewer components and this reduces PCB, assembly, test and repair costs.
• Design checking is easy, and design change is also easy.
• Reduction in power requirement.

21. Typical faults in microprocessors.

• Single stuck-at faults - Transistor gate oxide short of 1 KΩ to 5 KΩ
• Transistor open and short faults - Due to gate oxide short (GOS)
• Memory faults
• PLA faults (stuck-at, cross-point, bridging) - Caused by absolute short
(<50 Ω) or higher R
• Functional faults (processors)
• Delay faults (transition, path)
• Analog faults

22. Equipment used in fault finding.

• Automatic Test-Pattern Generator
• Random-Pattern Generation
• IDDQ tests
• Path Sensitization Method

23. Instruction processing.

• Fetch instruction from memory
• Decode instruction
• Evaluate address
• Fetch operands from memory
• Execute operation
• Store result

24. Explain about two file systems.

A file system is a process that manages how and where data on a storage disk, typically a hard
disk drive (HDD), is stored, accessed and managed. It typically manages operations, such as
storage management, file naming, directories/folders, metadata, access rules and privileges.

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File Allocation Table (FAT)
FAT is file system used in hard drives with 12 or 16 bits for each cluster entry into file allocation
table. It is used by the OS to manage files on hard drives. The FAT file system is supported by
nearly all Oss. It reduce the amount of seeking.

FAT32 has a 32-bit cluster address with 28 bits used to hold the cluster number for up to
approximately 268 million clusters.

New Technology File System (NTFS)

The New Technology File System (NTFS) is the standard file structure for the Windows NT
operating system. It is used for retrieving and storing files on the hard disk.

The NTFS introduced a number of enhancements, including

• Innovative data structures that increased performance
• Improved metadata
• Security access control (ACL)
• Disk space utilization, and
• File system journaling.

NTFS include security access control.

NTFS allows authorizations (like write, read or execute).
These file directories can also be located across more than one hard drive
NTFS include a fault tolerance system that automatically repairs hard drive errors without error
messages.

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