Accepted Manuscript

Title: Aerogel production: Current status, research directions,

and future opportunities

Authors: Irina Smirnova, Pavel Gurikov

PII: S0896-8446(17)30768-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2017.12.037
Reference: SUPFLU 4162

To appear in: J. of Supercritical Fluids

Received date: 23-10-2017

Revised date: 26-12-2017
Accepted date: 26-12-2017

Please cite this article as: Irina Smirnova, Pavel Gurikov, Aerogel production: Current
status, research directions, and future opportunities, The Journal of Supercritical
Fluids https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2017.12.037

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.
As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript.
The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof
before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process
errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that
apply to the journal pertain.
Aerogel production: Current status, research directions, and future opportunities
Irina Smirnova*, Pavel Gurikov
Institute of Thermal Separation Processes, Hamburg University of Technology,
Eißendorfer Straße 38, 21073 Hamburg, Germany

PT
Highlights

RI
 Future perspectives of aerogel development
 Promising aerogel research fields

SC
 Main aerogels producers
 Aerogels application: current state

U
Abstract
N
Being the lightest solid materials known, and given the great variety of possible chemistries
A
capable of yielding wet-gels, aerogels and composite aerogel materials have a tremendous
potential in a wide range of applications, where high pore volume and high surface area play
M

major roles. Today, the main commercialized application of aerogels is thermal insulation,
although aerogels can be used for a huge variety of applications such as electrochemistry (super
capacitors), carrier of catalysts and other active agents, filling materials, materials for tissue
D

engineering etc. However, industrial production of aerogels is so far mostly limited to silica-
based systems, limiting the possibility to prove the potential application by prototyping. In this
TE

paper first the state of the art of the aerogel manufacturing and applications are briefly discussed.
Based on the current status, main knowledge gaps and challenges are identified and the future
research directions from the point of view of the authors are derived. In the next future, we expect
EP

significant further development in the area of the organic and hybrid aerogel aerogels,
optimization of their manufacturing processes and their transfer to the market.
CC

Introduction
Aerogels are low-density nanoporous solids with a fine, open-pore structure resulting in low
A

densities (0.003–0.15 kg/m3), high porosity and large surface areas (500–1000 m2/g). This
combination of properties makes them unique in many senses, opening a possibility to a huge
number of applications, some of which have been commercialized already. The definition of
aerogels has been discussed a lot in the last years [1]. According to Smirnova and Gurikov [2] an
aerogel is an open colloidal or polymeric network consisting of loosely packed, bonded particles
or fibers that is expanded throughout its volume by a gas and therefore exhibits very low density
and high specific surface area.
Although the method of preparation is not included in this definition, aerogels are usually formed
by removing all swelling agents from an initial gel without substantial volume reduction or
network compaction or degradation. Initial gel can consist of virtually any material or
combination of different ones (hybrid aerogels). Therefore the chemistry of aerogels is very
flexible: their pore size and surface area can be tailored; furthermore, different functional groups
can be implemented in order to provide desired mechanical and physico-chemical properties.
Although a large number of aerogels exist, the authors are convinced that a lot more new aerogel
types are going to be discovered in the next years, since especially hybrid aerogels enable to

PT
modify the properties and add new functionalities depending on the target application. Other way
around, if the properties of aerogels are improved, new applications, which were impossible in
the past (for instance due to poor mechanical properties, sensitivity to moisture or low sorption
capacity) would be enabled in the future. Accordingly, the main focus of this paper is to point out

RI
and shortly discuss the most promising research directions towards this goal.

Aerogels: Current State

SC
Availability of aerogels

U
Aerogels can be generally produced in different forms, included complex customized monoliths,
since the original liquid starting mixture can be shaped during the gel formation. For thermal
N
insulation, Cherenkov detectors, and supercapacitors, often monoliths are needed. At the same
time, certain flexibility along with the pre-shaped forms can be desired as realized through the
A
incorporation of aerogels into textiles and other matrices. However for many applications (for
M
instance filler materials, carrier for pharmaceuticals and cosmetics) monolithic or matrix-
supported form is not necessary needed. Here granules or powder is the desired shape of the
aerogel product, which has been realized by several suppliers already. Figure 1 represents
D

examples of different forms of commercially available aerogel materials. Recently, production of

aerogel fibers was suggested, although not commercialized yet [3].
TE
EP
CC
A

Transparent silica aerogel glazings [4] Polyurethane aerogel slabs for insulation
(Slentite) [5];
 PT
RI
Flexible aerogel blankets [6] Silica aerogel powder [7]

Figure 1. Different forms of available aerogel materials (examples).

SC
U
N
A
M
D
TE
EP
CC
A
Aerogels have been for a long time seen as a curious material existing mainly in the labs. However,
today at least silica aerogels as well as some organic and carbon aerogel are commercially available.
In Table 1, we provide a list of the commercial aerogel suppliers established today (to the best of
author’s knowledge).

Table 1. Commercial aerogel suppliers established today (to the best of author’s knowledge).
Producer of aerogel-based products, which do not manufacture the aerogels themselves are not included.
Region Country Producer Chemical nature of the Aerogel form

PT
aerogel
Mainly silica incorporated in Blankets
Aspen Aerogel
textiles

RI
American Aerogel Diverse Diverse
Silica Thin films and
NanoPore Inc

SC
related products
Organic aerogels, other types on Panels, particles,
Aerogel Technologies
demand customized
Powder, granules,

U
beads, small
TAASI Mainly silica-based
monoliths,
North
America
USA
Marketech International
N
Customized
customized
Mainly small
A
monoliths,
Inc.
customized
M

Carbon, composite materials Monoliths and

solutions for water
CDT Systems Inc.
purification and
electrochemistry
D

Dow Corning (Head Silica Powder

quarter in USA)
TE

Mainly silica incorporated in Blankets/sheets/

Cabot Corp. (aerogel
support matrix; Hydrophobic granulates
production in Germany)
silica
EP

Germany BASF SE Polyurethane Monolithic panels

Sweden Airglass Transparent silica Monoliths
Svenska Aerogel Silica Powder, granules
CC

Portugal Active Aerogels Silica composites Sheets

Europe Silica from rice wastes and Powder, granules
Spain Green Earth Aerogels
husks
Silica Powder/small
A

Enersens SAS
monoliths
Mainly silica, silica Particles
Keey Aerogels
incorporated in support matrix
Hydrophobic silica Particles
Switzerland
Nexaero
Asia China NanoHigh-Tech Co. Ltd Silica, organic, diverse Diverse
South Korea JIOS Aerogel Corp Mainly silica Powder
 Silica (ambient drying) Powder/Granules/
Japan Tiem Factory Inc.
Monoliths

Generally organic and carbon aerogels can be ordered in small amounts for academic purposes
(e.g., via [8]). Besides that, several academic groups have developed their own aerogel products
and offer them also on request. The aerogel market is seen as having a high growth potential, as
lab scale process breakthroughs described in the scientific literature, show potential of being
translated into industrial scale processes.

PT
Current state of production process

RI
Aerogel production process is traditionally divided in 3 steps: gel formation (chemical reaction,
crosslinking, sol-gel transformation), solvent exchange (if required by the following drying) and

SC
drying. Sometimes, some post-processing (hydrophobization, coating etc.) is needed. The shape
of the final aerogel (monolith, granules, powder) is mainly formed during the gel formation (for
example by molding). At the same step, the microstructure of the later aerogel arises. Thus, the

U
main requirement to the following solvent exchange and drying is to preserve this microstructure
as well as shape from compaction and further changes. The gel formation as such uses mainly the
N
well-known reactions of organic and/or inorganic materials and can be realized based on the
A
corresponding principles provided by chemistry. At the same time, the preservation of the
microstructure formed by the reaction is the key and the main challenge of the aerogel
M

production. All aerogels commercially available at large scale presently use the solvents, which
are directly applicable for drying and therefore do not involve the solvent exchange. Therefore
we can conclude that there is actually no state of the art for the solvent exchange on industrial
D

scale. At the lab-scale the solvent exchange is mainly needed for the production of all types of
aerogels based on hydrogels, since water is poorly miscible with CO2 at reasonably low pressures
TE

and temperatures. Obviously, the scale-up of the solvent exchange needs to be established in the
future. The drying itself can be conducted in three different ways: at ambient conditions, at
supercritical conditions or at low pressure and temperature below the melting point (freeze
EP

drying). Specific features of these processes are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Drying technologies for aerogel production

CC

Conditions Preparation steps Limitations for Main energy

prior to drying the gel matrix costs/Risks
A

Ambient drying Ambient Chemical Compaction of Low energy

pressure, room hydrophobization the matrix: costs; well
or slightly of the matrix is mainly aerogels established
elevated often needed with density >0.1 process;
temperature g/cm3 are extensive use of
reported; Not hydrophobization
possible for agents
fragile and
 hydrophilic
matrices
Freeze drying Vacuum Addition of Target density High energy
(P<100 mbar); modifier (e.g. tert- below 0.03 g/cm3 costs to maintain
-70<T<-20 °C butanol) to avoid hardly low temperature;
structure achievable; pores batch process
compaction partly destroyed
Direct Over critical No solvent Temperature > Moderate energy

PT
supercritical point of organic exchange needed; 100°C often not costs to reach
drying (high solvent used for direct conversion compatible with critical
temperature) gel formation of the solvent to the organic gels; conditions

RI
T>100°C critical conditions possible side (heating); batch
P>30 bar reactions with the process,
solvent High explosion

SC
and toxicity
hazards
Supercritical T>31°C Solvent should be Drying kinetics Significant
drying by CO2 P>74 bar reasonably depend on the energy costs due

U
extraction Typically 40°C, mixable with CO2 CO2/solvent to CO2
100-150 bar at
conditions; N
process
For
transport in/out
the matrix;
compression
(may be
A
hydrogels solvent Well compatible improved by
exchange needed with all kind of process
M
gels optimization);
so far bath
process;
lower explosion
D

risk due to low T

and CO2 nature
TE

It is obvious that each drying process has its own advantages and disadvantages. However, in
EP

authors’s opinion, supercritical drying by CO2 extraction is the most general, safe and
environmentally friendly way of drying, suitable for virtually all kinds of gels. Still, a lot of
efforts are needed to reduce the drying time and the energy costs associated with this process.
CC

Freeze drying seems to be an alternative, if hydrogels can be directly dried without severe loss of
the pore volume and surface area, what is for instance the case for high density gels. Moreover,
freeze drying is usually a long process (tens of hours) leaving a room for process intensification.
However, realization of all drying types at large scale for aerogel manufacturing is currently
A

almost exclusively limited to the silica-based matrices and should be further extended for other
gel types.

Raw materials for the aerogel production

Obviously, the diversification and scale up of the aerogel production is closely associated with
the availability and costs of the raw materials used for their manufacturing. Concerning silica
aerogels, organic silicates and water glass (Na2SiO3)n are established precursors. However, silica
can be found in different types of biomass (inorganic ash). Recently, ashes of various (industrial)
biowastes containing silica species, such as rice husk [9,10], bagasse [11], oil shale [12], fly
[13], and wheat husk [14], have been used as a silica source for aerogel production. The company
“Green Earth Aerogels” has commercialized the production of silica aerogels from rice husks
already.
In the last decade low-molecular-weight gelators have been considered as precursors [15,12],
which could give a new opportunity to integrate the experience from supramolecular chemistry
into aerogel technology. In the case of organic aerogels, biopolymers from various renewable
sources can be used (alginate, pectin, chitosan, and proteins). Lignocellulosic biomasses that are

PT
another source of cellulose and lignin have recently attracted a great deal of attention as starting
materials for aerogel preparation [17]. Principally, all these biopolymers can also be a source for
carbon aerogels produced by pyrolysis. An alternative way to find new raw materials for organic
aerogels is based on recycling of used materials, analogous to paper or plastic recycling; the use

RI
of waste newspaper [18] and waste cotton fabrics [19] to prepare cellulosic aerogels support this
idea. For sure, further synthetic routes are possible, even taking into account that waste materials

SC
are always a mixed fraction of different polymers.

Current state of applications

U
In the following, we discuss the existing and potential applications of different aerogel types,
N
although only a part of them are commercialized today. Currently, the main market application of
aerogels is thermal insulation, since aerogels are the best thermal insulating material besides
A
vacuum insulation panels. However, further applications as carrier and filler material (cosmetics,
M

pharmaceutics), supercapacitor (electronic) and absorber (environmental area) are already

developed. Those and further application areas are summarized in Table 3 adapted from [2].
D

Table 3. Main aerogel applications (adopted from [2])

TE

Application Type of aerogel involved Decisive aerogel properties

Thermal insulation Silica; polyurethane; biopolymers Thermal conductivity: main
EP

of buildings, (cellulose, alginate, pectin); carbon importance to the

pipelines, aerogels homogeneity of the pore size
packaging, winter Composites: interpenetrated aerogel distribution to ensure Knudsen
apparel products, networks, granulate+aerogel network, diffusion, macropores should
CC

textiles. nonporous material+aerogel be avoided; high mechanical

granulate; textile+aerogel granulate; stability; hydrophobicity
clay-containing aerogels
A

Drug delivery Native silica; biopolymers: alginate, High surface area, accessibility
pectin, starch, chitosan, cellulose, and of the pores for the drugs
hybrids thereof (micropores may be a
hindrance), affinity to specific
drugs (surface modification
may be needed)
Tissue engineering Mainly biopolymers: alginate, pectin, Combination of meso- and
starch, chitosan, cellulose, and macroporosity in the same
 hybrids thereof material, biocompatibility
Medical implants Polyurea crosslinked aerogels, natural Pore structure suitable to
biopolymers: alginate, alginate- applications (usually
starch, gellan gum, hybrids with micropores to be avoided),
gelatin biocompatibility, stability in
liquids, biodegradability
Cosmetics Silica particles Amorphous aerogel backbone,
potential to adsorb liquid,

PT
flowability
Catalysts and carrier SiO2, various metal oxides (TiO2, High surface area, stability in
materials for Al2O3, CuO-CoO-MnO/SiO2, Fe2O3, corresponding gaseous or

RI
catalysis and ZrO2), graphene oxide, Ru/graphene, liquid phases, transport
Electrocatalysis gold, chalcogenides and their through large meso- and

SC
mixtures, carbon (fuel cells), macropores
polysaccharides, (chitosan, alginate),
noble metals and bimetals, Pt-Ni,
hybrids of metal and semiconductor

U
nanoparticles, photovoltaics
Biocatalysis Mainly silica Compatibility with enzymes,
N absence of toxic gelation by-
products, pore sizes adjusted
A
to molecular size of reaction
products/adducts
M

Energy/hydrogen Carbon, graphene-oxide, combinations Large surface area, electrical

storage devices thereof, including those with conductivity
D

functionalized pores
Sorbents for liquids, Carbon, graphene-oxide, combinations Surface functionalization to
TE

hazardous ions thereof, including those with ensure the selectivity to target
(heavy metal ions) functionalized pores; molecules, open porosity,
(e.g., water functionalized/hydrophobized silica hydrophobicity, or
treatment), aerogels; magnetic cellulose aerogel, oleophobicity
EP

sorbent for oil spills titania, clay aerogels

(Bio)sensors Au-carbon aerogel (doped with Surface functionalization to
CC

nanoparticles), graphene, silica, ensure the selectivity to target

zirconium phosphate--carbon, molecules, open porosity
carbon/metal hybrids, N-doped
graphene, graphene/alginate, tungsten
A

oxide, graphene-ZnO, resorcinol-

formaldehyde aerogels,
MoS2/graphene, boron nitride aerogel
Sorbents for gases Silica, amino-modified silica, carbon, Surface functionalization to
(CO2, hazardous graphene-oxide, combinations thereof ensure the selectivity to target
gases, VOC) including functionalization (e.g., N- molecules, open porosity
doping)
 Cherenkov detectors Silica Refractive index
Ballistic protection Crosslinked silica aerogels Mechanical strength
Fillers (paints) Silica particles Hydrophobicity, particle size
Separation Carbon, fiber-aerogel hybrids,
Selectivity to target molecules,
technologies graphene, graphene oxide, chitosan pore size tuning,
(membranes) hydrophobicity
Miniaturized gas (µ- Hydrophobized silica aerogel Low skeletal and gas thermal

PT
Knudsen) pump conductivities, open-porous
structure (rarefied air flow)
Foundry Resorcinol-formaldehyde, carbon Pore structure, open porosity

RI
Construction Silica aerogels in high performance Mechanical properties and
material aerogel concrete density of composites

SC
Space applications Mainly silica and hybrids Transparency, thermal
conductivity

U
Knowledge Gaps / Needs in aerogel technology
N
A
The numerous existing and potential applications of different types of aerogels developed in
M
academia clearly show that the existing aerogel production, being mostly limited to inorganic
aerogels needs to be further developed. In the last decades organic aerogels of different origins
have been intensively studied in academia and further developed within several EU projects. It
D

was shown, that a number of different organic precursors (biopolymers) can be utilized to
produce aerogels from sustainable sources and with specific functions, which can be successfully
TE

used in different emerging areas (adsorption, cosmetics, biocatalysis, drug delivery etc.). Due to
such properties like mechanical elasticity, presence of diverse functional groups,
biodegradability, biocompatibility, they can successfully find the way to the market.
EP

Nevertheless, in order to prove the real applicability of these new types of aerogels in industrial
settings, significant amount of materials are needed for prototyping. Organic aerogels (besides
Slentite produced at the pilot scale in Lemförde, Germany) are available only in small amounts,
CC

mainly for academic purposes, although polymeric and biopolymeric aerogels offer many
beneficial properties, especially for the applications in the life science field (e.g. mechanical
elasticity, diverse functional groups, biodegradability, biocompatibility). In the opinion of the
A

authors, these facts clearly indicate the direction of further developments in this area. At the same
time, making the aerogels to competitive products requires not only further scale-up of the
production process, but also the critical consideration of the raw materials. Based on these
considerations, following critical gaps and needs in fundamental and process-related could be
identified*:
  Critical assessment and strategies towards diversification of raw materials for the aerogel
production in terms of availability, environmental footprint, and later recycling (including
the use of recycled polymers as raw materials).
 Understanding/tailoring of hybrid aerogels: structure-properties relations between the
characteristics of the individual polymers and the properties of the final matrix.
 General upscale of the organic aerogels production, including solvent exchange.
 Establishing and upscale of the manufacturing process for organic and hybrid aerogels

PT
directly in form of particles or fibers with well-defined size distribution and controlled
porosity.
 The majority of the operations involved in the current manufacturing process are based on

RI
empirical optimization. For further improvement and scale up of the process, multi-scale
modelling of all process steps (gel formation, especially for hybrid systems; solvent

SC
exchange; swelling and shrinkage of the gel matrix; drying, especially supercritical one) is
needed.
 Aerogels are currently produced only batch-wise. Here the transfer to the continuous

U
processes would bring a significant advantage, although the solutions are not obvious due
to depressurization steps.
 N
Standardization of the characterization methods for aerogels (e.g. measurements of pore
A
size distribution, density of irregularly shaped samples or powders, thermal conductivity,
mechanical properties) could improve the comparability of the results from different
M

sources. Therefore guidelines for such measurements issued in collaboration of the

corresponding institutions may be useful.
D

* Partly based on the roadmap (Strategiepapier) for aerogel development in Germany, written in collaboration with the members of Aerogel
Cluster of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWI), including L.Ratke, B.Milow, G.Reichenauer, W.Lölsberg,
M.Fricke and their colleagues and coworkers (submitted September 2015).
TE

Future Directions / Perspectives

EP

The authors are convinced that the aerogel field will continue its rapid development in the
coming years. Thereby the key factor is the simultaneous development of the material aspects and
corresponding production process to decrease aerogel prices and enable practical applications
CC

apart from pure academic research. At the same time, development of new aerogel types should
be application driven and target product properties and restrictions should be known from the
beginning. This can be realized only by close cooperation between academic groups and
industrial partners, which should be further encouraged.
A

Following directions of research in the opinion of the authors are the most promising and highly
needed:

 Polymer based aerogels

There is currently a great interest in using of synthetic polymers and biopolymers for aerogel
production. Biopolymers from various sources such as polysaccharides (alginate, cellulose,
pectin, chitosan, chitin), lignin, proteins and others have been used as precursors. Exemplary, the
EU project “Aerowood” aims to use different fractions from of lignocellulose (different C5 and
C6 sugars) for aerogel production [20]. Resulting aerogels exhibit both specific functions of the
starting biopolymer and typical features of aerogels (open porous structure with high specific
surface and pore volume). This synergy of properties offers a high potential for a wide spectrum
of applications (see Table 3). Biopolymer characteristics (molecular weight, composition, degree
of branching) have a significant effect on both bulk properties of the aerogels as well as on their
porous network on molecular level.
Thus, the major scope of research in biopolymer aerogels is the establishing of quantitative

PT
relations between aerogel properties and chemical nature of the raw materials as well as
materials’ combinations. Further, the search for suitable raw materials with better sustainability
and lower prices must continue, especially for commodity applications.

RI
 Hybrid aerogels
Hybrid materials offer an almost unlimited potential for the further development. Combinations

SC
of different polymer matrices, modification of inorganic ones, and combinations with third
materials (fibers, particles, textiles) are the most promising ways to fulfill the requirements of
specific applications and to transfer the chemically promising aerogels into a real product. If the

U
final properties cannot be reached by the co-gelation of different materials, post-treatment is a
promising alternative. Post-treatment can include coating, hydrophobization or even pyrolysis (in
N
case of carbon aerogel production) and offers an opportunity to can further broaden the final
properties of aerogels. However, the development of hybrid materials cannot be purely empirical,
A
since the number of possible combinations is too high. Synergetic effects between different
precursors and additives need to be understood and modelled on the molecular level. Generally,
M

this is the only way to the rational design of new hybrid materials. Especially the modelling of
aerogel mechanical properties entirely based on their molecular structure is beneficial and should
be thereby further developed.
D
TE

 Conductive aerogels
On the borderline between electrochemistry, biochemistry, and renewable energies highly porous
conductive materials are rapidly developing, whereas this high interdisciplinary leads to new
EP

requirements to be fulfilled. In this sense, all types of carbon-based aerogels, including carbon
nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide as well as aerogels derived from different metals and
their hybrids have received a lot of attention. Such aerogels can be produced from several
CC

different organic gels via pyrolysis, whereas the structure of the initial gel mainly predetermines
the structure of the final carbon aerogels, enabling significant variations in pore size. Original
electrical conductivity of the material can be increased via appropriate additives/coatings. Most
probably the application in (electro)catalysis, hydrogen storage, supercapacitors, fuel cells will
A

further promote the development of aerogels in the future.

 Process development

The chances of the different aerogel-based products to be transferred to the market heavily
depend upon further reduction of cost associated with the production process. Overall decrease in
aerogel production time will significantly contribute to this goal. To reach this purpose,
fundamental understanding of the thermodynamics and kinetics of the solvent exchange and the
drying process as well as its translation into the corresponding multiscale modelling is required.
The choice of the working solvent, its interaction with the matrix and it influence on the drying
process should be rationalized. Here corresponding models on the molecular level, including all
the solvent exchange steps and the corresponding gel behavior (swelling/shrinkage) need to be
developed. Importantly, the issues of the energy consumption of all process steps should be then
derived on the macroscopic level. Here such issues as flow profiles in the reactors, reactor design
and effective use of the reactor volume (gel/volume ratio) should be taken into account. An
example of such a modelling is given in the work of Lebedev et al. [21], who have published
CFD modelling of supercritical drying step.

PT
In the future the main focus should be on the transition from batch to (semi)continuous processes.
For production of monoliths, semi-continuous manufacturing seems to be the only possible way,
because the depressurization step for taking the monoliths out of the autoclave is needed. In the

RI
case of particle and fiber production more options seem to be available. The production of
aerogels directly in the form of particles or thin fibers has a tremendous advantage: the solvent

SC
extraction time for small particles is much shorter than that for monoliths, allowing for significant
reductions in process costs. In this case, the numbering-up strategy using relatively small
autoclaves with fixed beds or even truly continuous processes may be possible. Further, in case of
particles the extraction is not solely dominated by the diffusion, as in case of monoliths, but also

U
by the mass transport outside the particles. Therefore, adjustment of the flow conditions could
reduce the drying time and costs much more significantly in case of monoliths (the smaller the
N
particle size, the larger the influence of the mass transport). Here, fluidized bed could bring an
additional advantage of an effective mass and heat transfer during the drying [22]. Surely, any
A
other equipment with an effective flow profile could be used instead. In case of fibers, extrusion
or electrospinning (may be directly in CO2 atmosphere) seems principally suitable. However,
M

continuous depressurization is still an issue, which is not fully solved even for particles.
Analogous to the CO2 extraction, the solvent exchange procedure (water-organic solvent) being
only a batch process for monoliths, in case of particles can be principally processed in a flow
D

mode providing a solvent concentration gradient, like it is usually done in liquid chromatography,
since the diffusion paths are much shorter. This procedure could replace a tedious step-wise
TE

solvent exchange used for monoliths.


EP

Establishing of pilot facilities

Generally, we face the problem that even if companies are interested in the commercialization of
a certain aerogel-based product, there is not enough material available for prototyping. Therefore,
CC

more pilot production facilities are needed to produce enough material for prototyping and to
engage with large enterprises. Simultaneously, different scale-up concepts and process variation
can be tested at the pilot scale and thus enable the further growth of the field. Here we expect
A

new start-up companies coming from the academia and taking over the lead in this area.

Conclusions

Aerogels are very diverse porous materials with high potential for the versatile applications.
Already existing aerogels enable a very effective thermal insulation, supercapacitors, and carrier
for different active agents. Future research rather than being purely academic, should be driven
by potential applications, determining the properties of the aerogels and the peculiarities of the
production process. We expect especially rapid growth in the research areas of life science,
environmental applications and electrochemistry. This can be achieved by further development of
organic and hybrid aerogels and optimization of their manufacturing processes at pilot and
production scale.

Disclaimer. References to companies and their products do not mean recommendation or endorsement by the
authors or by the Journal of Supercritical Fluids. The authors have no conflict of interest with the companies
mentioned in the manuscript.

PT
Literature

RI
[1] J.P.Vareda, A.Lamy-Mendes, L.Durães, A reconsideration on the definition of the term
aerogel based on current drying trends Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 258, (2018) 211-
216

SC
[2] I. Smirnova, P. Gurikov, Aerogels in Chemical Engineering: Strategies Toward Tailor-Made
Aerogels Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. Eng. 8, (2017), 307-334
[3] I. Karadagli, B. Schulz, M. Schestakow, B. Milow, T. Gries, L. Ratke, Production of porous

U
cellulose aerogel fibers by an extrusion process. Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 106, (2015), 105-
114
N
[4] M. Koebel, A. Rigacci, P. Achard Aerogel-based thermal superinsulation: an overview. J.
Sol-Gel Sci. Technol. 63, (2012),315–39; Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature, Sol-Gel
A
Sci. Technol.
[5] Picture of SLENTITE® material. Reproduced with permission of BASF Polyurethanes.
M

[6] Homepage of Aspen Aerogels. www.aerogel.com, (accessed 21.December 2017)

[7] Homepage of JIOS. www.jiosaerogel.com, (accessed 21.December 2017)
[8] Online source for aerogel materials. http://www.buyaerogel.com, (accessed 21.December
D

2017)
[9] Li T, Wang T. 2008. Preparation of silica aerogel from rice hull ash by drying at atmospheric
TE

pressure, Mater. Chem. Phys. 112(2):398–401

[10] Tang Q, Wang T. 2005. Preparation of silica aerogel from rice hull ash by supercritical
carbon dioxide drying. J. Supercrit. Fluids 35(1):91–94
[11] Nazriati N, Setyawan H, Affandi S, Yuwana M, Winardi S. 2014. Using bagasse ash as a
EP

silica source when preparing silica aerogels via ambient pressure drying. J. Non-Cryst. Solids
400:6–11
[12] Gao G-M, Liu D-R, Zou H-F, Zou L-C, Gan S-C. 2010. Preparation of silica aerogel from
CC

oil shale ash by fluidized bed drying. Powder Technol. 197(3):283–87

[13] Shi F, Liu J-X, Song K, Wang Z-Y. 2010. Cost-effective synthesis of silica aerogels from
fly ash via ambient pressure drying. J. Non-Cryst. Solids 356(43):2241–46
[14] Liu S-W, Wei Q, Cui S-P, Nie Z-R, Du M-H, Li Q-Y. 2015. Hydrophobic silica aerogel
A

derived from wheat husk ash by ambient pressure drying. J. Sol-Gel Sci. Technol. 78(1):60–67
[15] Brosse N, Barth D, Jamart-Gregoire B. 2004. A family of strong low-molecular-weight
organogelators based on amino acid derivatives. Tetrahedron Lett. 45(52):9521–24
[16] Banerjee S, DasRK, Terech P, de Geyer A, Aymonier C, et al. 2013. Hybrid organogels and
aerogels from co-assembly of structurally different low molecular weight gelators. J. Mater.
Chem. C 1(20):3305–16
[17] Feng J, Nguyen ST, Fan Z, Duong HM. 2015. Advanced fabrication and oil absorption
properties of super-hydrophobic recycled cellulose aerogels. Chem. Eng. J. 270:168–75
[18] Jin C, Han S, Li J, Sun Q. 2015. Fabrication of cellulose-based aerogels from waste
newspaper without any pretreatment and their use for absorbents. Carbohydr. Polym. 123:150–56
[19] Han Y, Zhang X,WuX, Lu C. 2015. Flame retardant, heat insulating cellulose aerogels from
waste cotton fabrics by in situ formation of magnesium hydroxide nanoparticles in cellulose gel
nanostructures. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 3(8):1853–59
[20] Wood-based aerogels (AEROWOOD). http://blogs.helsinki.fi/aerowood-project/partners,
(accessed 17.December 2017)
[21] Lebedev, A E , Katalevich, A. M. , Menshutina N. V. 2015. Modeling and scale-up of

PT
supercritical fluid processes. Part I: Supercritical drying. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids,
106:122–132
[22] Bhagat, S.D., Park, K.-T., Kim, Y.-H., Kim, J.-S., Han, J.-H., (2008). A continuous
production process for silica aerogel powders based on sodium silicate by fluidized bed drying of

RI
wet-gel slurry. Solid State Sciences 10(9): 1113-1116

SC
U
N
A
M
D
TE
EP
CC
A