Duration: 90 mins Module 3 EMat106 Thermodynamics

Evaluating
Properties
A. Osonio
 1. explain key concepts, including phase and
pure substance, state principle for simple
compressible systems, p––T surface,
saturation temperature and saturation
LEARNING pressure, two-phase liquid–vapor mixture,
quality, enthalpy, and specific heats;
OBJECTIVES 2. analyze closed systems, including applying
the energy balance with property data; and
By the end of this module, the student 3. apply the ideal gas model for thermodynamic
should be able to: analysis, including determining when use of
the model is warranted.

Click on the model to interact

Vapor States
• When the system is at the saturated vapor
state (state g), further heating at fixed
pressure results in increases in both
temperature and specific volume. The state
labeled s is representative of the states that
would be attained by further heating while
keeping the pressure constant (a superheated
vapor state) because the system would be at
a temperature greater than the saturation
temperature corresponding to the given
pressure.
• Consider next the same thought experiment
at the other constant pressures labeled as 10
MPa, 22.09 MPa, and 30 MPa.
• At states where pressure is greater than the
critical pressure, the terms liquid and vapor
tend to lose their significance.
 • While condensation of water vapor to liquid and further cooling to lower
temperature liquid are easily imagined and even a part of our everyday
Phase change experience, liquefying gases other than water vapor may not be so familiar.
• Still, there are important applications for liquefied gases. See the box for
applications applications of nitrogen in liquid and gas forms.
• Use of liquid nitrogen (liquid and gaseous)
 Melting and Sublimation
• Consider a system consisting of a unit mass of ice at a temperature
below the triple point temperature. Let us begin with the case where
the pressure is greater than the triple point pressure and the system is
at state a’.
• Suppose the system is slowly heated while maintaining the pressure
constant and uniform throughout. The temperature increases with
heating until point b’. At this state, the ice is a saturated solid.
Additional heat transfer at fixed pressure results in the formation of
liquid without any change in temperature. As the system is heated
further, the ice continues to melt until eventually the last bit melts, and
the system contains only saturated liquid. During the melting process
the temperature and pressure remain constant.
• Further heating at fixed pressure results in an increase in temperature
as the system is brought to point c’.
• Also, consider the case where the pressure is less than the triple point
pressure and the system is at state a”. In this case, if the system is
heated at constant pressure it passes through the two-phase solid–
vapor region into the vapor region along the line a”–b”–c”. That is,
sublimation occurs.
Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties
• Thermodynamic property data can be retrieved in various ways,
including tables, graphs, equations, and computer software.
• For this course, we will use the tables of thermodynamic properties,
which are commonly available for pure, simple compressible
substances of engineering interest. The ability to locate states on
property diagrams is an important related skill.
Some more examples
Exercise (Please work on this)
• At a pressure of 10.0 MPa, saturation temp = ?
• At a pressure of 500 lbf/in2, the saturation temp = ?
• specific volume of water vapor at 10.0 MPa and 600℃ =?
• at 10.0 MPa and 100℃, the specific volume of liquid = ?
Evaluating Pressure, Specific Volume, and
Temperature
• The states encountered when solving problems often do not fall
exactly on the grid of values provided by property tables.
Interpolation between adjacent table entries then becomes necessary.
Care always must be exercised when interpolating table values.
• The tables provided are extracted from more extensive tables that are
set up so that linear interpolation, illustrated in the following example,
can be used with acceptable accuracy.
Sample Problem
Determine the specific volume
of water vapor at a state where
p = 10 bar and T = 215℃.
Shown in the is a sampling of
data from Table A-4. At a
pressure of 10 bar, the specified
temperature of 215℃ falls
between the table values of 200
and 240℃, which are shown in
boldface. The corresponding
specific volume values are also
shown in boldface.
 Solution:
In interpolation, we first solve for the slope on the line:
∆𝑣ҧ
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑚 =
∆𝑇
𝑚3
(0.2275 − 0.2060)
𝑘𝑔
𝑚=
(240 − 200)℃
𝑚 3
𝑚 = 5.375 𝑥 10−4
𝑘𝑔 − ℃

Using the same line as reference, we can substitute the known and unknown values
𝑚3
(0.2275 − 𝑥)
𝑘𝑔
𝑚=( )
(240 − 215)℃
Plugging in the slope,
𝑚3 −4 𝑚3
𝑥= 0.2275 − [(5.375 𝑥 10 ) (240 − 215)℃]
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔−℃
𝒎𝟑
ഥ𝒖𝒏𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏
𝒙= 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟒
𝒌𝒈
Sample Problem
A vertical piston–cylinder assembly containing 0.1 lb
of ammonia, initially a saturated vapor, is placed on a
hot plate. Due to the weight of the piston and the
surrounding atmospheric pressure, the pressure of
the ammonia is 20 lbf/in.2
Heating occurs slowly, and the ammonia expands at
constant pressure until the final temperature is 77℉.
Show the initial and final states on T–v and p– v
diagrams, and determine
a) the volume occupied by the ammonia at each
end state, in ft3. Experimental Set-up
b) the work for the process, in Btu.
 Solution:
Known: Ammonia is heated at constant pressure in a vertical
piston–cylinder assembly from the saturated vapor state to a
known final temperature.

Find: Show the initial and final states on T–v and p–v diagrams and
determine the volume at each end state and the work for the
process.
Solution:
a. The volumes occupied by the ammonia at states 1 and 2 are obtained using the given mass
and the respective specific volumes. From Table A-15E at p1 = 20 lbf/in.2, and corresponding to
Sat. in the temperature column, we get v1 = vg = 13.497 ft3/lb. Thus,
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑣1 = 0.1 𝑙𝑏 13.497 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝑙𝑏
Interpolating in Table A-15E at p2 = 20 lbf/in.2 and T2 = 77℉, we get v2 = 16.7ft3/lb. Thus,
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉2 = 𝑚𝑣2 = 0.1 𝑙𝑏 16.7 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝑙𝑏
b. In this case, the work can be evaluated using the equation
2
𝑣2 2 3
144 𝑖𝑛 1 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑊=න 𝑝𝑑𝑉 = (20 𝑙𝑓𝑏/𝑖𝑛 )(1.67 − 1.35)𝑓𝑡 ( 2
)( )
1𝑓𝑡 778 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑉1
𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝑩𝒕𝒖
Exercise
In the same set-up, assuming that the heating
continues at 20 lbf/in.2 from T2 = 77℉ to T3 =
100℃, determine the work for Process 2–3, in
Btu.
Specific Volume
• The specific volume of a two-phase liquid–vapor mixture can be
determined by using the saturation tables and the definition of quality
• The total volume of the mixture is the sum of the volumes of the
liquid and vapor phases

• Dividing by the total mass of the mixture, m, an average specific

volume for the mixture is obtained
• Since the liquid phase is a saturated liquid and the vapor phase is a
saturated vapor, Vliq = mliqvf and Vvap=mvapvg, so

𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑝 𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑞
• Introducing the definition of quality, 𝑥 = , and noting that =
𝑚 𝑚
1 − 𝑥, the expression becomes

• The increase in specific volume on vaporization (𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑓 ) is also

denoted by 𝑣𝑓𝑔
Example
• Consider a system consisting of a two-phase liquid–vapor mixture of
water at 100℃ and a quality of 0.9. What will be its average specific
volume?

Solution:
From Table A-2 at 100℃, vf = 1.0435 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg = 1.673 m3/kg.
Using the p-v diagram
Application Problem
A closed, rigid container of volume 0.5 m3 is placed on a hot plate.
Initially, the container holds a two-phase mixture of saturated liquid
water and saturated water vapor at p1 = 1 bar with a quality of 0.5.
After heating, the pressure in the container is p2 = 1.5 bar.

Indicate the initial and final states on a T– diagram, and determine

(a) the temperature, in ℃, at states 1 and 2.
(b) the mass of vapor present at states 1 and 2, in kg.
(c) If heating continues, determine the pressure, in bar, when the
container holds only saturated vapor.
Solution
Specific Internal Energy and Enthalpy
In many thermodynamic analyses the sum of the internal energy U and
the product of pressure p and volume V appears. Because the sum U +
pV occurs so frequent, it is convenient to give the combination a name,
enthalpy, and a distinct symbol, H.
𝑯 = 𝑈 + 𝑝𝑉
Since U, p, and V are all properties, this combination is also a property.
Enthalpy can be expressed on a unit mass basis
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑝𝑣
and per mole
ℎത = 𝑢ത + 𝑝𝑣ҧ
Units for enthalpy are the same as those for internal energy.
Specific Internal Energy and Enthalpy
• Data for specific internal energy u and enthalpy h are retrieved from
the property tables in the same way as for specific volume.
• For saturation states, the values of uf and ug, as well as hf and hg, are
tabulated versus both saturation pressure and saturation
temperature. The specific internal energy for a two-phase liquid–
vapor mixture is calculated for a given quality in the same way the
specific volume is calculated:

• The increase in specific internal energy on vaporization (ug - uf) is

often denoted by ufg.
Specific Internal Energy and Enthalpy
• Similarly, the specific enthalpy for a two-phase liquid–vapor mixture is
given in terms of the quality by

• The increase in enthalpy during vaporization (hg - hf) is often

tabulated for convenience under the heading hfg.
Example
• Determine the specific enthalpy of Refrigerant 22 when its
temperature is 12℃ and its specific internal energy is 144.58 kJ/kg.
Real Gases vs. Ideal Gases
• Gases are interesting because they are the last of the so called
“normal” phases of matter.
• Real gases are susceptible to the natural world order such as size,
weight, etc.
• Hydrogen molecules, for instance, will be lighter and tend to float to
the top of the container they are in whereas Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)
molecules are heavier and thus will fall down to the bottom.
• Size is also important; a smaller molecule will be less likely to hit
another molecule given the same pressure and volume compared to
bigger sized molecules.
Simplification Factors
• The idea comes from kinetic theory of gases where each gas molecule
is assumed to be a randomly and constantly moving entity, have great
separation distances from each other, and any collisions they undergo
are fully elastic.
• This form of gases can be stated as real gases in an idealized
condition, giving birth to the term “ideal gas”.
• An ideal gas is an idealized form of real gas that obeys the ideal gas
law.
• The ideal gas law is derived as an equation of state based on three
laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, and Avogadro’s Law.
Ideal Gas Equation of State
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑢 𝑇
𝐿−𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐽
where Ru = 0.0821 = 8.314
𝑚𝑜𝑙−𝐾 𝑚𝑜𝑙−𝐾

A more useful, and sometimes more convenient way is to replace the

number of moles with the mass of the gas. However, this means the gas
constant RU will no longer be universal, but dependent on the
molecular mass of the individual gas.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
Where m is the mass of the gas and R is the specific gas constant
A list of common R values if presented in the
following table
• The latter is more used in
engineering settings where it is
often times easier to get the mass
rather than the mole of the
substance.
• Regardless, one still needs to know
the molecular mass of the
substance in order to use the ideal
gas law. If the number of moles is
given, it is much easier to use the
first equation than the latter
equation.
Introducing specific heat capacity
• Heat capacity is the measure of how much heat is needed to raise the
temperature of the object by 1 degree (℃ 𝑜𝑟 ℉), and both will have
different amounts)
• Heat capacity calculation would require the mass of the substance
• Specific heat capacity
∆𝑞
𝑐=
∆𝑇
where ∆𝑞 is the change in heat energy per unit mass and ∆𝑇 is the
change in temperature
Specific heat capacity for some substances
• It is immediately
apparent by looking at
this table which ones
are metallic and which
ones are not.
• Specific heat capacities
also change depending
on the surroundings (P
& T contribution)
Introducing specific heats (Cp and Cv)
• The intensive properties cv and cp are defined for pure, simple compressible
substances as partial derivatives of the functions u(T, v) and h(T, p),
respectively

where the subscripts v and p denote, respectively, the variables held fixed
during differentiation.
Values for c and cp can be obtained via statistical mechanics using
spectroscopic measurements
End of Presentation