Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

(University of the City of Manila)

Senior High School Department

PLANT AND ANIMALS NUTRITION

Written report submitted in compliance to the subject

General Biology II

Submitted by:

John Oliver Anapi

Hanna Mel D. Gamit

STEM 11-7

Submitted to:

Prof. Macasieb
INTRODUCTION:
Life Processes of Living Things:

 NUTRITION
 SENSITIVITY
 REPRODUCTION

Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other
substances in food (e.g. phytonutrients, anthocyanins, tannins, etc.) in relation to
maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes food
intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism and excretion.

Plants are unique organisms that can absorb nutrients and water through their
root system, as well as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Soil quality and climate are
the major determinants of plant distribution and growth. The combination of soil
nutrients, water, and carbon dioxide, along with sunlight, allows plants to grow. In order
to develop into mature, fruit -bearing plants, many requirements must be met and
events must be coordinated.

PLANT AND ANIMAL NUTRITION

Organisms require nutrients for their daily survival particularly for their cell growth
and repair. Nutrients are chiefly procured from the environment.

2 Types of Organisms based on their process of acquiring foods

1. Autotrophic Organisms – that manufacture their own foods. (example: Plants)

2. Heterotrophic Organisms - those that require foods from other sources
(bacteria, fungi and other animals since these organisms do not manufacture
organic substances.

Types of Nutrition

1. Plant Nutrition
2. Animals Nutrition

Plant Nutrition
 Plant nutrients are the chemical elements that are essential to the nourishment of
plant health. Plant nutrients fall into three categories, all of which are based on the
 amount a plant needs, not the importance of the individual elements. Each plant
nutrient performs a crucial role in plant growth and development.

 “THE ELEMENTS OF COMPLETE PLANT NUTRITION”

The following is a brief guideline of the role of essential and beneficial mineral
nutrients that are crucial for growth. Eliminate any one of these elements, and plants
will display abnormalities of growth, deficiency symptoms, or may not reproduce
normally.

Minerals Required by Higher Forms of Plants

Major Elements Functions

(Macronutrients)
Nitrogen (N) It is a major component of proteins, hormones,
chlorophyll, vitamins and enzymes essential for plant life.
Nitrogen metabolism is a major factor in stem and leaf
growth (vegetative growth). Too much can delay flowering
and fruiting. Deficiencies can reduce yields, cause yellowing
of the leaves and stunt growth.
Phosphorus (P) It is necessary for seed germination, photosynthesis,
protein formation and almost all aspects of growth and
metabolism in plants. It is essential for flower and fruit
formation.
Potassium (K) It is necessary for formation of sugars, starches,
carbohydrates, protein synthesis and cell division in roots
and other parts of the plant. It helps to adjust water balance,
improves stem rigidity and cold hardiness, enhances flavor
and color on fruit and vegetable crops, increases the oil
content of fruits and is important for leafy crops.

Sulfur (S) It is a structural component of amino acids, proteins,

vitamins and enzymes and is essential to produce
chlorophyll. It imparts flavor to many vegetables.
Deficiencies show as light green leaves.
Magnesium (Mg) It is a critical structural component of the chlorophyll
molecule and is necessary for functioning of plant enzymes
to produce carbohydrates, sugars and fats. It is used for
fruit and nut formation and essential for germination of
seeds.
Calcium (Ca) It activates enzymes, is a structural component of cell
walls, influences water movement in cells and is necessary
for cell growth and division. Some plants must have calcium
to take up nitrogen and other minerals.
Minor Elements Functions
(Micronutrients)
 Iron (Fe) It is necessary for many enzyme functions and as a
catalyst for the synthesis of chlorophyll. It is essential for the
young growing parts of plants. Deficiencies are pale leaf
color of young leaves followed by yellowing of leaves and
large veins. Iron is lost by leaching and is held in the lower
portions of the soil structure. Under conditions of high pH
(alkaline) iron is rendered unavailable to plants. When soils
are alkaline, iron may be abundant but unavailable.
Applications of an acid nutrient formula containing iron
chelates, held in soluble form, should correct the problem.
Manganese (Mn) It is involved in enzyme activity for photosynthesis,
respiration, and nitrogen metabolism. Deficiency in young
leaves may show a network of green veins on a light green
background similar to an iron deficiency. In the advanced
stages the light green parts become white, and leaves are
shed. Brownish, black, or grayish spots may appear next to
the veins. In neutral or alkaline soils plants often show
deficiency symptoms. In highly acid soils, manganese may
be available to the extent that it results in toxicity.
Boron (B) It is necessary for cell wall formation, membrane
integrity, calcium uptake and may aid in the translocation of
sugars. Boron affects at least 16 functions in plants. These
functions include flowering, pollen germination, fruiting, cell
division, water relationships and the movement of
hormones. Boron must be available throughout the life of
the plant. It is not translocated and is easily leached from
soils. Deficiencies kill terminal buds leaving a rosette effect
on the plant. Leaves are thick, curled and brittle. Fruits,
tubers and roots are discolored, cracked and flecked with
brown spots
Sodium (Na) It is involved in osmotic (water movement) and ionic
balance in plants.
Chlorine (Cl) It is involved in osmosis (movement of water or
solutes in cells), the ionic balance necessary for plants to
take up mineral elements and in photosynthesis. Deficiency
symptoms include wilting, stubby roots, chlorosis
(yellowing) and bronzing. Odors in some plants may be
decreased. Chloride, the ionic form of chlorine used by
plants, is usually found in soluble forms and is lost by
leaching. Some plants may show signs of toxicity if levels
are too high.
Zink (Zn) It is a component of enzymes or a functional cofactor of
a large number of enzymes including auxins (plant growth
hormones). It is essential to carbohydrate metabolism,
protein synthesis and internodal elongation (stem growth).
Deficient plants have mottled leaves with irregular chlorotic
areas. Zinc deficiency leads to iron deficiency causing
similar symptoms. Deficiency occurs on eroded soils and is
least available at a pH range of 5.5 - 7.0. Lowering the pH
can render zinc more available to the point of toxicity.
Copper
 (Cu) It is concentrated in roots of plants and plays a part in
nitrogen metabolism. It is a component of several enzymes
and may be part of the enzyme systems that use
carbohydrates and proteins. Deficiencies cause die back of
the shoot tips, and terminal leaves develop brown spots.
Copper is bound tightly in organic matter and may be
deficient in highly organic soils. It is not readily lost from soil
but may often be unavailable. Too much copper can cause
toxicity.
(Mo) It is a structural component of the enzyme that reduces
Molybdenum nitrates to ammonia. Without it, the synthesis of proteins is
blocked and plant growth ceases. Root nodule (nitrogen
fixing) bacteria also require it. Seeds may not form
completely, and nitrogen deficiency may occur if plants are
lacking molybdenum. Deficiency signs are pale green
leaves with rolled or cupped margins.
Nickel (Ni) It has just recently won the status as an essential trace
element for plants according to the Agricultural Research
Service Plant, Soil and Nutrition Laboratory in Ithaca, NY. It
is required for the enzyme urease to break down urea to
liberate the nitrogen into a usable form for plants. Nickel is
required for iron absorption. Seeds need nickel in order to
germinate. Plants grown without additional nickel will
gradually reach a deficient level at about the time they
mature and begin reproductive growth. If nickel is deficient
plants may fail to produce viable seeds.
Cobalt (Co) It is required for nitrogen fixation in legumes and in root
nodules of nonlegumes. The demand for cobalt is much
higher for nitrogen fixation than for ammonium nutrition.
Deficient levels could result in nitrogen deficiency
symptoms.
Silicon (Si) It is found as a component of cell walls. Plants with
supplies of soluble silicon produce stronger, tougher cell
walls making them a mechanical barrier to piercing and
sucking insects. This significantly enhances plant heat and
drought tolerance. Foliar sprays of silicon have also shown
benefits reducing populations of aphids on field crops. Tests
have also found that silicon can be deposited by the plants
at the site of infection by fungus to combat the penetration
of the cell walls by the attacking fungus. Improved leaf
erectness, stem strength and prevention or depression of
iron and manganese toxicity has all been noted as effects
from silicon. Silicon has not been determined essential for
all plants but may be beneficial for many.
 Non-Minerals Required by Higher Forms of Plants

The essential plant nutrients include carbon, oxygen and hydrogen which are
absorbed from the air, whereas other nutrients including nitrogen are typically obtained
from the soil (exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants).

“ROUTES FOR ABSORPTION OF WATER AND MINERALS ACROSS THE

ROOTS”

(Transport systems and processes in plants)

Transportation

The system through which plants seed water, glucose and minerals to their
different part is called transportation. Transpiration is the process by which water
evaporates from the leaves, which results in more water being drawn up from the roots.

Transportation in plant takes place through two types of tubes (transport tissue).

 Xylem transports is a thick and strong tube which carries water and minerals
from the roots to the leaves.
 Phloem transports transport glucose (food) from the leaves to the rest of the
plant.

Plants have adaptations to reduce excessive water loss.

Xylem and phloem
Plants have two transport systems to move food, water and minerals through
their roots, stems and leaves. These systems use continuous tubes called xylem and
phloem, and together they are known as vascular bundles.
(PLANT ROOT):
Xylem
Xylem vessels are involved in the movement of water through a
plant - from its roots to its leaves via the stem.
During this process:
1. Water is absorbed from the soil through root hair cells.
2. Water moves by osmosis from root cell to root cell until it reaches
the xylem.
(Osmosis is the movement of water through a plasma membrane from a
region of low solute concentration to a region of high concentration. It is a
type of diffusion. Osmosis is passive transport, meaning it does not require
energy to be applied. ) (The basic function of the cell membrane is to
protect the cell from its surroundings. The cell membrane controls the
movement of substances in and out of cells and organelles. In this way, it is
selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules.)
3. It is transported through the xylem vessels up the stem to the leaves.
4. It evaporates from the leaves (transpiration).
The xylem tubes are made from dead xylem cells which have the cell walls removed
at the end of the cells, forming tubes through which the water and dissolved mineral
ions can flow. The rest of the xylem cell has a thick, reinforced cell wall which provides
strength.
Phloem
Phloem vessels are involved in translocation. Dissolved
sugars, produced during photosynthesis, and other soluble food
molecules are moved from the leaves to growing tissues (eg the tips of
the roots and shoots) and storage tissues (eg in the roots).
In contrast to xylem, phloem consists of columns of living cells.
The cell walls of these cells do not completely break down, but instead
form small holes at the ends of the cell. The ends of the cell are
referred to as sieve plates. The connection of phloem cells effectively
forms a tube which allows dissolved sugars to be transported.

Movement of water through the roots

The movement of water up the xylem means more water must be drawn in through the roots from
the soil. To do this, water passes from root cell to root cell by osmosis.
The pathway of water across a root:

As water moves into the root hair cell down the concentration gradient, the solution inside the root
hair cell becomes more dilute. This means that there is now a concentration gradient between the root
hair cell and adjacent root cells, so water moves from the root hair cell and into the adjacent cells by
osmosis.
This pattern continues until the water reaches the xylem vessel within the root - where it enters
the xylem to replace the water which has been drawn up the stem.
 Transpiration is part of the water cycle, and it is the loss of water vapor from parts of the plant

Nutritional Adaptation in Plants

The plants are grouped into two major categories based on their ability to prepare or
obtain food.

A.) Autotrophic plants

The term ‘autotroph’ is derived from two Greek words—autos (self) and trophe
(nutrition). In autotrophic nutrition, an organism makes its own food from simple raw
materials.

1. Adaptation in Epiphyte

Epiphytes are amazing adaptors. They are prime examples of how adaptation leads
to survival in an environment where plants are constantly competing for resources.
Epiphytes are plants which grow above the ground surface, using other plants or
objects for support. 
 B.) Heterotrophic plants 

The word ‘heterotroph’ is derived from two Greek words—heteros (other) and trophe
(nutrition). Unlike autotrophs, which manufacture their own food, heterotrophic
organisms obtain food from other organisms. As heterotrophs depend on other
organisms for their food, they are called consumers. All animals and non-green plants
like fungi come under this category.

1. Adaptation in Plant Parasites

Parasitic organisms, or parasites, live on or inside other living organisms, called
hosts, and obtain their food from them. The host does not get any benefit from the
parasite. Different parasites, like Cuscuta (akash-bel), Cassytha (amar-bel),
hookworms, tapeworms, leeches, etc., have different modes of feeding, depending
upon habit, habitat and modifications.

2. Adaptation in Saprophytes

They get their nutrition from dead or decaying organic matter. Saprophytes are
those plants which do not have chlorophyll. They derive their nutrition from dead,
decaying matter like bacteria and fungi. With the help of some enzymes, these plants
convert organic food materials into simpler forms and absorb them. (Examples: Neottia,
Monotropa)

3. Adaptation in Symbionts.

Saprophytic organisms, or saprophytes, derive their food from dead organisms.

They secrete enzymes that are released on food material outside their body. These
enzymes break down complex food into simple forms. Common examples of
saprophytes are fungi (moulds, mushrooms, yeasts) and many bacteria.

4. Adaptation in insectivorous Plant

An insectivorous plant has specialized leaves to attract and digest insects.

EXAMPLES:

The pitcher plant (Nepenthese) bladderwort and Venus flytrap have insectivorous
mode of nutrition. In pitcher plant the end of petiole is modified into a pitcher with a lid
formed by the lamina of leaf. Because of the presence of downward pointing hooks,
insects are trapped in the pitcher. The enzymes secreted at the base of pitcher slowly
and gradually digest the insects.

In the aquatic plant, bladderwort, leaves are changed into bladder-like structures.
These have a trapdoor and sensitive hairs. If some insects touch the sensitive hairs the
trapdoor opens and water carrying the insect’s rushes inside where digestion takes
place.

In venus flytrap, the leaf works as a trap in the centre the leaf works as a trap. In the
centre of each half of the leaf, three sensitive hairs are found. The edges of leaves are
covered with long spines. Nectar secreted by the plant attracts files to the leaf. The leaf
closes immediately when the sensory hairs are touched by the flies.

Animal Nutrition
 Groups of Heterotrophic Organisms:
1. Bacteria
2. Fungi
3. Animals
 Bacteria and Fungi - are either saprophytic (Feed on dean animals).
 Parasites - survive in other organisms and procure food from their host.
 Animals - maybe Herbivores (feed on green plants), carnivores (feed on meat),
and omnivores (feed on both plants and animals).

Heterotrophs require:

 Carbohydrate - chief energy source in animals.

 Proteins - also needed to build muscles and are source of energy.