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Hazards in Food Safety

A food safety hazard is a biological, chemical, or physical agent in, or condition of food with the potential to
cause an adverse health effect or injury. However, many types of quality and regulatory defects that occur
during food processing are not considered food safety hazards because these would not produce an adverse
health effect if such food were consumed.
Types of Food Safety Hazards
• Biological hazards include pathogenic bacteria, fungi, viruses, prions, protozoans, and helminthic
parasites. Manifestations of these hazards typically involve foodborne illnesses with symptoms including
gastrointestinal distress, diarrhea, vomiting, and sometimes death.
• Chemical hazards include allergens, mycotoxins, heavy metals, pesticides, and cleaning and sanitation
chemicals. When ingested, these may cause gastrointestinal distress, organ damage, and immunological
reactions that may result in death. The long-term ingestion of food containing toxic chemicals can lead to
chronic effects, including cancer.
• Physical hazards typically include materials that enter the food throughout its production chain, such as
extraneous vegetable material, stones, bone fragments, wire pieces, broken glass, and wood splinters. Its
presence in food may result in choking or oral or internal cuts but rarely result in death.
Biological Hazards
Microorganisms can either be beneficial or harmful. Beneficial microorganisms are involved in the
fermentation processes such as Lactobacilli in yogurt and Yakult drink and can also be used as a supplement.
On the other hand, harmful or pathogenic microorganisms are those responsible for food-related diseases
like Salmonella, Rotavirus, and Giardia lamblia. These foodborne pathogens lead to the causes of foodborne
morbidity and mortality. Bacteria, viruses, and parasites are examples of pathogens.
Bacteria
These are reported in more cases of foodborne illness than any other hazard. Approximately 85% of the
Traveler’s Diarrhea is caused by bacteria, and symptoms can last from three (3) to seven (7) days. It has two
(2) generic types: spore-forming and non-spore-forming/vegetative. Table 1 shows a summary of the
characteristics of the two (2) types of bacteria.
Characteristics
Type of Bacteria Reproduce Grow Produce Toxin Resistant to Stress Harmful if Eaten
Spore x x x x

Vegetative x
Table 1. Characteristics of Spore and Vegetative Bacteria
Source: Food and Safety Sanitation (4th Ed.), 2008

 Spore-forming bacteria can produce endospores that are resistant to physical and chemical factors such
as heat, dehydration, and acidification. They can survive in any environment for a very long time. However,
these are not able to grow or reproduce. Examples of spore-forming bacteria are:
• Clostridium botulinum. Associated with improperly canned food, lightly preserved vegetables, salted
fish, and meats. Symptoms usually appear within 12 to 48 hours and include nausea, vomiting, blurred
and double vision, and paralysis of respiratory and motor muscles that may progress rapidly.
• Clostridium perfringens. These are usually found in animal intestines and soil and commonly
associated with hot-held food such as meats and gravies. Diarrhea is the principal symptom of the
mild illness caused by this pathogen. Symptoms appear within six (6) to 24 hours after ingestion.

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• Bacillus cereus. A bacterium that can survive with or without oxygen, and has been associated with
vomiting and diarrhea. It is normally found on grain products such as rice, potatoes, pasta, corn,
cornstarch, soybeans, tofu, and flour.
 Non-spore-forming or vegetative bacteria are easily inactivated by heat. Illnesses caused by this type
result from the ingestion of a large number of cells. All bacteria exist in a vegetative state when these
grow, reproduce, and produce waste just like other living organisms. Examples of vegetative bacteria are:
• Salmonella. It is the most commonly reported cause of human foodborne diseases. Humans become
infected if they consume animal products or water contaminated with feces. Salmonella enteritidis is
associated with eggs, poultry, meat, raw fruits, and vegetables. Symptoms usually appear one (1) to
three (3) days after infection and can last up to seven (7) to 14 days. Infected persons can become
carriers and shed the bacteria for weeks or months, becoming the source of infection for others
through poor hygiene practices.
• Staphylococcus aureus. It is a bacterium that produces a heat-stable toxin as it grows on food. Such
organisms can be transferred to food easily, and these can grow in food items that contain high salt
or sugar, and lower water activity. This organism can be found in cooked ready-to-eat food items such
as luncheon meat, vegetables, salads (like a taco, potato, and tuna salad), custards, and other dairy
products such as cheese. Several personal hygiene measures before handling food can be done like
proper handwashing and scrubbing under fingernails to prevent the growth and presence of this
microorganism. One must also avoid touching hair, nose, and mouth to avoid transfer of saliva and
other body fluids that can contaminate food. Cooking alone will not inactivate the toxin.
• Escherichia coli (E. coli). The majority of human outbreaks caused by this bacterium were linked to the
consumption of contaminated meat and raw milk. Sources of contamination also include feces from
infected animals, the use of contaminated manure as fertilizers, fecal contamination of meat at
slaughter plants, raw manure and slurry from dairy farms, and cross-contamination of other food
products at the farm.
• Campylobacter spp. (C. jejuni and C. coli) are the most frequently identified cause of acute infectious
diarrhea in developed countries. Poultry meat products are the most common foodborne source of
Campylobacter infection in humans. Humans become infected by ingesting contaminated food,
untreated water, or contaminated non-pasteurized or improperly pasteurized milk.
• Listeria monocytogenes is an environmental contaminant of which primary means of transmission to
humans is through food that can become contaminated during production and processing. Ready-to-
eat (RTE) food items that are refrigerated before consumption and do not receive substantial
treatment, such as soft cheese, RTE meats, and RTE seafood, have been implicated in outbreaks of
listeriosis. Human contamination occurs through the consumption of raw milk or products
manufactured with raw milk.
• Shigella. Shigellosis is associated with contaminated food and water and caused by one (1) of four (4)
Shigella species that spread due to unsanitary conditions, contaminated food and water, and
overcrowded living conditions. Symptoms usually last four (4) to seven (7) days. The illness may
progress to bloody diarrhea with mucus and the constant urge to pass stools. Shigella bacteria can be
shed from a person’s gastrointestinal system for up to three (3) months after symptoms disappear.
Treatment includes antibiotics.
• Vibrio. Associated with contaminated water and raw or undercooked fish and shellfish and causes
Cholera, an acute gastrointestinal infection. The risk to travelers is low, and vaccination is advised only

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for medical and rescue personnel working in endemic areas. The infection can lead to severe
dehydration and death in undernourished persons or those with compromised immune systems or
kidneys.
Bacterial Growth
Bacteria reproduce when one (1) bacterial cell divides to form two (2) new cells. This process is called binary
fission. The reproduction of bacteria and the increase in the number of organisms is referred to as bacterial
growth. Figure 1 illustrates the phases of bacterial growth.
Phases of Bacterial Growth
1. Lag phase – bacteria exhibit little or no growth. The
bacteria adjust to its surroundings during this phase
that lasts only a few hours at room temperature.
2. Log phase – growth is very rapid during this phase.
Bacteria are doubling in number every few minutes.
3. Stationary phase – in this phase, the number of
bacteria being produced equals the number of
organisms that are dying off. The bacteria have
used up much of the space, nutrients, and moisture
in the food by this phase of the growth curve.
4. Decline phase – the final phase of the growth
curve. Here, bacteria die off rapidly because they
lack nutrients and are poisoned by their toxic
wastes.
Figure 1. Bacterial Growth Curve
Conditions Needed for Bacterial Growth Source: https://cdn.britannica.com/68/6168-050-
EB74BC4E/growth-curve-colonies-phases.jpg
 Food. Suitable food supply is the most important
condition needed for bacterial growth. Most bacteria prefer food high in protein or carbohydrates like
meats, poultry, seafood, dairy products, cooked rice, beans, and potatoes.
 Acidity. Most foods are acidic and have a pH of less than 7.0. The pH symbol is used to designate the
acidity or alkalinity of a food. pH is measured on a scale that ranges from zero (0) to 14. Very acidic food
(pH below 4.6) like lemon, limes, and tomatoes will not normally support/slow down the rate of growth
of disease-causing bacteria.
Most bacteria prefer a neutral environment (pH of 7.0) but can grow in food items that have a pH in the
range of 4.6 to 9.0. A pH above 7.0 indicates that a food is alkaline like olives, egg whites, or soda crackers.
Hence, disease-causing bacteria grow best when the food it lives on has a pH of 4.6 to 7.0 like meat, fish,
and milk.
 Temperature. All bacteria do not have the same temperature requirements for growth.
• Psychrophilic – grow within a temperature range of 32°F to 70°F (0°C to 21°C). These microorganisms
are especially troublesome because these are capable of multiplying at both refrigerated and room
temperatures.
• Mesophilic – grow at temperatures between 71°F to 110°F (22°C to 43°C), with most rapid growth at
human body temperature (98.6°F or 37°C).
• Thermophilic – grow best at a temperature above 110°F (43°C). All thermophilic bacteria are spoilage
organisms.

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Most disease-causing bacteria can grow within a temperature range of 41°F to 135°F (5°C to 57°C), most
commonly referred to as the food Temperature Danger Zone (TDZ).
Temperature abuse is the term applied to food items that have not been heated to a safe temperature or
kept at an improper temperature.
 Time. Under ideal conditions, bacterial cells can double in number every 15 to 30 minutes. For most
bacteria, a single cell can generate over one (1) million cells in just five (5) hours. A rule of thumb in the
foodservice industry is that bacteria need about four (4) hours to grow to high enough numbers to cause
illness.
 Oxygen. Bacteria also differ in their requirements for oxygen. Controlling oxygen conditions may not be
an effective way to prevent foodborne illness. Regardless of available oxygen, some disease-causing
bacteria will find the conditions suitable for growth. Below are the types of bacteria depending on its
oxygen requirement:
• Aerobic – must have oxygen to grow.
• Anaerobic – cannot survive when oxygen is present because it is toxic to them. These grow well in
vacuum packaged food or canned food items where oxygen is not available.
• Facultative – can grow with or without oxygen. Most foodborne disease-causing microorganisms are
facultative anaerobes.
• Microaerophilic – have a very specific oxygen requirement, usually in the range of 3-6%.
 Moisture. Like most other life forms, moisture is an important factor in bacterial growth. Scientists have
determined that it is not the percentage of moisture or “water by volume” in food that most affects
bacterial growth. Rather, it is the amount of “available water” or water available for bacterial activity.
Water activity (Aw) is a measure of the amount of water that is not bound to the food and is, therefore,
available for bacterial growth. Aw is measured on a scale of 0-1.0. Disease-causing bacteria can only grow
in food items that have an Aw higher than 0.85.
Potentially Hazardous Food
Food items that provide a good environment for the growth of disease-causing microorganisms are called
potentially hazardous food (PHF) items. These are also called TCS (time/temperature control for safety) food.
All these food items, plus any food prepared with any of them, are potentially hazardous:
• Any food derived from animals, or any food containing animal products, including meat, poultry, fish,
shellfish, eggs, and dairy products.
• Any food derived from plants that have been cooked, partially cooked, or otherwise heat-treated. This
category includes not only cooked vegetables but also such items as cooked pasta, cooked rice, and tofu
(soybean curd).
• Raw seed sprouts
• Sliced melons
• Cut tomatoes
• Garlic and oil mixtures that haven’t been specifically treated to prevent the growth of pathogens (because
the oil seals the garlic from the air, fostering the growth of anaerobic bacteria, as explained above).
Food items that are not potentially hazardous include dried or dehydrated food, food items that are strongly
acidic, and commercially processed food items that are still in its original unopened, sealed containers.

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Viruses
These are much smaller than bacteria, and these require a living host (human, animal) in which to grow and
reproduce. Viruses do not multiply in food, however, a susceptible person needs to consume only a few viral
particles to experience an infection. Examples of viruses are:
• Hepatitis A Virus. This virus has been associated with many foodborne infections as it causes a liver disease
called infectious hepatitis. This type of virus is a particularly important hazard to food establishments
because food workers can harbor it up to six (6) weeks and not show symptoms of illness.
• Norwalk Virus. This common type of virus has been associated with many foodborne infections. Common
symptoms caused are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. A headache and low-grade fever
may occur. Preventive measures, like using potable water when preparing shellfish and avoiding raw
seafood consumption, can help avoid this virus.
• Rotavirus. This causes several diseases known as rotavirus gastroenteritis and is the leading cause of
severe diarrhea among infants and children. Common symptoms are vomiting, watery diarrhea, and low-
grade fever with the onset time ranges from one (1) to three (3) days. Infected food workers may
contaminate food items that require handling and no further cooking, and also via contaminated hands.
Parasites
These are small or microscopic creatures that need to live on or inside a living host to survive. Parasitic
infection is far less common than bacterial or viral foodborne illnesses. Approximately 10% of 1Traveler’s
Diarrhea (a digestive tract disorder that commonly causes loose stools and abdominal cramps from eating
contaminated food or drinking contaminated water.) is caused by protozoans. These one-celled
microorganisms are transmitted to humans through the consumption of contaminated food and water.
Examples of these microorganisms are:
• Anisakis are nematodes (roundworms) associated with foodborne infection from fish. These worms are
about 1-1 ½ inches long and the diameter of a human hair. If the worms attach themselves to the victim’s
stomach, typical symptoms are vomiting and abdominal pain. Coughing is the most common symptom if
the worms attach themselves. Inspecting and handling seafood carefully and cooking it at proper
temperatures are some preventions for this parasite.
• Cyclospora cayetanensis is a parasite that has been reported more frequently beginning in the 1990s,
where most outbreaks have been associated with fresh fruits and vegetables that were contaminated at
the farm. Symptoms include loss of appetite, weight loss, bloating, stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting,
muscle aches, low-grade fever, and fatigue. Avoiding contact with contaminated food or water, and
purchasing ready-to-eat food from inspected and approved supplier are very important preventive tips for
this kind of pathogen.
• Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite common in warm-blooded animals including pigs, cows, sheep, chickens,
and birds. Symptoms of mild cases of the illness include swollen lymph glands, fever, headache, and
muscle aches. The onset time is 10 to 13 days after exposure. Parasites are commonly found in red meat,
especially pork, lamb, and beef. Fruits and vegetables can also be contaminated with feces. Avoid eating
raw and undercooked meat to avoid this parasite.
• Trichinella spiralis is a foodborne roundworm that causes infection. Found mostly in pork and wild-game
animals such as bear and wild boar, the first symptoms of trichinosis are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and
abdominal pain. Onset time is two (2) to 28 days after eating the contaminated meat. Cooking pork and
wild-game animals to the proper temperature would be the most important preventive measure.

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• Cryptosporidium parvum is a single-celled microorganism that is found in water that has been
contaminated with cow feces. The most common cryptosporidiosis is severe watery diarrhea, which
usually lasts two (2) to four (4) days. Fertilizing salad vegetables with manure is another possible source
of human infection. Providing a potable water supply in the food establishment and handling foods more
carefully can prevent contamination and cross-contamination. Food workers must practice good personal
hygiene to prevent the spread of such pathogen.
• Giardia lamblia is a single-celled microorganism found in the feces of wild animals, domestic pets, and
infected persons. Giardiasis may cause diarrhea within one (1) week of ingestion of the cyst and may last
as much as a month. Infections from contaminated vegetables that are eaten raw cannot be ruled out.
The same prevention as the above protozoan is also applicable.
• Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan that causes most cases of Amoebiasis
(an infection which occurs via the fecal-oral route, either directly by person-to-person contact or indirectly
by eating or drinking fecally-contaminated food or water). The majority of which are asymptomatic
(persons do not exhibit symptoms). In rare instances, it can also cause lesions in the liver. Treatment
includes taking medication belonging to the nitroimidazole family of drugs.
Chemical Hazards
Naturally occurring chemicals include toxins that are produced by a biological organism. Examples include
allergens, ciguatoxin, mycotoxins, scombrotoxin, and shellfish toxins.
• Food Allergen. It causes a person’s immune system to “overreact.” In severe situations, a life-threatening
allergic reaction called anaphylaxis can occur. Anaphylaxis is a condition that occurs when many parts of
the body become involved in an allergic reaction.
When a person eats a particular food again, the pre-formed antibodies act and trigger a cascade of
reactions in the tissues that result in some or all of the typical symptoms of food allergy, like mouth itching
and swelling, rash, hives, runny nose, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and swelling of throat and
tongue (Healey, 2016). Table 2 shows a summary of the differences between food allergy and food
intolerance.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FOOD ALLERGY AND FOOD INTOLERANCE
Food Allergy Food Intolerance
o Involves the immune system  Does not involve the immune system
o Symptoms include rash, hives, vomiting, diarrhea,
 Can cause abdominal pain, diarrhea, headache,
abdominal cramps, and occasional difficulty in
ulcers, hives, and runny nose.
breathing.
 Symptoms can appear within minutes of eating the
o Symptoms usually appear a few minutes to an
food or more usually several hours but can take
hour after eating the food.
several days to appear.
o Food allergy can be mild or severe and in extreme
 Food chemicals or additives (such as flavors or
cases can cause life-threatening anaphylaxis.
preservatives) are often the cause of food
o Examples of food allergy are allergies to nuts, fish,
intolerances.
shellfish, eggs, and sesame seeds.
Table 2. Differences between Food Allergy and Food Intolerance
Source: Food Safety, 2016

Symptoms include itching and hives, swelling of the throat and difficulty in breathing, lowered blood
pressure, and unconsciousness. About 90% of all allergies are caused by these eight (8) food items: milk,
egg, wheat proteins, peanuts, soy, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish.

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• Ciguatoxin Poisoning. It is caused by eating contaminated tropical fish. The toxin is found in tiny, free-
swimming sea creatures called algae (al-gee; a plant or plantlike organism of any of several phyla,
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divisions, or classes of chiefly aquatic, usually chlorophyll-containing nonvascular organisms), which live
among certain coral reefs. Purchasing fish from a reputable supplier would be the best preventive measure
since the toxin is not destroyed by cooking.
• Mycotoxins. Mycotic organisms or fungi are molds, yeasts, and mushrooms, some of which are capable of
causing a foodborne illness. Fungi are larger than bacteria and usually prefer food items that are high in
sugar or starches. Many mycotoxins are not destroyed by cooking and have been shown to cause cancer.
• Scombrotoxin Poisoning. This is also called histamine poisoning since it is caused by eating food items high
in the chemical compound histamine.
Symptoms of the illness include dizziness, facial rash or hives, shortness of breath, and a peppery taste in
the mouth when contaminated fish is eaten. Storing seafood at temperatures between 32°F and 39°F (0°C
to 4°C) is good prevention for such toxin.
• Shellfish Toxin Poisoning. It is associated with the algal blooms (red tides) occurring in temperate and
tropical areas. Oysters, clams, mussels, scallops, crabs, and lobsters ingest toxins produced by
dinoflagellates microorganisms.
Man-made chemicals include substances that are added, intentionally or accidentally, to a food during
processing. Examples include cleaning solutions, food additives, pesticides, and heavy metals from containers
or contact surfaces.
• Intentionally added chemicals may include food additives, preservatives, and pesticides.
• Non-intentionally added chemicals may include contamination by chemicals such as cleaning and sanitary
supplies. Also, chemicals from containers or food contact surfaces of metal that are misused may lead to
poisoning.
Food additive is any substance that is not normally consumed as a food in itself and is not normally an
ingredient, but which is allowed to be there if it fulfills a technological function in the final food. People
use some ingredients to help preserve and improve the taste of food for a long period, and without certain
additives, many processed food items would be unsafe to eat. Below are some of the many functions of
food additives (Healey, 2016).
• Acids/Alkaline – help to maintain a constant acid level in food. This is important for taste, as well as to
influence how other substances in the food function.
• Antioxidants – retard or prevent the oxidative deterioration of food.
• Colorings – add or restore color to food items.
• Emulsifiers – facilitate or maintain oil and water from separating into layers.
• Firming agents/stabilizers – maintain the uniform dispersion of substances in solid and semi-solid food
items.
• Flavor enhancers – enhance the existing taste and/or odor of food.
• Foaming agents - maintain the uniform dispersion of gases in aerated food items.
• Gelling agents – modify the texture of the food through gel formation.
• Glazing agents – impart a coating to the external surface of the food to improve its appearance.
• Humectants – reduce moisture loss/prevent food from drying out.
• Preservatives – retard or prevent the deterioration of food by microorganisms, and thus prevent
spoilage.
• Rising agents – liberate gases, thereby increasing the volume of a food and are often used in baked
goods.

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• Sweeteners – replace the sweetness normally provided by sugars in food without contributing
significantly to its available energy.
• Thickeners – increase the viscosity to give food its desired consistency.
Physical Hazards
These are foreign objects in food that can cause illness and injury. These include fragments from broken
glasses, metal shavings from dull can openers, unfrilled toothpicks that may contaminate sandwiches, human
hair, jewelry or bandages, rings, earrings, and buttons that may accidentally be lost by a food handler and
enter a food. Additionally, stones, rocks, or wood particles may contaminate raw fruits and vegetables, rice,
beans, and other grain products. Physical hazards commonly result from accidental contamination and poor
food-handling practices that can occur at various points in the food chain from harvest to consumer.
To prevent physical hazards, wash raw fruits and vegetables thoroughly and visually inspect food items that
cannot be washed like ground beef or pork. Food workers must be taught to handle food safely to prevent
contamination by unwanted foreign objects such as the ones mentioned above.
Lastly, food workers should not wear jewelry and other unnecessary accessories when involved in production.
The key hazards that could contribute to food safety being compromised in the food flow are shown in Table
3:

Physical Chemical Microbiological

Dust and dirt from
Delivery/Transportation
vehicles; glass shards
Machinery parts; screws,
nuts, bolts
Food Processing
Metal shavings/rust;
fragments of bones
Dead insects
Storage
Packaging materials
Fingernails, hair, jewelry,
insects, damaged utensils,
Food Preparation
wooden utensils, flaking
paint
Hair, jewelry, glass shards
Food Service from damaged counter
sneeze screen
Table 3. Hazards in the Food Flow
Source: Food hygiene, health, and safety: study guide, 2009
Oil, diesel, petrol
from vehicle
maintenance
Pest bait
Cleaning chemicals
Pest bait
Cleaning chemicals
Cleaning chemicals,
pesticides/sprays
Cleaning chemicals;
cleaning sprays
Cross-contamination; pathogens
present in food
Contaminated food handler
Infected food handler – “carrier”
Cross-contamination
Pathogens present in food
Virus; natural poisons in food;
infected food handler; cross-
contamination; food contact
surfaces; contaminated cloths,
utensil, and food preparation
equipment
Cross-contamination

References:
Confederation of Tourism and Hospitality (2009). Food hygiene, health, and safety: study guide. BPP Learning Media Ltd.
Healey, J. (Ed.). (2016). Food safety. The Spinney Press

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1International Association for Medical Assistance to Travellers (IAMAT). (2016). Philippines general health risks: Traveler's diarrhea. In
IAMAT. https://www.iamat.org/country/philippines/risk/traveller-s-diarrhea
Jackson, L. A., & Jansen, M. (2009). Risk assessment in the international food safety policy arena [Staff Working Paper ERSD-2009-01].
World Trade Organization Economics Research and Statistics Division.
2McSwane, D. R. (2008). Food safety and sanitation (4th Ed.). Pearson Education South Asia Pte. Ltd.

Motarjemi, Y. (Ed.), & Lelieveld, H. (Ed.). (2014). Food safety management: A practical guide for the food industry. Elsevier, Inc.
Wallace, C. A. (2011). Food safety for the 21st century: Managing HACCP and food safety throughout the global supply chain. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.

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