ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 26 · Number 5 · 2008 pp.

327-346 327

Challenges and Opportunities for Bio-diesel Production

in Turkey

Havva Balat*,1 and Cahide Öz2

1
Sila Science, Trabzon, Turkey
2
Çözüm Engineering, Biga, Çanakkale, Turkey

ABSTRACT
This paper will discuss the main challenges and opportunities for sustainable
production of bio-diesel fuel in Turkey. Turkey’s energy demand has risen
rapidly as a result of economic and social development over the past two
decades. As in many other countries, Turkey is heavily dependent on fossil fuels
to meet its energy requirements. Fossil fuels account for approximately 88% of
the country’s total primary energy consumption. Turkey imports three major
sources of energy, and its dependence on imported fossil fuels is expected to
increase even further. At present, Turkey’s oil production met only 7% of
demand, the rest was imported. In spite of Turkey’s heavy dependence on fossil
fuels for energy demand, the country has a large potential for development of
renewable resources of every type. Bio-fuels can provide an opportunity for
Turkey to decrease its dependence on foreign oil, eliminate irregularities in
agriculture, create new employment opportunities, decrease rural depopulation,
and sustainable energy development. Turkey has a large area of suitable
agricultural land for the production of bio-fuel crops. Unfortunately, only about
4-5% of total cultivable area is used for cultivating bio-fuel crops. The vegetable
oil sector, which is considered to be one of the strengths of the Turkish
agriculture and process industry, could be reformed to meet bio-diesel
production demands.

Keywords: Turkey, bio-diesel, production, challenges, opportunities

1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, using excessively of fossil fuels has led to serious energy crisis and
environmental pollution on a global scale. In order to meet the rising global demand
for energy, rapid development of conventional fossil fuels have been experienced by
many nations, bringing dramatic economic benefit and prosperity to fossil-fuel
industries as well as wellbeing of human society. However, various fossil-fuel related
activities emit huge quantities of gaseous, liquid, and solid waste materials, posing a
variety of impacts, risks, and liabilities to the environment [1]. According to a report
from the United Nations Environment Programme [2], the combustion of fossil fuels
accounts for about 74% of all carbon dioxide emissions and for roughly 57% of all
*
Adress correspondence to Havva Balat, H. Osman Yucesan Cad. Zambak Sok. Polatoglu Ap. Kat 3,
Besikduzu, Trabzon, Turkey. E-mail: havvabalat@yahoo.com
328 Challenges and Opportunities for Bio-diesel Production in Turkey

greenhouse gas emissions. Oil currently accounts for 39% of fossil-fuel related carbon
dioxide emissions and gas for 20%, while coal accounts for the remaining 41% [3]. At
the primary energy level, fossil fuels cover around 81% of global energy consumption
[4]. The transportation sector accounts for about 60% of global oil consumption [5] and
19% of global carbon dioxide emissions [6].
Petroleum-based fuels are limited reserves concentrated in certain regions of the
world. The dramatic increase in the price of petroleum, the finite nature of fossil fuels,
increasing concerns regarding environmental impact, especially related to greenhouse
gas emissions, and health and safety considerations are forcing the search for new
energy sources and alternative ways to power the world’s motor vehicles [7-11].
Achieving solutions to the environmental problems that we face today requires long
term potential actions for sustainable development [12-15].
Producing and using bio-fuels can positively contribute to reduce foreign oil
dependency and reduce carbon dioxide emissions, provide a clean and therefore
sustainable energy source, and increase the agricultural income for rural poor in
developing countries. Carbon dioxide savings from bio-fuels are agreed at 50–70%
better than petroleum-based gasoline and diesel and some 30% better than road fuel
gases [16]. The bio-fuel industry’s potential as a source of income and large new
markets for rural and small farmers is of great interest. The growing international
demand for bio-fuel is of particular interest to developing countries seeking
opportunities for economic growth and trade. Developing countries have a
comparative advantage for bio-fuel production because of greater availability of land,
favourable climatic conditions for agriculture and lower labour costs. However, there
may be other socio-economic and environmental implications affecting the potential
for developing countries to benefit from the increased global demand for bio-fuel [17].
Large-scale production of bio-fuels offers an opportunity for certain developing
countries to reduce their dependence on oil imports. In developed countries there is a
growing trend towards employing modern technologies and efficient bio-energy
conversion using a range of bio-fuels, which are becoming cost-wise competitive with
fossil fuels [18-20].
Bio-fuels are liquid or gaseous fuels made from plant matter and residues, such as
agricultural crops, municipal wastes and agricultural and forestry by-products. The
production of bio-fuel feedstocks from agricultural and forestry sources has been
considered for many years, particularly just after the 1970’s “energy crisis” [21]. The
term bio-fuels can refer to fuels for direct combustion for electricity production, but is
generally used for liquid fuels (mainly bio-ethanol and bio-diesel) for transportation
sector. They can substitute for conventional fuels in vehicle engines-either totally or
partially in a blend [22].
Bio-diesel is a notable alternative to the widely used petroleum derived diesel fuel
since it can be generated by domestic natural sources such as soybeans, rapeseeds,
coconuts, and even recycled cooking oil, and thus reduces dependence on diminishing
petroleum fuel from foreign sources [23]. Bio-diesel production is a very modern and
technological area for researchers due to the relevance that it is winning everyday
because of the increase in the petroleum price and the environmental advantages [24].
Carbon dioxide produced by combustion of bio-diesel can be recycled by
photosynthesis, thereby minimizing the impact of bio-diesel combustion on the
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 26 · Number 5 · 2008 329

greenhouse effect [25]. Bio-diesel can be used as pure fuel or blended at any level with
petroleum diesel for use by diesel engines. Pure bio-diesel fuel (100% esters of fatty
acids) is referred to as B100. Pure bio-diesel fuel reduces carbon dioxide emissions by
more than 75% over petroleum diesel. Using B20 (a blend of 20% by volume bio-
diesel with 80% by volume petroleum diesel) reduces carbon dioxide emissions by
15% [26].
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section II provides a summary
of global bio-diesel production. Section III gives a brief overview of Turkey’s energy
and environmental challenges and emphasizes the importance of bio-fuels as a
domestic and renewable energy supply. Turkey’s bio-diesel production and demand
are given in Section IV. Section V discusses some possible challenges and promising
opportunities for sustainable bio-diesel production in the country. Finally, Section VI
draws the main conclusions of this paper.

2. GLOBAL PRODUCTION OF BIO-DIESEL FUEL

The global bio-diesel industry is among the fastest-growing markets the chemical
industry has ever seen [27]. Global production of bio-diesel fuel reached 6.0 billion
liters in 2006 [28], up from 3.9 billion liters in 2005 [29], a jump of 54% (Table 1).
Bio-diesel production is highest in the European Union (EU), where more bio-diesel is
produced than bio-ethanol, but total production of both fuels is fairly small compared
to production of bio-ethanol in Brazil and the United States [30]. The largest bio-diesel
producer is Germany, which accounts for approximately half of global production
(Figure 1). Bio-diesel output in Germany – where the biggest in the EU industry was
hit by taxes last year – jumped to 2.8 billion liters in 2006 from 1.9 billion liters in 2005
(Table 1). Other countries with significant bio-diesel markets in 2006 included the
United States, France, Italy, Czech Republic, Spain, Malaysia, and Poland. Currently,
the United States is the fastest growing bio-diesel market in the world. From 2005 to
2006, bio-diesel production in the United States grew to 0.85 billion liters from 0.25
billion liters per year (Table 1). By 2010, the United States is expected to become the
largest single bio-diesel market, accounting for roughly 18% of world bio-diesel
consumption [27].

Figure 1. Major bio-diesel producers in 2006.

330 Challenges and Opportunities for Bio-diesel Production in Turkey

Table 1. Global bio-diesel production by top countries

Country 2005a 2006b Rate of increase for 05/06

(billion liters) (billion liters) (%)
Germany 1.90 2.80 47.4
USA 0.25 0.85 240.0
France 0.60 0.63 5.0
Italy 0.50 0.57 14.0
Czech Republic 0.15 0.15 0.0
Spain 0.10 0.14 40.0
Malaysia – 0.14 –
Poland 0.10 0.13 30.0
UK – 0.11 –
EU Total 3.60 4.50 25.0
Total world 3.90 6.00 53.8
Source: Refs. [28b, 29a].

Two factors have contributed to the EU’s becoming the world leader in bio-diesel
production. One is the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), a
supranational and domestically oriented farm policy for EU member countries,
adopted in 1992 and implemented in 1993–1994. The 1992 reform addressed
agricultural surpluses through supply control in the form of a mandatory, paid, ‘‘set-
aside” program. The second factor is high fuel taxes, which have enabled indirect
subsidies for bio-fuel production through partial or full exemption of the fuel excise
tax. Taxes normally constitute 50% or more of the retail price of diesel in EU member
states. In February 1994, the European Parliament adopted a 90% tax exemption for
bio-diesel [31].

3. TURKEY’S ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES

Similar to other industrializing countries, Turkey’s energy consumption has increased
dramatically. The country’s energy demand is growing 8% per year, one of the highest
rates in the world [32]. In other words, the gap in Turkey’s energy supply and demand
was one of the key elements determining its policy [33]. Turkey’s energy consumption
was 99.8 million tons of oil equivalents (Mtoe) in 2006, and is expected to reach 222.4
Mtoe by 2020 [34]. As in many other countries, Turkey is currently heavily dependent
on fossil fuels for energy consumption, with oil, natural gas, and coal being the
predominant energy sources, accounting for a significant majority of the total primary
energy consumption. Fossil fuels account for approximately 88% of the country’s total
primary energy consumption (Table 2) [34]. Turkey is strongly dependent on import of
these sources. The biggest shares in energy imports are consisted of oil (42.5%),
natural gas (39.5%), and coal (18%). Currently, 97% of natural gas demand, 93% of
oil demand and 50.2% of coal demand in Turkey is met by imports. Turkey is almost
73% dependent on external sources in meeting its energy demand.
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 26 · Number 5 · 2008 331

Table 2. Turkey primary energy consumption by fuel (Mtoea)

Source 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 The share of
fuel in 2006
Oil 32.3 30.9 30.9 31.8 32.9 32.2 32.5 32.5%
Natural gas 13.7 14.9 16.1 19.5 20.4 24.7 28.9 29.0%
Coal 22.5 18.4 19.3 20.7 21.8 21.8 25.9 26.0%
Fossil fuel consumption 68.5 64.2 66.3 72.0 75.1 78.7 87.3 87.5%
Other 12.0 11.2 12.0 11.8 12.7 12.4 12.5 12.5%
Total consumption 80.5 75.4 78.3 83.8 87.8 91.1 99.8 100.0%
(a) million tons of oil equivalent.
Source: Ref. [34].

Oil consumption was around 32.5 Mtoe, while production was around 2.3 Mtoe in
2006 [34]. In other words, 93% of Turkey’s oil demand is met by imports. Table 3
shows Turkey’s crude oil imports [35, 36]. Turkey expended US$10.7 billion for 23.8
million tons of oil in 2006 [36]. The transportation sector ranks second in Turkey’s
energy consumption. According to Çakar [37], the transportation sector currently
accounts for 40% of total oil consumption. In addition, transportation sector accounts
for 15.8% total carbon dioxide emissions (Figure 2) [38]. Exhaust gases emanated from
increased motor vehicles are also an important problem for which necessary
precautions must be taken for air pollution in cities. Generally, 70-90% of carbon
monoxide emissions, 40-70% of nitrogen oxide emissions, about 50% of hydrocarbon
emissions and 100% of lead emissions in cities are emanated from motor vehicles [39].

Table 3. Turkey’s crude oil imports (thousands tons)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Crude oil 21,945 23,010 24,521 23,676 23,466 23,500 23,786
Source: Refs. [35, 36].

Figure 2. Carbon dioxide emissions by sectors in Turkey, 2005.

Source: Ref. [38].
332 Challenges and Opportunities for Bio-diesel Production in Turkey

Bio-fuels can provide an opportunity for Turkey to decrease its dependence on

foreign oil, eliminate irregularities in agriculture, create new employment
opportunities, decrease rural depopulation, and sustainable energy development. Bio-
diesel is one of many alternative fuel options that can help to solve economic and
environmental problems that arise from oil consumption. The Turkish Government
sees bio-diesel production as one the most promising options to provide an integrated
solution to economic and environmental problems. The decision made by the Energy
Market Regulatory Authority (EMRA) on January 5th 2006 state that bio-diesel
producers will be given a “processing license”. This decision was made to achieve the
goals of gaining control over bio-diesel production and delivery, dispelling
unregistered production and ensuring that the bio-diesel on the market would be
compliant with standards.

4. TURKEY’S BIO-DIESEL PRODUCTION AND DEMAND

With an installed bio-diesel production capacity of 1.5 million tons per annum, Turkey
has the second highest bio-diesel production capacity in Europe, after Germany. But,
Turkey’s bio-diesel production is only around 60,000 tons per year [40]. The EU have
adopted a proposal for a directive on the promotion of the use of bio-fuels with
measures ensuring that bio-fuels account for at least 2% of the market for gasoline and
diesel sold as transport fuel by the end of 2005, increasing in stages to a minimum of
5.75% by the end of 2010 [41]. According to a study [42], Turkey consumed 13.1
million tons of diesel fuel in 2006. When considering the 2% mixture as a basis, the
annual demand for bio-diesel reaches 263,000 tons.
According to the Turkish State Planning Organization [35], diesel fuel consumption
is expected to reach 14.8 million tons in 2010 and 16.4 million tons in 2013. With
increasing diesel fuel consumption and diesel/bio-diesel mixture rates, the demand for
vegetable oil will grow in later years. When considering the 5.75% mixture as a basis,
Turkey’s bio-diesel demand will reach 851,000 tons in 2010 and 943,000 tons in 2013.
Turkey’s diesel fuel consumption and bio-diesel demand during 2009-2013 are given
in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Turkey’s diesel fuel consumption and bio-diesel demand during 2009-2013.
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 26 · Number 5 · 2008 333

5. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

Challenges of agricultural sector
In recent years, the Turkish agricultural sector has had serious problems, such as lower
yields, higher input prices and higher production costs, production of redundant
product and irrigation issues. With the recent increase in global bio-fuel consumption
and the resulting increase in oilseed prices at the rate of 55-65%, the Turkish
Government must immediately execute new reforms and goals in agriculture sector.
Turkey has 28 million hectares (approx. 69 million acres) of cultivated land that
accounts for nearly 36% of the country’s total surface area. There are substantial areas
of abandoned agricultural land in Turkey that are not being managed and are becoming
overgrown [43]. The farming has not developed to fully utilize this potential.
Unfortunately, only about 4-5% (1.20-1.25 million hectares) [44] of total cultivable
area is used for cultivating bio-fuel crops. In 2006, only 580,000 tons (average yield of
0.5 ton/hectare) of vegetable oil was obtained from these areas. Figure 4 shows
Turkey’s vegetable oil supply and demand [45].

Figure 4. Turkey’s vegetable oil supply and demand.

Source: Ref. [45].

One of the most important current challenges of the Turkish agricultural sector is the
production of certain products in amounts that exceed the demand (e.g. hazelnut, tea,
tobacco, and sugar beet). The previously applied support purchases and the increasing
number of unregulated fields caused more products than needed to be sold and
marketed, which is a very serious problem. For example, the areas where hazelnut is
grown have increased by 50% (nearly 600,000 hectares) in 25 years, despite Law
number 2844 which was laid down on June 16th 1983 and concerns the planning of
334 Challenges and Opportunities for Bio-diesel Production in Turkey

hazelnut production and determination of cultivation areas. Total hazelnut production

has increased from 375,000 tons in 1990 to 530,000 tons in 2005, a 40% increase. With
Turkey’s shortage of oilseeds valuing US$1 billion per year, it has become absolutely
necessary to limit the cultivation areas for oversupplied products.

Challenges for sustainable feedstock production

Turkey’s major oilseed crops are sunflower, cotton and soybean. These are followed
by sesame, hemp, peanuts, safflower and rapeseed. In recent years, the country’s
chronic oilseed and vegetable oil supply deficit has strongly increased due to faulty
agriculture policies. In spite of current support policies, desirable development of
oilseed production could not be achieved. The main reasons for this are the applied
pricing policies and faulty import policies [46]. According to U_ur [47], approximately
70% of Turkey’s vegetable oil demand is met by imports. According to _ahin [48],
Turkey paid US$1.2 billion overseas to close this deficit in 2006. Turkey has a major
deficit in oil seed production to meet its current needs; only 35%-40% of oil seed needs
are met by crops grown in Turkey [49].
In earlier studies of bio-diesel production the main economic criteria were capital
cost, manufacturing cost and bio-diesel break-even price [50]. Bio-diesel production
costs are highly dependent on feedstock prices, with feedstock representing
approximately 70% to 95% of the finished product cost [50-52]. In Turkey, the cost of
production for oilseeds is somewhere between 55-120 TL/decare (US$ 1=1.42 TL in
2006) which yields 120-500 kg/decare product [49].
Sunflower oil is one of the most important products of the Turkish vegetable oil
industry. It leads the sector by sharing about 70% of the volume sales of vegetable oils
in the domestic market [53]. In order to increase supplies, the Turkish Government is
considering providing incentives for the production of canola. Canola, which has
attained strategic importance because of its use in bio-diesel production, is drawing
investors to Turkey. Cost-effective production, transportation and labor force make
Turkey an attractive center for canola production [54]. Around the Black Sea,
Mediterranean, and Aegean regions, farmers are more knowledgeable, and the ground
and climate are more suitable for growing a large variety of crops of higher value than
canola. Hence the opportunity to grow canola in these regions is limited due to
competition from other higher value-added crops. So, even though it is more difficult
to grow canola in Central and South Anatolia, it is nevertheless economically more
profitable [49]. East Anatolia region, production of vegetable oils has not been
improved sufficiently as bio-diesel fuel in Turkey [55].

High fertilizer costs

Fertilizer industry has significant contribution to the agricultural sector by raising the
fruitfulness of agricultural products by 50% and the efficiency on the vegetal
production. The main reason for fertilizer application is to supply elementary needs of
agricultural plants during their growth, for instance nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Therefore the selection of an appropriate fertilizer
should be based on the soil type and composition [56]. In the last decade, nitrogen
fertilizers account for more than 60% in total fertilizer consumption because about
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 26 · Number 5 · 2008 335

75% of arable agricultural land in Turkey needs nitrogen nutrients [57]. The use of
fertilizer is 85 kg per hectare in Turkey, which is much below the average usage in
other countries, such as Japan (321 kg per hectare), France (240 kg per hectare),
England (283 kg per hectare), Greece (115 kg per hectare), Spain (155 kg per hectare).
The world average of fertilizer usage is 116 kg per hectare [56].
The cost of fertilizer is a major challenge for agriculture. Natural gas and ammonia
are the main raw materials for chemical fertilizer production and the proportion of
those raw materials is around 80% for fertilizer production cost [57]. Fertilizer
manufactured in Turkey is very costly compared to world market prices. This is due to
two main factors (1) high cost of fuel used in fertilizer production – mainly imported
natural gas from Russia sold to the industry with no subsidy–, and (2) high cost of raw
materials - 80% of raw materials being imported from outside of Turkey. Therefore
fertilizer imports, especially from Russia and Ukraine, where both fuel and raw
materials are much cheaper (some are subsidized by local governments), have been
increasing [49]. Total fertilizer production capacity is 5.3 million tons per year. Total
production is around 3-3.5 million tons per year. Domestic demand has been fixed
around 5 million tons per year. Import quantity depending on consumption and
production, is 2-2.5 million tons per year [58]. The average market price in Turkey for
fertilizer ranges between 360-800 TL/ton. The price changes based on the nitrogen,
phosphorous, potassium and sulfur content [49].

Irrigation issues
The droughts due to global warming have affected Turkey as much as any other
country. The agriculture sector was the most effected sector from drought in 2007. Due
to this drought the production of sunflowers -the largest source of oilseeds- decreased
by 23.6%, dropping from 1.12 million tons to 854,400 tons [59]. Therefore, important
price increases occurred in sunflower seed and sunflower oil prices. As Turkey climate
is hot and dry in summer, plants should be irrigated in case of rain water being
insufficient. As Turkey climate is hot and dry in summer, plants should be irrigated in
case of rain water being insufficient [60]. The efficiency expected from oilseed
production depends on irrigation.
Turkey’s water sources are divided into 26 major river basins. Annual average
flows of these basins amount to about 186 km3. Two major rivers of the country (the
Euphrates and the Tigris) alone account for 28.5% of total water potential [61]. Annual
precipitation is 501 billion m3 in Turkey, but 274 billion m3 of precipitation water is
assumed to evaporate from surface and transpire through plants. Table 4 shows
Turkey’s water potential [62]. However, only 8.5 million hectares can be technically
and economically irrigated with the current water potential [63]. Today, only 5.17
million hectares on this land can be irrigated so new facilities must be constructed for
the irrigation of the remaining 3.33 million hectares. According to the General
Directorate of State Hydraulic Works [63] Turkey plans to complete the facilities by
2023 with funds of US$28 million. Table 5 shows development of irrigation sector in
Turkey.
336 Challenges and Opportunities for Bio-diesel Production in Turkey

Table 4. Water potential in Turkey

Precipitation Average Flow Economically

(mm/m2) annual precipitation (billion m3/year) consumable
(billion m3/year) (billion m3/year)
Domestic 643 501 186 95
Off Country 7 3
Total 193 98
Underground 12
General Total 110
Source: Ref. [62].

Table 5. Development of irrigation sector in Turkey

In operation Ultimate goal Sector’s

as of 2007 by 2023 development rate
(million hectares) (million hectares) (%)
Irrigation 5.17 8.5 61
Source: Ref. [63].

The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP in Turkish initials) is an integrated project

covering Adiyaman, Batman, Diyarbakir, Gaziantep, Kilis, Mardin, Siirt, Sanliurfa and
Sirnak. GAP cities are vital to increasing the production areas for oilseeds. When the
GAP project is completed and 1.7 million hectares are gradually irrigated, oilseed
farming and production will significantly increase. The figures for expected production
from the GAP master plan allocate a 10% margin for soybean and a 5% margin for
sunflower, peanut and sesame [44]. The Turkish Government plans to set aside 14.5
billion TL (approximately US$12 billion) from the national budget as additional
resources for the completion of the GAP. When improvements in irrigation technology
are considered, it becomes apparent that much larger areas need to be irrigated. If the
existing irrigation systems are not improved, even with water transfer from the
reservoirs the total area that can be irrigated is 8.5 million hectares [64]. Inappropriate
irrigation and fertilizer management practices, as well as excess extraction of water
have been important causes of soil salinity in some areas, with this problem growing
rapidly in parts of the area under the GAP Project. With an estimated 6% of arable land
suffering yield limitation due to salinization and a further 12% affected by water
logging [65].

Bio-diesel manufacturing facilities

Bio-diesel production is a very modern and technological area for researchers due to
the relevance that it is winning everyday because of the increase in the petroleum price
and the environmental advantages [66]. Bio-diesel is generally made of methyl esters
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 26 · Number 5 · 2008 337

of fatty acids produced by the transesterification reaction of triglycerides with

methanol in the presence alkali as a catalyst [67]. The purpose of the transesterification
process is to lower the viscosity of the oil. Among the alcohols that can be used in the
transesterification reaction are methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol.
Methanol and ethanol are used most frequently, ethanol is a preferred alcohol in the
transesterification process compared to methanol because it is derived from
agricultural products and is renewable and biologically less objectionable in the
environment, however methanol because of its low cost and its physical and chemical
advantages [68]. The transesterification reaction can be catalyzed by alkalis [69-71],
acids [72-74], or enzymes [75-77]. A novel process of bio-diesel fuel production has
been developed by a non-catalytic supercritical fluids (methanol and ethanol) method.
The transesterification of triglycerides by supercritical methanol, ethanol, propanol and
butanol, has proved to be the most promising process [78]. In the supercritical
methanol transesterification method, the yield of conversion raises 97% for 10 minutes
[78, 79]. Figure 5 shows a schematic diagram of the processes involved in bio-diesel
production [80].

Figure 5. Process flow schematic for bio-diesel production

Source: Ref. [80].

In Turkey there are many small-scale bio-diesel manufacturing facilities that can
probably meet the needs of the local population. Large-scale bio-diesel facilities to
serve the needs of major oil companies are very few, but this appears to be a promising
business with the EU decision to encourage the use of bio-diesel. With favorable
338 Challenges and Opportunities for Bio-diesel Production in Turkey

economics and increasing demand, both to lower Turkey’s petroleum dependency and
to market to the EU, it seems that Turkey should invest in developing large-scale
technology [49]. Large-scale plants have higher feedstock costs, but generally, lower
production costs and improved co-product utilization [81]. A study by the International
Energy Agency [82] estimates that costs of producing bio-diesel from rapeseed oil as
a feedstock range from as low as US$0.35 per liter in a large-scale plant up to US$0.50
per liter in a small-scale plant.

Bio-diesel derived from low-cost oils

Bio-diesel production cost can be greatly reduced by using low-cost oils, such as used
waste cooking oil and restaurant grease with water and a high the free fatty acids (FFA)
content. Bio-diesel production from animal fats is currently the cheapest option
(US$0.4-0.5 per liter) while traditional transesterification of vegetable oil is at present
around US$0.6-0.8 per liter [83]. Waste cooking oil offers a significant potential as
low-cost raw material for bio-diesel production. Therefore, bio-diesel derived from
waste cooking oils has taken a commercial patent as an alternative fuel to petroleum-
based diesel fuel for diesel engines in the markets of Europe and the United States [84].
Every year many millions of tons of used cooking oils are collected and used in a
variety of ways throughout the world. This is a virtually inexhaustible source of energy
which might also prove an additional line of production for “green” companies [85].
Yellow grease, which has a FFA content of less than 15% and is the most expensive,
ranges in price from about US$0.14-0.32 per liter [86]. Therefore, both yellow and
brown (FFA >15%) grease both have the potential to provide a bio-diesel feedstock
that is less expensive than the finished petroleum product [86]. Radich [87] assumes
that competing uses would limit bio-diesel production from waste cooking oil to 100
million gallons per year (6,523 barrels per day).
The recycling of waste cooking oil plays an important role in reducing economic
problems. The recycling of waste cooking oils was approximately 700,000-1,000,000
tons per year in the EU countries and around 135,000 tons per year in Canada [52].
Vegetable oil is used for cooking about 1.5 million tons a year in Turkey [88], and
wasted about 350,000 tons as a result of this usage [89]. However, only 5,430 tons of
waste vegetable oil was collected between 2005 and 2007 [90]. The remainder goes to
sewage, food, animal feed, the cosmetic industry and the ground. If the waste vegetable
were to be recovered instead of being discarded, 350,000 tons of bio-diesel and 35,000
tons of glycerin could be produced per year, the glycerin could further be used to
produce 3,500 tons of soap, all making a contribution to the economy [88]. Taking the
2% mixture as a basis, if the waste oils are recycled, it could fulfill Turkey’s bio-diesel
demands. Importance for Turkey of bio-diesel production from waste cooking oil is
shown in Figure 6 [91].
The recycling of waste cooking oil plays an important role in reducing
environmental problems. As large amounts of waste cooking oils are illegally dumped
into rivers and landfills, causing environmental pollution, the use of waste cooking oil
to produce bio-diesel as petroleum-based diesel fuel substitute offers significant
advantages because of the reduction in environmental pollution [52]. Waste cooking
oil makes up for 25% of domestic waste water pollution [88]. In order to protect human
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 26 · Number 5 · 2008 339

health and the environment, the “Waste Cooking Oil Control Regulation” came into
effect on April 19th 2005 with an aim towards transferring the waste oils to recycling
facilities without allowing them to mix in with the sewage water, and then recycle them
back into the economy. The list of licensed collectors, carriers and recycling
companies are shown in Table 6 [92]. Especially used cooking oils will be used in bio-
diesel production to prevent them from becoming a danger to human health and the
environment, according to this regulation. Waste cooking oils as defined by the “Waste
Cooking Oil Control Regulation” are:
– used cooking oils,
– soap-stocks,
– tank bottom sludge,
– oily soil,
– oil from oil containers, and
– expired oil.

Figure 6. Importance for Turkey of bio-diesel production from waste cooking oil.
Source: Ref. [91].

Table 6. Licensed collectors, carriers and recycling companies in Turkey

Quantity of companies having vegetable waste oil carrying license : 22

Quantity of vehicles having vegetable waste oil carrying license : 73
Quantity of plants having vegetable waste oil collecting license : 5
Quantity of plants having temporary vegetable waste oil storing license : 10
Quantity of plants having recycling (Biodiesel) license : 4
Source: Ref. [92].
340 Challenges and Opportunities for Bio-diesel Production in Turkey

Sustainable solutions to bio-diesel production challenges

Sustainable solutions to the problems faced in bio-diesel production:
– Making the addition of 2% bio-diesel to diesel fuels an obligatory requirement,
– Oilseed and bio-diesel producers should be supported and encouraged,
– Oilseed import should be regulated and should be subject to permission,
– Making use of mass media (newspapers, TV, radio, etc.) to raise public awareness
regarding the harvesting of waste cooking oils,
– The irregularities in agriculture sector should be corrected,
– Alternative oilseed production should be encouraged (canola, soybean, etc.),
– Providing applied courses and educational seminars to producers to boost
production and quality,
– Cultivation of oversupplied products should be limited in lowland terrains and the
planting of oilseeds in these areas should be encouraged, and
– Irrigation projects to combat droughts should be completed and implemented.

6. CONCLUSIONS
Bio-diesel is an alternative to petroleum diesel that is made from vegetable oils and
animal fats. It can be used as pure fuel or blended at any level with petroleum diesel
for use by diesel engines. The EU have adopted a proposal for a directive on the
promotion of the use of bio-fuels with measures ensuring that bio-fuels account for at
least 2% of the market for gasoline and diesel sold as transport fuel by the end of 2005,
increasing in stages to a minimum of 5.75% by the end of 2010. Turkey consumed 13.1
million tons of diesel fuel in 2006. When considering the 2% mixture as a basis, the
annual demand for bio-diesel reaches 263,000 tons. But, Turkey’s bio-diesel
production is only around 60,000 tons per year. When considering the 5.75% mixture
as a basis, Turkey’s bio-diesel demand will reach 851,000 tons in 2010 and 943,000
tons in 2013.
Bio-diesel is produced from vegetable oils in Turkey. Approximately 70% of
Turkey’s vegetable oil demand is met by imports. Turkey has a major deficit in oil seed
production to meet its current needs. The country’s chronic oilseed and vegetable oil
supply deficit has strongly increased due to faulty agriculture policies. In spite of
current support policies, desirable development of oilseed production could not be
achieved. The main reasons for this are the applied pricing policies and faulty import
policies. In order to increase supplies, the Turkish Government is considering
providing incentives for the production of canola. Canola, which has attained strategic
importance because of its use in bio-diesel production, is drawing investors to Turkey.
In recent years, the Turkish agricultural sector has had serious problems, such as
lower yields, higher input prices and higher production costs, production of redundant
product and irrigation issues. With the recent increase in global bio-fuel consumption
and the resulting increase in oilseed prices at the rate of 55-65%, the Turkish
Government must immediately execute new reforms and goals in agriculture sector.
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 26 · Number 5 · 2008 341

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