Overview[edit]

Main article: Philippine folk literature

There are two significant sources of Philippine mythologies, namely, oral literature and written
literature.
Oral literature (also known as folk literature) are stories that have been or still are being passed
down from one generation to another through oral means such as verbal communication. All sources
of Philippine mythologies are originally oral literature. As oral literature is passed on verbally,
changes in stories and addition of stories through time are natural phenomenons and part of the
evolving dynamism of Philippine mythology. Despite many attempts to record all oral literature of the
Philippines, majority of stories pertaining to Philippine mythologies have yet to be properly
documented. These oral traditions were intentionally interfered by the Spanish through the
introduction of Christian mythologies in the 16th century. Some examples of such interference are
the Biag ni Lam-ang and the Tale of Bernardo Carpio, where the names of certain characters were
permanently changed into Spanish ones. Resurgent ripples of interest towards oral literature in the
Philippines have sprang since the 21st century due to sudden interests among the masses, notably
the youth, coupled by various mediums such as literary works, television, radio, and social media. [6]
Written literature are oral literature that have been put in physical record such as manuscripts or
publications. Juan de Plasencia wrote the Relacion de las Costumbres de Los Tagalos in 1589,
documenting the traditions of the Tagalog people at the time. Other accounts during the period are
Miguel de Loarca's Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas and Pedro Chirino's Relacion de las Yslas
Filipinas (1604). Various books regarding Anitism have been published by numerous universities
throughout the country, such as Mindanao State University, University of San Carlos, University of
the Philippines, Ateneo Universities, Silliman University, and University of the Cordilleras, as well as
respected non-university publishing houses such as Anvil Publishing. The publication of these books
range from the 16th century to the 21st century. There are also printed but unpublished sources of
Philippine mythologies, notably college and graduate school theses. Specific written literature should
not be used as a generalizing asset of a particular story, as stories differ from town to town or village
to village, despite the people of a particular area belonging to the same ethnic group. Some
examples are the story of Bakunawa and the Seven Moons and the story of The Tambanokano,
which have multiple versions depending on the locality, people's ethnicity, origin of story, and cultural
progression.[7][4][8][9][7][4]

Regional Philippine mythology[edit]

Due to intensive cultural exchanges spanning for millenniums, many of the mythologies from a
variety of ethnic groups in the Philippines have similarities, in one way or another. A few examples of
which are: (1) the creation myths of the Bicolano people[10] and the Visayan peoples, whose deities'
names are different but the activities recorded in their creation myths are extremely similar; [11] (2) the
presence of deities named Mayari[12]/Malayari[13]/Apûng Malyari,[14] which is prevalent in Tagalog,
[12]
 Kapampangan,[14] and Sambal mythologies;[13] (3) the presence of moon deities, named Bulan in
Hiligaynon, Karay-a, Cebuano[15] and Bicolano mythologies,[10] and serpent deities
named Bakunawa in Hiligaynon, Karay-a, Cebuano, and Bicolano mythologies (4) the presence of
moon-swallowing monsters named Tambanokano in Mandaya and Manobo mythologies, where the
Mandaya Tambanokano is depicted as a crab, while the Manobo Tambanokano is depicted as a
tarantula or scorpion, depending on the ethnic sub-group; [citation needed] (5) the presence of foe-deities
named Gugurang and Asuang in Bicolano mythology [16] and Agurang and Aswang in Hiligaynon
mythology.[16] and (6) the presence of deities named Kabunian in the mythologies of the Ibaloi
people,[17] the Bontoc people,[18] and the Ifugao people.[19]
Despite being ethnic counterparts, the deities, heroes, and creatures are completely different from
each other, and their stories must be respected as they are and not mixed into a single narrative. It
should also be noted that each ethnic story has a variety of versions. In many cases, stories vary
between town to town or village to village despite the peoples in the specified areas belonging to the
same ethnic group.[20][21][22][23]

A Bontoc shaman performing a sacred wake ritual with a death chair.

The Philippines is made up of more than 7,000 islands, but they are divided into three main island
regions.[24] These regions are: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao (which is subdivided here into North
and South). There have been attempts to refer each region to specific pre-colonial mythologies,
however, the difference in mythologies and belief systems is not by region, but by ethnic groups,
where some ethnic groups have influence in only a few towns, while others have inter-regional
influences spanning various provinces. Buddhism and Hinduism in the Philippines is influential to the
culture and myths of the people within the three major island regions. There is no unified mythology
among the three regions, due to a wide array of diverse cultures that continue to flourish distinctly in
the islands.[25] These myths were orally passed down, [26] which means that even myths within the
same region will have some degree of change.

Luzon[edit]
Pre-colonial Luzon were split among Hindu-Buddhist, Muslim principalities, and animist.

 Creation Story – Story of Bathala (Tagalog)[27]

o The story of Bathala explains how he became the ruler of the universe, the etiological
explanation of the coconut tree, and how all the everything on earth came to be
 The Creation – Lumawig (Igorot)[28]
o Lumawig, a great spirit god created peopled in different areas. This gives an
explanation on why people speak differently than others.
 The Flood Story (Igorot)[29]
o Lumawig's two sons decided to flood the earth to bring up mountains so that they
can catch pig and deer. However, in the acts of doing this, they drowned all the people on
earth except for two people; they were brother and sister. Ludwig helped the two survive the
flood and after the flood subsided, the brother and sister got married and repopulated the
earth.
o Etiological explanation for mountains
Visayas[edit]
Pre-colonial Visayas were influenced by Hindu-Buddhist and Animism. The Spaniards even
described some of the indigenous people who lived there as Pintados, which means that they had
tattoos/paintings on them.

 The Sun and the Moon[30]

 o The sun and moon created the stars. An etiological explanation for the stars.
o The sun burned the starts and this made the moon upset. They begin to fight, but the
moon ran away. This gives an etiological explanation why the sun and moon seem to be
"chasing" each other.
Mindanao[edit]
Pre-colonial Mindanao (around 900AD) were influenced by Hindu-Buddhist, Indonesian,
and Malaysian beliefs and culture. Then around the 17th and 18th century, Islam in most northern
islands of Mindanao were well established.

 The Children of the Limokon (Mandaya)[31]

o The limokon bird laid eggs along a river that created man and woman. However, they
were born on separate sides of the river. One day the man came across the woman and
they got married and had children.
o This gives an explanation on how the Mandaya people were created.
 The Sun and the Moon (Mandaya)[32]
o The sun and moon were married, but one day, the sun got angry at the moon and
started to chase her. This gives an etiological explanation why the sun and moon “chase”
each other.
o The first child of the sun and moon  was chopped up but the sun because he was
angry at him. The sun then scattered him across the sky. This is the etiological explanation
why there are starts
o Another son of the sun and moon was a gigantic crab that created lightening when
he blinks his eyes. He lives in a hole in the bottom of the ocean and is responsible for high
and low tides.
 How the Moon and the Stars Came to Be (Bukidnon)[33]
o This was a time the sky was close to the ground. A spinster who was pounding rice
struck the sky so hard it began to rise. Her comb and beads that she hung on the sky to dry
also raised with it. That became the moon and stars.
 The Flood Story (Bukidnon)[34]
o A big crab that crawled into the sea created the flood in which drowned all the people
except those who made a raft and stayed upon it.
 Origin (Bagobo)[35]
o A boy and a girl was the only ones left on Mount Apo. They were so weak because of
the drout. However, the boy found a sugarcane and was able to cut it. Water from the sugar
cane refreshed him and his sister until rain came.
o This is why they are called Bagobo.
 Epic ‘Tudbulul’ (T’Boli)[36]
o Tudbulu was a hero that organized a concert. He gathered music and this attracted
many people. Some of these people stayed and lived together.
o This is how the T’boli tribe was formed
 Creation Story – D’wata (T’Boli)[37]
o The Betoti found soil and brought it back to D’wata. They spread out the soil and
created dry land. The animals on earth then told Betoti that they need someone to look after
them. Betoti told D’wata and thus man and woman were created out of statues.
 Creation Story – Melu (B’laan)[38]
o Melu created the Earth with his dead skin that came off as he cleaned himself. The
remaining dead skin was used to make 2 men. However, Melu could not make their noses.
Tau Tana appeared below the earth and helped him make the noses. When they were
 done, they whipped the men until they started to move. Melu then told the two men to save
their dead skin and hair so that he would be able to make them companions.
 In the Beginning (B’laan)[39]
o Four beings that created the earth, and people.
o They tried using wax, then dirt. However, their noses were the most difficult to make.
Melu  was in a hurry and pressed his finger at the root of their noses. This is the reason why
the B’laan peoples’ noses are the way it is.

History[edit]
Main article: Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines

The Tagalog people's Obando Fertility Rites, before becoming a Catholic festival, was initially an animist ritual
dedicated to the intersex deity, Lakapati, who presided over fertility, the goddess of love, Diyan Masalanta, and
the supreme god, Bathala.[40]

The Virgin of Antipolo has animist connections. Many of the rituals and prayers connected to the Lady of the
Breadfruit (Tipolo) Tree have similarities to the pre-colonial indigenous cult of Maguayen, the Visayan god to
whom people made offerings before building a boat or embarking on a voyage. Similarly, the Virgin of Antipolo
is also asked for protection and well-being, as well as for the blessing of new cars, the modern mode of
transportation.[41]

The indigenous religions of the Philippines developed through a variety of migration phases and
trade routes. The arrival of early hominids in the Philippines, roughly 700,000 years ago, as
exemplified in recent discoveries in the north, may have contributed to cultural evolutions of human
species that would later arrive in the archipelago. Homo luzonensis is believed to have evolved from
the early hominids that arrived. Homo sapiens arrived roughly around 67,000 years ago,
replaced Homo luzonensis, and laid the foundation for the development of belief systems.
The Negrito peoples are theorized by some scholars to be the first Homo sapiens inhabitants of the
Philippines (although there is currently ongoing debate on the matter), and thus, the first peoples to
formally establish belief systems in the archipelago. These Negritos, through the "Out-of-Sundaland
model", were an early split-off from the first migration phase, which brought Homo sapiens from
Africa, to mainland Asia, and finally to archipelagic Southeast Asia, where the Philippine archipelago
is located. The Negritos brought basic forms of animism. The second migration phase began when
Austronesians arrived roughly about 5,000 years ago. Scholars theorized that Austronesians arrived
through the "Out-of-Taiwan model", where Homo sapiens from mainland Asia crossed Taiwan, and
later the Philippines, until furthering to other Malay islands south of the Philippines. The
Austronesians are believed to have introduced more complex animist beliefs with shamanism,
ancestor worship, totemism, and tattoo artistry. The beliefs on benevolent and malevolent spirits was
also established by their arrival.[citation needed]
By 200 to 300 CE, Hindu mythologies arrived in some areas in the Philippines through trade routes
and more waves of ethnic migrations. Hinduism brought in Indianized traditions to the Philippines,
including indigenous epics such as Ibalong, Siday, and Hinilawod, folk stories, and a variety of
superstitions which gradually established more complex indigenous polytheistic religions.
Additionally, the concept of good and bad demons, which is prevalent in Indian societies, became
widespread in the archipelago. These demons were viewed as both evil and good, unlike Western
demons which are only evil. Unlike other areas in Southeast Asia which were heavily converted to
Hinduism, indigenous religions in the Philippines were not replaced by Hinduism, rather, those
religions absorbed traditions and beliefs present in Hinduism. Gender-variant deities and shamans
also became widespread during this period. Humanoid mythical creatures also developed alongside
a variety of evolving belief systems. Around 900 CE, Chinese influence spread in some areas in the
Philippines, inputting Sinified belief systems in the process, along with Buddhist mythologies. The
most prominent belief that spread during this phase was the belief in ghosts, which is prevalent in
Chinese societies.[citation needed]
By 1300 CE, Muslim trader arrived in the southern Philippines, bringing with
them Islamic mythologies and its belief systems. Many natives in certain areas in the southern and
western Philippines were converted into Muslims easily as much of the people had societies that had
high acceptance towards foreign traditions. In the middle of the 16th century, the Spanish arrived
and brought with them Christian mythologies and its accompanying belief systems. Some of the
inhabitants were receptive to these myths, but most of which were against it as the Spanish wanted
to conquer the lands and override their leaders, instead of simple tradition exchanges. When the
Spanish laid its foundations in the archipelago, a three-century purge against indigenous religions
began, which resulted in much of the ethnic people's indigenous cultures and traditions being
brutalized and mocked. The phase also replaced much of the polytheistic beliefs of the people
into monotheism. Existing myths and folklores were retrofitted to the tastes of the Spanish, but many
indigenous belief systems were hard to replace, and thus, were retained despite Spanish threats and
killings. In the late 19th century, the Americans colonized the country, and bolstered Westernization,
greatly affecting the people's ethnic belief systems due to globalization. [citation needed]
The Gods and the Creation of the World:   

Philippine myths show that our ancient peoples believed in one supreme god and in a
number of lesser gods and goddesses.  Sometimes the name of the god is not given, he
is simply referred to as the Supreme God, great Being, or God the Most high.  Most of
the time, their names were given,  and these names varied with the different tribes:  
Bathala for the Tagalogs, Mangetchay for the Pampangos, Gugurang for the Bicols,
Lumawig and Kabunian for the Bontoc and Igorot, Liddum for the Ifugao, Mahal
Makakaako for the Mangyan, Laon for the Visayans, Magbabaya for the Bukidnons,
Sualla or Tullus for the tiruray, Melu for the Blaan, Makalidug for the Manobo of the
Agusan Valley, Diwata for the Bagobo, Manama for the Munuvu, the couple-god
Kadaw La Sambad and the Bulon La Mogaw for the Tiboli.

In many myths, the supreme god is the creator of the world.  Sometimes people were
merely told that the god made the earth and no further details.  In some myths, the
creation of the world was not the work of a supreme being but rather the outcome of a
struggle between hostile forces.

early Conceptions of the Universe:

Stories of creation contain scattered references which indicate the early Filipinos'
conception of the universe.  This universe consists of the Skyworld, the earth or
middleworld, and the underworld.  Almost all the different regional groups believe that
the universe has many layers with which each layer is inhabited by different kinds of
being.  Part of the early Filipinos' concept of the universe is the belief that once upon a
time the sky was low, and many myths attest to this belief.

The Sun, the Moon, and the Stars: 

Myths about the sun, the moon and the stars explain the following:
1.  why the sun and the moon shine at different times of the day,
2.  why the sun shines more brightly than the moon,
3.  why there are spots on the face of the moon, and the sun,
4.  the origin of the stars.

A central motif in many of these myths is the enmity or quarrel of the sun and the
moon.
The Great Flood

Mythology speaks of such world calamities as a great fire and a deluge that happened a long
time ago, and myths describing such calamities are worldwide in occurrence.  In the
Philippines, there seems to be no myth about great fires, but flood myths are quite common. In
majority of the myths, the flood occurs as a punishment for the people's failure to fulfill their
sacrificial obligations to the gods or to observe God's laws. Other reasons or causes of the flood
are given in the myths. A Nabaloi version blames the flood on the negligence of the woman
guarding the river.   She fell asleep and wood and thrash clogged the river and caused it to
swell and overflow.

Establishment of Natural Order: 

Myths try to explain many kinds of natural phenomena:  why there is rain, rainbow, thunder,
lightning, earthquake, eclipse, and the like.  The rain is believed by many as the tears shed by a
man longing for his vanished wife, a Diwata (fairy) throwing out water in the sky.   The
rainbow is believed to be the flower loving daughter of Bathala, who was cursed by the latter to
stay on earth forever because of her failure to attend a family council ordered by the Bathala.
Other believed that the rainbow is not a person but a road from the sky to the earth that a man
built  so that his star wife and child could visit him without any difficulty.  The origin of the
lightning and thunder are stories about the marriage of a god and a mortal wife.  The
earthquake is what early Filipinos believed as the movement of the body part of a great being 
or by the movement of the post or being that supports the earth.  Others believed that the
eclipse of the moon occurs whenever the moon is swallowed or embraced by a monster --huge
snake, lion, or gigantic tarantula.

Origin of Man:

The creation of man in myths follows immediately after the creation of the world.  Philippine
myths explain the origin of the first people on earth in three ways: (1)  man came to earth from
heaven/skyworld; (2) the first man and woman emerged fully formed from two nodes of a
piece of bamboo, from two stumps of banana plant, hatched from two eggs of a bird; and (3)
they were created by a god and his helpers out of earth or some other material.

Relationship between Gods and Men:

Myths portray some of the gods and goddesses as being in frequent and intimate
communication with the mortals on earth. This is especially true among the tribes living
in the mountains of the northern parts of the the main Island. 
 top

Acquisition of Culture and the Origin of Fire: 

After the creation of man, he has to have fire to keep his surroundings warm and to use for his
own needs.  How fire was brought to man is explained in different stories.  Many believed that
fire came to man as a gift from the gods or that it was stolen from a giant as it was told in the
folktale Biag ni Lam-ang (life of Lam-ang) of the North.

Origin of the Water Features: 

Like so many Philippine legends explaining the origin of rivers revolve around the fate
of lovers.  Legends have also been woven around some popular spring resorts in the
country, among them Sibul Springs in San Miguel Bulacan, Tiwi Hot Springs in Bicol,
Salinas Salt Spring in Nueva Vizcaya, Mambucal Springs in Negros Occidental, and
Mabinay Spring in Negros Oriental.

In legends explaining the origin of lakes, a common motif is the sunken city in which a
god causes a town or village to sink to punish its inhabitants for some great sin.

Of many waterfalls in the country, a few has been immortalized in legend.  One was
formed because it was dug by a genie in a futile attempt to recover a golden crow which
had fallen and which had been  given to a princess by the god of the mountain.  Other
lakes said to have been formed by the inundation or flooding of what were once
villages.

Origin of Land Features:

Legends about land features explain the origin of mountains and volcanoes in general
and some specific and famous volcanoes and mountains.  A motif that is found in few
of these mountains are the rising  from the common grave of faithful lovers.  Others
come from the grave of huge animals or a giant who lived in it pulled it out from its
foundations and carried it and moved it to a different place to show its strength.

Origin of Animals: 

Animal legends present an interesting array of Philippine fauna, especially of the

smaller specie--birds, fishes, and insects.  Of beasts, legends deal mostly with monkey,
rarely with cats and rats. There seem to be legends of the origin of monkeys in every
region of the Philippines.  Motifs varied from one place to another.  One motif is that
that those who became monkeys are hungry children who are denied of proper food by
their mothers and stepmothers.  In lowland Filipino legends, it is usually a lazy boy
who is transformed into a monkey.  In these motifs, the transformation into a monkey
happened as a form of punishment for laziness and selfishness.  In some stories,
irreverence in children may also change them into monkeys.

Legends about other small animals like birds vary from one place to another.  Common
motif includes girl or boy cruelly treated by their parents or step-parent.  They run
away and become a bird, oftentimes by merely wishing to escape the cruelty of the
parent.  Some birds that make peculiar noises are also subject of legends.  The owl was
said to be an old woman who kept weeping and crying for her dead son Juan to come
back to her.  An interesting legend about the bat says that it is once a rat on which the
wings of a bird got stuck.  He was however, rejected by both the birds and the rats, and
so in shame he hides during the daytime and flies only at night.

Origin of Plants:

Plant myths and legends abound in Philippine Folklore. They give highly fanciful accounts of
the origin of various kinds of plants, flowers, and fruits. Among the most widely known of
these are those about rice, the staple food of the Philippines.  Legends believed that rice was
only known by the gods until they gave people the detailed instruction on how to plant, have a
good harvest, and cook it.   Other motifs include, lovers eloping, a child hiding and running
away,  and a lover who died in behalf of his/her love.

n the beginning

All human societies, including our own, tell stories of how the world began. Such stories are almost
infinitely varied in detail, but they tend to include some basic themes.

Many accounts begin with earth, or with earth retrieved from water. In some of them gods and people
and animals emerge from the earth (just as plants still do). In others the process begins when a creature,
such as a crab or tortoise, dives into a primeval ocean and brings up a small piece of earth from which
the universe is created. Myths of these kinds are common among American Indians and
aboriginal Australians (who place before the moment of creation a period called 'the time of dreaming').