Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.

2016, 118, 185–194 185

Research Article
Rheological properties, textural properties, and storage stability
of palm kernel-based diacylglycerol-enriched mayonnaise

Eng-Tong Phuah1, Boon-Kee Beh2, Cindy Shu-Ying Lim2, Teck-Kim Tang, Yee-Ying Lee1
and Oi-Ming Lai1,2

1
Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Bioprocess Technology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

The effect of replacement of soybean oil (SBO) with 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% palm kernel based-diacylglycerol
(PKDG) which were referred to as SD1000, SD9505, SD9010, SD8515, and SD8020 formulations,
respectively, on the rheological properties, textural properties, and storage stability of mayonnaise were
evaluated in this study. Emulsion stability results demonstrated no significant differences (P > 0.05) among all
formulations except SD8020 which exhibited diminished emulsion stability. In terms of textural properties,
both SD9010 and SD8020 showed closer textural characteristics compared with control. Microstructure
evaluation of all mayonnaise formulations revealed significant increases in oil droplet diameter in tandem with
increasing PKDG concentration. For rheological properties, all mayonnaise formulated displayed similar gel-
like behavior with greater storage modulus (G’) than loss modulus (G”) and loss tangent (tan d) less than 0.3.
Results indicated that up to 10% PKDG was suitable to be incorporated in healthy mayonnaise formulation.
Both SD9505 and SD9010 were subsequently evaluated for their stability throughout a 2-month storage
period. All mayonnaise displayed satisfying stability during storage with gradual increment in peroxide value,
free fatty acid level, and G’G” crossover value except control. Additionally, an insignificant change in
viscoelastic properties (P > 0.05) was observed after storage for all formulations examined.

Practical applications: This present work has three main practical applications: (i) enable the
incorporation of PKDG as a functional ingredient into a mayonnaise system; (ii) provide knowledge and
understanding of the physicochemical, rheological, and textural properties of PKDG-enriched mayonnaise;
and (iii) give insight into the storage stability of PKDG-incorporated mayonnaise throughout the 2-month
storage period.

Keywords: Diacylglycerol / Mayonnaise / Palm kernel / Rheological properties / Storage stability

Received: November 7, 2014 / Revised: December 23, 2014 / Accepted: January 15, 2015
DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201400586

1 Introduction
Mayonnaise, characterized as acidic oil-in-water emulsion
product, is conventionally formulated with edible vegetable
Correspondence: Prof. Oi-Ming Lai, Department of Bioprocess Tech-
nology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: omlai.biotech@gmail.com; omlai@upm.edu.my
Fax: þ60 38946 7510
Abbreviations: ANOVA, one-way analysis of variance; DAG, diacylgly-
cerol; FFA, free fatty acid; G”, loss modulus; G’, storage modulus; LVR,
linear viscoelastic region; PKDG, palm kernel based-diacylglycerol; PV,
peroxide value; SBO, soybean oil; SFC, solid fat content; TAG,
triacylglycerol
oil, liquid egg, or liquid egg yolk with acidulants (normally
vinegar or citrus fruit juice), salt, sugar, and other ingredients
including thickeners, spices, and flavoring components [1].
Mayonnaise is a popular creamy-type sauce which is applied
frequently as base for chilled salads and other food products
in western cuisine to enhance their taste and flavor. Both
mayonnaise and salad dressing contribute largely to semi-
solid market shares. By virtue of its relatively high oil content
(usually more than 65%), mayonnaise is considered as
calorie-dense food and overconsumption of fat-rich mayon-
naise would consequently lead to obesity which is the gateway
to other chronic diseases such as high blood pressure, heart,
and kidney problems. Heightened health awareness among
consumers lately has driven towards reduction of fat
component in food products. However, there is a strong

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186 E.-T. Phuah et al.
relation between the physical attributes and fat content of
semi-solid food products in which removal of fat eventually
imparts undesired changes in both sensory and physico-
chemical properties of semi-solid food system [1]. Therefore,
the issue mentioned causes a major dilemma faced by the
food manufacturers in mayonnaise formulation.
Disclosure of diacylglycerol (DAG)-rich oil under the
brand names “Healthy Econa Cooking Oil” in Japan and
“Enova Oil” in the US by Kao Corporation in early 1999 has
lightened the consumers. DAGs are esters of the trihydric
alcohol glycerol in which two of the hydroxyl groups are
esterified with fatty acids. They can exist in two structural
isomers namely, 1,2-DAG and 1,3-DAG. DAG oil was
found to behave distinctly as compared to TAG oils during
the digestion and absorption stage. The consumption of
DAG oil was claimed to reduce postprandial serum TAG
levels and was therefore beneficial for the prevention and
management of obesity [2]. Besides that, long-term ingestion
of dietary DAG can decrease both body weight and visceral
fat mass in humans, in comparison with ingestion of
TAG [3]. In addition, medium-chain fatty acid based
acylglycerols (e.g., lauric acid-based acylglycerols) had also
proven beneficial for weight control due to their low caloric
content and the inability of the fat to be stored in body
tissues [4]. In the past, many studies were done to decrease
the fat content of mayonnaise, and therefore reduce its caloric
value by using fat substitute to produce a healthier
mayonnaise. The application of DAG oil in water (O/W)
products such as mayonnaise and salad dressing was first
patented by Nomura et al. [5]. Nevertheless, there is no
information to date about the effect of incorporation of
lauric-based DAG or palm kernel-based diacylglycerol
(PKDG) into mayonnaise on its physiochemical properties.
When developing semi-solid food, storage stability should
be given careful consideration as storage leads to morpho-
logical changes in crystal and crystal network in mayonnaise
which results in deterioration in both physicochemical and
textural properties of mayonnaise such as oiling off and
development of sandy texture [6]. At present, literature on
the storage stability of PKDG-enriched mayonnaise has not
been found. Rheological evaluation of mayonnaise is
important as it gives fundamental insight into molecular
structure and interparticle interaction among the individual
food components as well as providing valuable information
on the structural alteration of semi-solid food during
manufacturing process [7]. Besides, rheological character-
ization also enables prediction of emulsion instability
particularly due to flocculation and coalescence which is
generally correlated to shelf life of semi-solid food [8].
The objective of the present study was to produce
mayonnaise using PKDG as a substitute for conventional
soybean oil (SBO) in order to improve the nutritional properties
of mayonnaise. Physicochemical and textural properties of
PKDG-enriched mayonnaise were evaluated and compared
with conventional SBO without substitution. Four PKDG-
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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2016, 118, 185–194
enriched mayonnaises were developed from both PKDG
and SBO which were SD9505 (XSBO ¼ 0.95, XPKDG ¼
0.05), SD9010 (XSBO ¼ 0.90, XPKDG ¼ 0.10), SD8515
(XSBO ¼ 0.85, XPKDG ¼ 0.15), and SD8020 (XSBO ¼ 0.80,
XPKDG ¼ 0.20). Optimal formulation of PKDG-enriched
mayonnaise was determined based on results of the rheology
and texture profile analysis. The best formulated mayon-
naises were further assessed for their storage stability at
room temperature (20°C) for a period of 2 months. Every
week from initial week after manufacturing until the final
weeks of storage, rheological and textural properties of the
mayonnaise were analyzed.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Materials
Palm kernel oil (PKO) was obtained from Golden Jomalina
Sdn. Bhd. (Tanjung Panglima Garang, Selangor, Malaysia).
Commercial immobilized lipase from Candida antarctica
(Novozyme 435) was obtained from Novozyme A/S
(Bagsvaerd, Denmark). Other ingredients as composition
of the model mayonnaise such as soybean oil, egg, acetic acid
solution, sugar, and salt were all purchased from local
supermarket. All chemical and reagents were either of
analytical or high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC) grades, respectively, and were obtained from Merck
(Merck, Malaysia).
2.2 Preparation of palm kernel-based diacylglycerol
(PKDG) oil
Enzymatic glycerolysis of PKO was employed for PKDG
production using Novozyme 435 lipase in a 10 kg scale
packed bed bioreactor at 65°C for 6 h. PKDG was
subsequently distilled off from acylglycerol reaction mixture
via molecular distillation to achieve highly purified product
(>80 wt% DAG), followed by refining, bleaching, and
deodorizing (RBD) processes before being used as the main
ingredient in the mayonnaise production. The fatty acid
composition of the purified PKDG oil was presented in
Table 1.
2.3 Mayonnaise preparation
Mayonnaise was formulated according to the following basic
conditions: oil content (70%), egg yolk (18%), vinegar
solution (8%), sugar (2%), and salt (2%). Five different
formulations were prepared with 0% (control), 5, 10, 15, and
20% of PKDG replacement of the total soybean oil content,
respectively. The mayonnaise recipe was taken from Ma and
coworkers (1995) with modification [9] (Table 2). Sugar and
salt were initially dissolved in vinegar solution. The mixture
was then added to egg yolk and homogenized by using
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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2016, 118, 185–194 Palm kernel-based diacylglycerol-enriched mayonnaise 187

Table 1. Fatty acid compositions of PKDG-oil weight of the precipitated fraction, denoted as F1, was
measured. The emulsion stability was determined using the
Fatty acids Compositions (%)a following equation.
C6:0 0.00 F1
C8:0 2.23 percentage% ¼  100% ð1Þ
F0
C10:0 3.02
C12:0 54.91
C14:0 18.51
2.5 Solid fat content analysis
C16:0 7.40
C16:1 0.00
C18:0 1.43 Binary oil blends of SBO and PKDG were prepared in the
C18:1 10.69 ratios of 100:0, 95:5, 90:10, 85:15, 80:20, and 0:100 which
C18:2T 0.0 represented the weight ratio of oil content used for
C18:2 1.68 mayonnaise formulation. The solid fat content (SFC) of
C18:3 0.06 these samples was then measured by pulsed nuclear magnetic
C20:0 0.07 resonance (pNMR) using NMS 120 Minispec NMR
C20:1 0.00 Analyzer (Bruker Rheinstetten, Germany). The non-stabi-
lized procedure was used according to the PORIM test
Results are mean of the duplicate samples, n ¼ 2.
a
methods [12]. The samples (3–4 mg) were poured in the
NMR tubes and tempered in water bath with 70°C for
30 min. Afterwards, the NMR tubes were cooled and held at
Cornell Stand Mixer (CSM-B210A) for 1 min. Next, oil
0°C for 90 min. The SFC was determined at temperature
blend was added gradually at every 1 min interval for 9 times
ranges of 5–50°C (with 5°C interval) through equilibrating
with 1 min rest at minute 4, 8, and 12. The blending was then
the NMR tubes in these temperatures for 30 min before
continued for 3 min until the mayonnaise was homogenized.
measurement. Determinations were done in triplicate.
The temperature of the oil blend was maintained at around
60–70°C so that the oil blend remains in liquid form. Three
2.6 Microstructure observation
hundred gram of each mayonnaise sample was prepared for
this study. The emulsion prepared was then incubated at
The glass slide was coated with mayonnaise sample and
20°C in a plastic container for further analysis.
placed on the stage of inverted microscope (Nikon Diaphot,
Japan). Then the focus knob was adjusted to get a clear view
2.4 Emulsion stability test
field while the magnification was set to 400 times. The
pictures of the mayonnaise microstructure were obtained by a
Emulsion stability was determined based on the amount of oil
digital camera (Nikon 5 Megapixel Digi Camera, Japan)
separated from an emulsion during centrifugation [10, 11].
connected to the microscope.
One gram of mayonnaise sample, denoted as F0, was
transferred to 15 mL polypropylene tubes and was then
2.7 Texture analysis
stored at 50°C for 24 h. After storage, the emulsions were
centrifuged for 10 min at 3000 rpm in Thermo Sorvall
Mayonnaise samples were stored in refrigerator for 24 h until
Legend Micro 17 microcentrifuge (Thermo Scientific,
texture analysis. The measurements were carried out using
Waltham, MA) and the top oil layer was removed. The
TA.XT2i Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems Ltd.,
Surrey, UK) equipped with 36 mm diameter cylindrical
probe. The hardness values of the mayonnaise were
Table 2. Formulation for the preparation of PKDG-enriched measured at room temperature (25°C) with a penetration
mayonnaise depth of 40 mm at a constant crosshead velocity of 1 mm/s.
Two texture parameters such as firmness and consistency
Content (% weight)
were obtained from force-time curve.
Ingredient SD1000 SD9505 SD9010 SD8515 SD8020
2.8 Rheological analysis
SBO 70 66.5 63.0 59.5 56.0
PKDG 0 3.5 7.0 10.5 14.0
The rheological properties of the mayonnaise were analyzed
Egg yolk 18 18 18 18 18
using a controlled-stress rheometer (RheoStress 6000,
Vinegar solution 8 8 8 8 8
Salt 2 2 2 2 2
HAAKE, Karlsruhe, Germany) with a plate–plate sensor
Sugar 2 2 2 2 2 system (PP 35 Ti) with 1 mm gap. The measuring device was
equipped with a temperature unit (Peltier Plate system)

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188 E.-T. Phuah et al.
whereby a programmable water bath (K20; HAAKE,
Karlsruhe, Germany) with a Universal Temperature Con-
troller (HAAKE, Karlsruhe, Germany) was used to ensure
precise and stable control of the temperature during
measurements. Small-amplitude oscillatory experiments
were conducted within the linear viscoelastic region (LVR)
of each sample, at a strain of 1% for the mayonnaise. A
dynamic stress sweep was carried out on all samples, with the
range varying from 0.1 to 1000 Pa, the frequency was
maintained at 1 Hz and the temperature was controlled at
20°C. Storage modulus (G’) and loss modulus (G”)
crossover was analyzed on all mayonnaise samples. Fre-
quency sweep tests were carried out at frequencies ranging
from 0.1 to 100 Hz, with the temperature controlled at 20°C.
The components of shear modulus G’, the viscous
component G”, and loss tangent (tan d ¼ G”/G’) versus
frequency were measured for all samples. The data obtained
were analyzed using Rheowin 3 Data Manager, provided by
the manufacturer.
2.9 Stability study
Mayonnaises, which exhibited desired physicochemical and
textural properties were prepared and further examined for
their storage stability. For storage experiment, mayonnaises
were stored in both plastic container and 50 mL conical screw
cap tube in the dark for 0, 7, 14, 21, 35, and 56 days. After
the desired storage period, the mayonnaise samples were
evaluated for the physicochemical properties whereas the
oxidative stability was performed by determining free fatty
acid (FFA) and peroxide values (PV). The oil phase was
separated from the emulsion through repeated freeze thaw
cycles followed by centrifugation at 4000 rpm for 10 min.
Analyses were made in triplicate. PV was determined by
using AOCS Official Method (AOCS Cd 8–53) whereas
FFA was determined in the separated oil phase by titration
with sodium hydroxide solution using phenolphthalein as
an indicator (AOCS Ca 5a–40). The amount of free fatty
acids was calculated as percentage oleic acid. Results
obtained were expressed as mean values.
2.10 Statistical analysis
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to
analyze the data statistically using Minitab 16.2 system
software. Significant differences between means were
determined by using Tukey’s test at 5% significance level.
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Emulsion stability
Emulsion stability refers to the resistance of two-phase
colloidal system to changes in its physicochemical properties
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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2016, 118, 185–194
over time. Creaming usually occurs in oil-in-water (O/W)
macroemulsion food systems such as mayonnaise due to
the differences in density between the dispersed and
continuous phases [13]. Accelerated emulsion stability test
was used at present study to evaluate the quality of the
different mayonnaises formulated at elevated temperature of
50°C for 24 h by measuring the weight of the oil phase formed
at the top of the food emulsions system (Table 3). All
mayonnaise samples exhibited high emulsion stability except
mayonnaise sample with 20% PKDG oil substitution, by
which the creaming percentage was as high as 28%. Emulsion
destabilization mechanism due to creaming was proposed to
be dependent on several factors namely pressure difference
between dispersed and continuous phase, droplet size, and
viscosity of the continuous phase [13]. High creaming rate of
SD8020 might be explained by the large oil droplet sizes in
mayonnaise emulsion system as observed via optical micro-
scope (Fig. 1), which was responsible for high interfacial
tension that hastened the instability mechanisms such as
coalescence. Moreover, it was hypothesized that the large-
diameter droplets observed corresponded to the high
creaming velocity or greater movement of oil droplets in
mayonnaise which promoted droplet aggregation (floccu-
lation and coalescence) as well as gravitational separation.
This therefore destabilized the emulsion system [1, 13, 14].
In addition, it is of interest to highlight that the SFC
profile may also impact the stability of oil-in-water
emulsion system. Several authors reported that the
presence of crystalline fats which is associated with high
proportion of solid fat might lead to emulsion destabiliza-
tion known as partial coalescence [15–17]. The phenom-
enon involves the initial formation of fat crystal network in
the dispersed oil globules with a few crystals protruding out
from the globule membrane. The extending crystals would
then pierce through the thin layer of the approaching
globules, thereby creating a bridge between the globules.
Upon reheating, the partially coalesced droplets collapse
and merge together as the fat crystal networks begin to
disappear, allowing the formation of larger droplets via full
coalescence [15–17]. Table 4 shows the SFC profile as a
function of temperature for SBO and its binary blends with
Table 3. Emulsion stability of different mayonnaise samples
Mayonnaise samples Emulsion stability (%)
SD1000 98.8  0.20a
SD9505 99.8  0.07a
SD9010 99.3  0.01a
SD8515 99.4  0.04a
SD8020 72.0  0.92b
Results are mean  standard deviation of the triplicate samples,
n ¼ 3.
Means in the same column with different letters are significantly
different (P < 0.05).
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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2016, 118, 185–194 Palm kernel-based diacylglycerol-enriched mayonnaise 189

Figure 1. Microscopic images of oil globules in mayonnaise: (A) Mayonnaise SD1000, (B) Mayonnaise SD9505, (C) Mayonnaise SD 9010,
(D) Mayonnaise SD8515, and (E) Mayonnaise SD 8020.

Table 4. Solid fat content (SFC) for soybean oil (SBO) and palm kernel-based diacylglycerol (PKDG) blends at different temperatures

SFC (%) at specific temperature (°C)

SBO:PKDG 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50

A (100:0) – – – – – – – – –
B (95:5) 2.25  0.07aE 1.63  0.05bE 1.09  0.03cE 0.26  0.01dE – – – – –
C (90:10) 5.09  0.06aD 4.27  0.04bD 3.60  0.10cD 2.60  0.02dD 0.89  0.06eD – – – –
D (85:15) 8.29  0.02aC 7.34  0.02bC 6.34  0.02cC 4.75  0.01dC 3.00  0.03eC 0.93  0.02fC – – –
E (80:20) 11.37  0.18aB 10.40  0.08bB 9.31  0.09cB 7.45  0.08dB 5.55  0.13eB 1.46  0.08fB – – –
F (0:100) 75.01  0.57aA 71.38  0.30bA 66.85  0.45cA 61.24  0.24dA 57.38  0.62eA 50.78  0.49fA 38.67  0.34gA 7.44  0.28hA –

Results are mean  standard deviation of the triplicate samples, n ¼ 3.

Means in the same column with different capital letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
Means in the same row with different small letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).

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190 E.-T. Phuah et al. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2016, 118, 185–194

PKDG. Results clearly demonstrated an increase in SFC Table 5. Texture analysis of mayonnaise samples
with increasing amount of PKDG. The observation could
be attributed to the differences in the fatty acid compo- Mayonnaise samples Firmness (g) Consistency (gsec)
sitions and the molecular structures of both SBO and SD1000 202.8  3.1cd 1376.8  17.6bc
PKDG. The predominance of medium- and long-chain SD9505 246.2  6.7ab 1813.8  18.9a
saturated fatty acids together with the presence of hydroxyl SD9010 230.9  3.2bc 1550.5  74.5b
group in PKDG normally resulted in higher SFC at SD8515 265.9  0.5a 1542.7  41.2b
different temperature studied which is in accordance with SD8020 181.2  7.8d 1156.8  32.3c
the previous studies [17]. At storage temperature of 20°C,
binary blend with 20% PKDG exhibited the highest SFC Results are mean  standard deviation of the triplicate samples,
value of 7.45  0.08, translating into greater susceptibility n ¼ 3.
of the emulsion system to partial coalescence as the Means in the same column with different letters are significantly
destabilization mechanism. different (P < 0.05).

3.2 Optical microscopy observation

Figure 1 reveals the microscopic images of spherical oil
droplets enclosed in continuous aqueous phase for different
mayonnaise formulations. Microscopic evaluation showed
that the mean diameter of lipid globules increased in tandem
with increasing percentage of PKDG. The smallest oil
droplet size was observed for both SD1000 and SD9505 in
which the oil globules were finely dispersed with diameter less
than 5 mm whereas SD9010 displayed larger droplets sizes of
10 mm diameter. In formulating mayonnaise, large contact
surface area between oil droplets which could be achieved by
reducing the diameter of lipid droplets, is crucial in creating
substantial frictional forces to inhibit free flowing of oil
droplets in continuous phase and hence promoting emulsion
stability [18]. On the other hand, both SD8515 and SD8020
exhibited polydisperse emulsion with different oil droplet
sizes ranging from 5 to 15 mm, indicating uneven dispersion
of oil globules which in turn resulted in large globules
formation being formed through coalescence and eventually
led to instability of emulsion.
3.3 Texture analysis
Table 5 reports the results of the texture profile for both
firmness and consistency in all mayonnaise formulations. It
was found that both SD9010 and SD8020 were similar in
firmness and consistency in comparison with control and
their magnitudes were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than
other samples which was considered an important character-
istic of mayonnaise whereas the highest firmness and
consistency were recorded for sample SD9505, followed
by SD8515. Based on the data obtained, it could be observed
that both firmness and consistency increased in parallel with
rising concentration of PKDG even though the trend was not
obvious.
determine the VLR for all mayonnaise samples and to
estimate the degree of structural breakdown with increasing
shearing rate [6, 11, 19]. Basically, LVR is a region where the
sample remains at rest with its structure undisrupted and
further examination of rheological properties of mayonnaise
had to be conducted within this region [20]. In addition,
there is a point at which both G’ and G” curves start to cross
with each other during a stress sweep, can be used as an
indication of the mouthfeel properties of the mayonnaise
samples which determines how long the structure can endure
in the mouth [11, 19]. Table 6 summarizes the G’ and G”
crossover values for different mayonnaise systems. Results
indicated that G’ and G” crossover value was inversely
proportional to PKDG content in which both SD9505 and
control displayed similarly high crossover values whereas
SD9010 and SD8020, on the other hand, showed rather low
crossover values, suggesting a weak gel strength for both
emulsion systems. All the mayonnaise systems exhibited a
similar trend of G’ and G” changes as a function of stress-
state flow.
The oscillation measurement, a non-destructive techni-
que, was used for analyzing the viscoelastic behavior of
mayonnaise samples. G’, G”, and tan d as a function of
frequency (Hz) for all mayonnaise samples were presented
in Figs. 2–4, respectively. G’ was used to signify elastic
Table 6. Data of oscillating sweep stress test, G’G” crossover
value (Pa) for different mayonnaise samples
Mayonnaise samples G’G” crossover value (Pa)
SD1000 250.8  9.0a
SD9505 226.5  12.3a
SD9010 133.1  2.2c
SD8515 163.6  12.8b
SD8020 148.7  5.9bc

3.4 Rheological analysis Results are mean  standard deviation of the triplicate samples,
n ¼ 3.
A dynamic stress sweep was initially conducted at constant Means in the same column with different letters are significantly
frequency of 1% strain at temperature set at 20°C to different (P < 0.05).

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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2016, 118, 185–194 Palm kernel-based diacylglycerol-enriched mayonnaise 191

10000 10

Tan δ
G' (Pa)

1000 SD1000
SD1000 0.1 SD9505
SD9505 SD9010
SD9010 SD8515
SD8515 SD8020
0.01
SD8020
0.1 1 10 100
100 Frequency (Hz)
0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 4. Tan d as a function of frequency (Hz) of different
Figure 2. Storage modulus (G’) as a function of frequency (Hz) of mayonnaise formulations.
different mayonnaise formulations.

storage of energy. The viscous contribution which can be
observed from G” represents viscous dissipation of energy
while d, is a measure of the phase difference between stress
and strain waves. Delta will increase with the increasing
of viscous behavior and decrease with increasing elastic
behavior [11].
From Fig. 2, the result showed similar trend of G’, by
which the value increased in a logarithmic fashion with
frequency, together with G” as shown in Fig. 3. G” showed
parallel increase with G’, but at a relatively lower magnitude
than G’. The G’ can be used as a measurement of the
stability and network strength of a sample’s structure, as
structural properties are best related to elasticity. Similarly,
the G” can be related to the viscous component of the
sample. This in turn indicates that all mayonnaise samples
exhibited similar viscoelastic behaviors, with a G’ greater
than the G”. Results demonstrated that SD8020 had the
highest value of both G’ and G”, indicating that the sample
displayed a great network strength, followed by SD1000,
SD9505, SD8515, and lastly SD9010. On the other hand,
tan d ¼ G”/G’ determines the predominance of either elastic
(solid) or viscous (liquid) properties in a sample. Figure 4
1000
100
G'' (Pa)
shows that all the mayonnaise samples displayed solid-like
structure as the tan d value are less than 1.0. At relatively
high frequency, tan d had value of 1.0, which means that the
samples started to exhibit liquid-like structure. Overall,
all mayonnaise samples exhibited similar rheological and
textural properties.
In accordance to the results obtained, mayonnaise
formulated with 5–15% PKDG exhibited great emulsion
stability. Observations of oil globules under optical micro-
scope also demonstrated that oil droplet size increased in
tandem with increasing PKDG concentration which was
associated with reduced emulsion stability. As for rheological
and textural analysis, there was no significant difference
(P > 0.05) among all mayonnaise samples. Consequently,
mayonnaises SD9505 and SD9010 were selected and further
evaluated for their storage stability.
4 Stability study
4.1 Oxidative stability
Lipid oxidation has always been a main cause of quality
deterioration in mayonnaise which the mechanism normally
takes place at the surface of the oil droplets. Peroxide value
(PV) can therefore be important indicator that provides
evidence of the initiation of the lipid oxidation reaction by
means of measuring the amount of hydroperoxides being

SD1000
formed as the primary oxidation products. Table 7 shows
SD9505 the changes in PV, FFA, and G’G” crossover of different
10 SD9010 mayonnaise samples throughout the storage period of
SD8515 2 months. Results indicated that PV of all mayonnaise
SD8020 samples increased over the product storage period with
SD1000 displaying the highest increment (30.2 meq kg1),
1
0.1 1 10 100 followed by SD9010 (11.6 meq kg1), and SD9505
Frequency (Hz)
(11.2 meq kg1), indicating the development of hydro-
Figure 3. Loss modulus (G”) as a function of frequency (Hz) of peroxides compounds which results from the primary
different mayonnaise formulations. oxidation in the emulsion [11]. The reason for the high

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192 E.-T. Phuah et al. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2016, 118, 185–194

6.6  0.3aA 7.0  1.4aA 7.5  0.7aA 13.6  0.1bA 36.8  0.0cB 0.42  0.1aC 0.42  0.2aC 0.49  0.3aC 0.49  0.2aC 0.53  0.1bC 374.5  13.2abC 414.8  26.8bC 334.0  22.2aC 513.3  33.0cC 552.3  2.7cC

144.1  12.6aA 108.9  5.3aA 106.9  27.1aA 141.5  9.9aA

9.9  0.1aB 12.5  0.4bB 13.9  0.5bB 16.9  0.3cB 21.1  0.5dA 0.20  0.0aA 0.20  0.1aA 0.20  0.1aA 0.20  0.0aA 0.30  0.1bA 280.7  12.4cB 311.4  1.3dB 248.4  5.7bB 254.9  8.6bB 194.6  6.4aB
increment of PV in SD1000 might be due to the high
D56
percentage of unsaturated fatty acid originated from SBO.
This was in accordance with previous findings on the
reduced chemical oxidative stability with increased unsatu-
ration in oil blends [21, 22]. Moreover, the types of
D35

emulsifiers, interfacial surface area of oil droplets and

interactions between oil phase and aqueous phase compo-
G’G” Crossover (Pa)

nents such as salt, sugar, and protein were additional

Table 7. Peroxide value (PV), free fatty acid (FFA), and G’G” crossover of PKDG-enriched mayonnaise throughout the storage period of 2 months

contributing factors affecting the oxidative stability of the

D21

emulsion system [21, 23, 24]. The FFA level provides an

indication of lipid hydrolysis, caused by a combination of
hydrolytic enzymes and moisture content. It was observed
that the FFA content was low for all samples (<0.6%) and
D14

there was no significant change in FFA value throughout

the storage period, suggesting marked resistance of the
mayonnaise samples against hydrolytic rancidity. Analysis of
11.6  0.7aB 13.2  0.4aB 14.9  0.3abB 17.1  0.3bB 23.2  1.6cA 0.35  0.2aB 0.35  0.1aB 0.40  0.1aB 0.40  0.0aB 0.40  0.1aB 143.1  1.7aA

G’G” crossover value, which determines the maximum

D7

stress that can be applied without destroying the structure of

the sample, is dependent on the magnitude of intermo-
lecular forces in the fat sample [20]. According to the results
D56

obtained, no noticeable trend was observed in which

SD9010 samples displayed insignificant change (P < 0.05)
Free fatty acid (% as oleic acid)

D35

A
10000
Means in the same column with different capital letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).

Day 0
D21

Day 7
Means in the same row with different small letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).

G' (Pa)

1000 Day 14
Day 21
Day 35
Day 56
D14

100
0.1 1 Frequency (Hz) 10 100
B
Results are mean  standard deviation of the triplicate samples, n ¼ 3.

10000
D7

Day 0
D56

G' (Pa)

1000 Day 7
Day 14
Day 21
Day 35
Day 56
D35
Peroxide value (meq kg1)

100
0.1 1 Frequency (Hz) 10 100
C
10000
D21

G' (Pa)

1000
D14

Day 0
Day 7
Day 14
Day 21
Day 35
Day 56
D7

100
0.1 1 Frequency (Hz) 10 100
Mayonnaise

Figure 5. Storage moduli (G’) as a function of all different

SD1000
SD9505
SD9010
samples

mayonnaises throughout the storage period of 2 months: (A)

SD1000, (B) SD9505, and (C) SD9010.

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Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2016, 118, 185–194 Palm kernel-based diacylglycerol-enriched mayonnaise 193

in crossover value throughout the storage period whereas 10

SD9505 samples showed up-down patterns in crossover

value during storage. On the other hand, SD1000 as control 1
demonstrated gradual increase in crossover value, reaching

Tan δ
Day 0
their maximum after 2 months. It was hypothesized that the Day 7
0.1 Day 14
shift in cross linking density in the mayonnaise network Day 21
contributed to the onset of this phenomena. Day 35
Day 56
The viscoelastic behavior of all mayonnaises over the 0.01
storage period, which was evaluated in terms of its G’, G”, 0.1 1 10 100

and tan d, was presented in Figs. 5–7. As illustrated in Figs. 5 Frequency (Hz)
10
and 6, it can be noticed that both G’ and G” increased with
frequency for all storage weeks, indicating a typical solid-like
behavior [6, 20]. Furthermore, the values of tan d were 1
found to be less than one at any given frequency except at

Tan δ
100 rads1 due to high G’ as compared to G” values (Fig. 7). Day 0
High G’, low G”, and tan d values in mayonnaise indicate 0.1 Day 7
Day 14
solid-like networks with strong interactions among the Day 21
Day 35
droplets in the emulsion system. The Tukey paired Day 56
0.01
comparison was used to evaluate the differences in 0.1 1 Frequency (Hz) 10 100
viscoelastic properties of all mayonnaises during the 8 wk
10
storage. All samples showed no significant difference

1
A 10000
Tan δ

Day 0
Day 7
0.1
1000 Day 14
Day 21
G'' (Pa)

Day 0 Day 35
Day 7 Day 56
0.01
100 Day 14
Day 21 0.1 1 Frequency (Hz) 10 100
Day 35
Day 56
10 Figure 7. Tan d as a function of all different mayonnaises
0.1 1 10 100 throughout the storage period of 2 months: (A) SD1000, (B)
Frequency (Hz) SD9505, and (C) SD9010.
B
100000

10000
(P > 0.05) in terms of values of G’, G”, and tan d throughout
G'' (Pa)

1000 Day 0
the storage period. This indicates storage has no effect on
Day 7 their viscoelastic properties.
Day 14
100 Day 21
Day 35
Day 56
10 5 Conclusion
C 0.1 1 Frequency (Hz) 10 100
100000
The present work revealed that the substitution of SBO with
more than 20% PKDG caused alterations of the oil droplet
10000
size based on microstructural evaluation, the rheological, and
textural characteristics of the mayonnaise systems. Results
G'' (Pa)

1000 Day 0 of the present study indicated that up to 10% PKDG

Day 7
Day 14 incorporation into mayonnaise provided comparable emul-
100 Day 21 sion stability, textural, and rheological properties with
Day 35
Day 56 respect to control (SD1000), suggesting the formation of a
10
0.1 1 Frequency (Hz) 10 100
strong network within the dispersed oil droplets of the
emulsions. This work also clarified that the oxidative stability
Figure 6. Loss moduli (G”) as a function of all different of mayonnaise can be improved by the incorporation of
mayonnaises throughout the storage period of 2 months: (A) PKDG which had a lower degree of unsaturated fatty acid.
SD1000, (B) SD9505, and (C) SD9010. In addition, the rheological analysis of both SD9505 and

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194 E.-T. Phuah et al.
SD9010 indicated that their viscoelastic properties were
independent of the storage period.
This project was supported by Universiti Putra Malaysia (RUGS
INITIATIVE 6, Project no. 9363000).
The authors have declared no conflicts of interest.
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