Frobenius Schur Theorem

Corepresentation
If the antiunitary operators is present in the symmetry group. We can not obtain the follow definition
of representation
D(A)D(B) = D(AB) (1)

Classify of double groups

Consider the set of functions {φip } which form a basis for a representation D(i) (R). The inclusion of
time reversal symmetry form a new set of functions K̂φip = φip̄ which under a spatial transformation
gives

R̂φγ̄p̄ = R̂K̂φγp = K̂R̂φγp = K̂

X
φq Dγ (R)qp
q
X
= (K̂φγp )Dγ (R)∗qp
q

φγ̄p̄ Dγ (R)∗qp
X
= (2)
q

This show that {φγ̄p̄ } form a basis for Dγ (R)∗ , which is the complex conjugate of Dγ (R) From
this result, we have three possibilities that can be discussed:

(a) D and D∗ are equivalent to the same real irreducible representation.

(b) D and D∗ are inequivalent.

(c) D and D∗ are equivalent but cannot be made real.

The results also depend on whether we have integral or half-integral spin. First, we consider the
case of integral spin:

(a) The matrices Dγ (R̂) = Dγ (R̂)∗ are real, then φγp and φγ̄p̄ belong to the same irrep. In this case,
no new degeneracy is introduced by time reversal symmetry operator because this leaves the
representation D invariant.

(b) If the representation Dγ (R̂) and Dγ (R̂)∗ cannot be equivalent, they belong to different irreps
then φγp and φγ̄p̄ are orthogonal

(c) If Dγ (R̂) and Dγ (R̂) are equivalent, but cannot be real, then φγp and φγ̄p̄ are independent and
the degeneracy is doubled.

Let us consider the case of half integer spin, here the energy levels have necessary twofold spin
degeneracy. When the time reversal symmetry operator acts on a spin dependent wavefunction we
have now:

1
(a) If the representation Dγ (R̂) is real, then the action of time revesal operator will yield the same
set of matrices. To achieve the required additional degeneracy, we must have Dγ (R̂) occur
twice.

(b) The argument goes through as above, and the degeneracy is doubled.

(c) If representations Dγ (R̂) and Dγ (R̂)∗ can be equivalent but neither can be made all real, the
no additional degeneracy need be introduced and both make up the time reversal degenerate
pair.
The above result can be written in terms of the character test. For unitary, equivalents irreducible
representations D ≈ D∗ of dimesion l, the orthogonal theorem takes the form
lX
D(R)pq D(R)rs = Mrp (M −1 )qs ∀R ∈ G (3)
g
R

where M is a non-singular matrix such that

D(R)∗ = M D(R)M −1 (4)

D(R) = M ∗ D(R)∗ (M ∗ )−1 (5)

D(R)M ∗ M = M ∗ M D(R) (6)

Since M ∗ M commutes with D(R), and using the Schur‘s lemma: ”A matrix which commute with
every matrix of an IR must be a multiple of the unit matrix”, we obtain

M ∗ M = c(M )E (7)

We must verify that happens with c(M ). We take the complex conjugate of (??) and pre-multiply
it by M −1 and post-multiply by M :

M M ∗ = c(M )E
M −1 M M ∗ M = c(M )∗ E
M ∗M = c(M )∗ E (8)

Comparison with equation (??) shows that c(M )∗ = c(M ), so that c(M ) is real. Then, M is a
non-singular matrix, therefore

detM M ∗ = |detM |2 = c(M ) 6= 0 (9)

Then c(M ) is real and non-zero. Furthermore, M is unitary by the orthogonality theorem, so are
M ∗ and M M ∗
|M M ∗ |2 = |c(M )|2 = 1 (10)
But c(M ) is real, so can be only ±1. If M is a unitary matrix, eq.(??) take the form of
lX ∗
D(R)pq D(R)rs = Mrp Msq (11)
g
R

Set p = s, q = r, and sum over r and s:

l XX X
∗
D(R)sr D(R)rs = Mrs Msr (12)
g r,s r,s
R

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We can use the next definitions:
li
X
χj (R) = Tr Dj (R) = Dj (R)µµ (13)
µ=1
X XX
Tr AB = [AB]µµ = Aµα Bαµ (14)
µ µ α

With this, the eq.(??) take the form of

1X 1
χ(R2 ) = Tr (M M ∗ ) = c(M ) = ±1 (15)
g l
R

Here +1 correspond to case (a) and −1 to case (c). When D and D∗ are inequivalent, the orthogo-
nality theorem take the form:
lX
D(R)pq D(R)rs = 0 (16)
g
R
1X
χ(R2 ) = 0 (17)
g
R

Finally, we have established a test, which classify the IRs D of a point (double) group in terms
of the character.

1X +1
 real irrep
2
F ST = χ(Ĝ ) = 0 complex irrep (18)
g 
G 
−1 pseudoreal irrep
The different point (double) group can be classified in terms of the Frobenius-Schur test (FST).
For example, we can do a simple test for C2v and C3v for determine which case we have for a given
irreps. For E1/2 in C2v :
1
F ST = [χ(E 2 ) + χ(C22 ) + χ(σx2 ) + χ(σy2 )]
4
1
= [χ(E) − χ(E) − χ(E) − χ(E)]
4
= −1 (19)

For C3v we have

1
F ST (E1/2 ) = [χ(E 2 ) + 2χ(C32 ) + 3χ(σv2 )]
6
1
= [χ(E) − 2χ(C3 ) − 3χ(E)]
6
1
= [2 − 2 − 6]
6
= −1 (20)

1
F ST (1 E3/2 ) = F ST (2 E3/2 ) = [χ(E) − 2χ(C3 ) − 3χ(E)]
6
1
= [1 + 2 − 3]
6
= 0 (21)

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Note that for compute the different χ(G2 ), we use the projective representation, which is given by
Γ(Gi )Γ(Gj ) = [Gi , Gj ]Γ(Gi Gj ), where [Gi , Gj ] is the projective factor (PF). The PF values can be
obtained from the Factor Table of Altmann’s book
The fermion irreps of a given double groups can be classified in two types:
(1) All fermion irreps of a given double groups are of the same kind.

FST
Quaternion Groups +1 C1 , Ci
Cs , C2 , C†4 , C†6
Complex Groups 0
C†8 , C†10 , C†nh
C2v , C4v , C6v , C8v ,
Real Groups -1 D2 , D4 , D6 , D8 ,Dnh ,
D2d , D4d , D6d , D8d

(2) Fermion irreps of a given double groups have different result for FST

FST
Quaternion and Complex Groups +1, 0 C3† , C5† , C7† , C9†
C3v , C5v , C7v , C9v
Real and Complex Groups -1, 0 D3 , D 5 , D 7 , D 9
D3d , D5d , D7d , D9d
† Boson irreps belongs to +1 and 0 in FST