The history of the United States first started with the

arrival of the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus

in 1492 to the Americas. The Americas is the two
continents: North America and South America.
Columbus' arrival started the European colonization
of the Americas.

Declaration of Independence:
After the European colonization started in the Americas,
thirteen British colonies were established in North America
by the 1760s. When Great Britain won the Seven Years' War
against France, it was burdened by heavy debts that led the
British government in 1765 to impose new taxation laws on
their British colonies in North America. However, these
taxation laws were strongly opposed and rejected by these
colonies, that later led them to start the American
Revolutionary War in 1775 against the British government.
This war was led by General George Washington and was
largely supported by France.

The conflict ended when the British government granted these

thirteen colonies independence by signing the Declaration of
Independence document on 4th July 1776. This was the birth of
the United States of America that first started with these
thirteen states, and later in 1789 George Washington served George Washington
as its first president. st
1 President of the USA
(from 1789 to 1797)
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 The flag of the thirteen colonies of North America as
subjects to Great Britain

(The thirteen horizontal red and white stripes

represent the thirteen colonies. And in the upper
corner, the flag of Great Britain)

The first official flag of the United States of America

in 1776

(The thirteen horizontal red and white stripes

represent the thirteen colonies. And in the corner,
thirteen stars representing the initial number of the
United States of America)

The current flag of the United States of America

(The thirteen horizontal red and white stripes

represent initial number of the American United
States. And in the corner, fifty stars representing the
number of the United States of America today)

The Statue of Liberty:

In 1885, 'The Statue of Liberty' was given as a gift from France to the
United States of America to celebrate USA's independence. The
statue is a figure of the Roman liberty goddess on which the date of
the American Independence Day is carved (July 4th 1776). The statue
stands for liberty and freedom; also it is a symbol of the alliance of
France and the United States during the American Revolution. The
statue was originally built in Paris, France, and it is now located in
New York City, USA.

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 Slavery and the Civil War in the USA
The idea of slavery did not start in the USA, but it had been practiced in Europe for a
long time even before their arrival to North America. When the British colonies
(later, the United States of America) were established in North America, this practice
was kept, and the enslavement of African people started in 1619 when 20 African
slaves were brought to Virginia.

After USA's independence, slavery was practiced for many years. However, by 1804 it
was abolished in most states of the North, yet the South continued to profit from
slavery, mostly to work on tobacco and cotton fields. The production of cotton was
an important economic factor in the United States which needed many workers, and
African slaves were used for that purpose.

Over time, demands to end slavery grew stronger, and when the Republican
Abraham Lincoln was elected president for the USA in 1860, he expressed opposition
to slavery. This led the Southern states, which economy depended heavily on slavery,
to rebel against the American government and later created the foundation of the
Confederacy. The Confederacy's attack of Fort Sumter in 1861 started the Civil War.
The civil war was fought between the Northern and the Southern states of America.

The Northern states were known as the Union states or the free states. They were
the states that stayed loyal to the American government, and in which slavery was
abolished and banned.
The Southern states were known as the Confederate states (or simply the
confederacy), or the slave states. They were the states that rebelled against the
American government, and in which slavery was legal and encouraged.

The civil war lasted for four years (1861 - 1865) and ended with the defeat of the
Confederacy. In 1865, with the end of the civil war, slavery was completely abolished
and later in the same year, the President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated.

Abraham Lincoln
th
16 President of the USA
(from 1861 to 1865) 3
 The Civil Rights Movement
After the end of the American civil war, slavery was abolished making the newly
freed Africans as American citizens with civil rights. However, when President
Abraham Lincoln was assassinated, white Democrats regained their power in the
South. New racial laws against Africans were passed that caused African people to be
increasingly deprived of their civil rights. Also, different racist hate groups were
active at the time like the KKK (Ku Klux Klan) that practiced violence against African-
Americans.

As a result, the civil rights movement started in 1940s as a campaign to end racial
discrimination against black Americans and to gain
equal rights under the law. It began in the late 1940s
and ended in the late 1960s.

One of the most well-known spokesmen and leaders of

this civil rights movement is Martin Luther King Jr. who
played a key role in ending segregation laws against
Africans. These laws placed some restrictions on black
people, for example they were prevented from entering
Martin Luther King Jr. in 1963 as
certain places, such as restaurants, hotels, public he delivered his 'I Have a Dream'
schools, etc. King is moralized by his well-known speech speech
"I have a dream" which he delivered in 1963.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vP4iY1TtS3s&t=4s

Ethnicity in the USA:

An ethnic group or ethnicity in general is a grouping of people who are identified by

shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups such as a common set of
traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation or religion.

Some of the ethnic groups living in the USA are: White Americans, Black or African
Americans, Indian Americans, Mexican Americans, Hispanic and Latino Americans,
Alaska Natives, Asian Americans, and many others.

4
The abbreviation UK stands for The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland.
Great Britain refers to the island that is home to
the countries of England, Wales, and Scotland.

Thus, the UK is comprised of England, Wales,

Scotland and Northern Ireland.

The British culture in these areas is greatly

influenced by waves of invaders and immigrants
who inhabited the regions of the UK over the years
like Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, Danes
and Normans.

The kingdom of England

The history of the UK goes back to thousands of years ago in

which UK's regions were continuously inhabited by different people
from different origins. At some point in history, lands of the UK were inhabited by
various Celtic tribes. Those Celts who lived in the island of Ancient Britain are known
as Britons, Celtic Britons or Ancient Britons.

In 43 AD, the Roman conquest of Britain started and large areas of Britain were taken
under the Roman Empire. At that time, Romans used the name 'Britannia' to refer to
the island of Great Britain which was a Latin word meaning 'land of the Britons'. It is
largely accepted that the name Britain is originally taken from the Latin word
'Britannia'.

By 410 AD (the early 5th century) , the Roman rule ended completely as the Roman
Empire withdrew its troops from Britain. One of the main reasons behind their
withdrawal was to spear enough troops to defend their own cities back home against
attacks of Germanic tribes that were expanding in Western Europe. Over time, the
Roman Empire in Britain grew weaker that it eventually ended in the early 5th
century.

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The end of the Roman rule facilitated the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, which
historians often regard as the origin of England and of the English people. The Anglo-
Saxon introduced the Old English language, and their rule lasted from about 410-
1066 AD. This period is known as the 'Dark Ages' or the 'Early Medieval England'.
During this time, Viking and Danish attacks against Britain were frequent and they
grew stronger over time that led several rulers in Britain to attempt to unite their
various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In 927 AD, these Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were united
forming the Kingdom of England. However, the Anglo-Saxon rule ended with the
Norman conquest of England in 1066.

The flag of England

(It represents the cross of Saint George, who is the

patron saint of Scotland, and who is best known for
his legend 'St. George and the Dragon')

Kingdom of Wales

Wales, which is located on the Western side of England, included a number of Welsh
kingdoms that remained independent during the Anglo-Saxon era. The kingdom of
Wales was founded in 1056 when all kingdoms of Wales were united, however this
union did not last for long.

Soon after the Norman conquest of England, some Norman lords began to attack
Wales, and these attacks continued till Edward I was finally able to conquer all
kingdoms of Wales around 1280s and claim it as part of England. Wales formally
joined the Kingdom of England as an official part by the Act of Union of 1536 forming
the Kingdom of England and Wales.

The flag of Wales

(There are many debates about the real origin and
symbolism behind the Welsh dragon. Some historians
suggest that it is derived from the Great Red Serpent
that once represented the old Welsh dragon god Dewi.
And the name Dewi in modern Welsh is David, which is
the name of the patron saint of Wales)
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 The Kingdom of Scotland

The Kingdom of Scotland was founded in 843 AD, and it is located on the Northern
side of England. It was invaded by Edward I, who was previously successful in
invading Wales. Battles between the two kingdoms of Scotland and England
continued for many years throughout history. However, Scotland was finally able to
lead successful Wars of Independence, and it remained independent throughout the
late Middle Ages. In 1600s, James VI of Scotland became King of England and joined
the two kingdoms of Scotland and England (which included Wales) in a union.

In 1707, Acts of Union were passed and the two kingdoms were formally united
forming the Kingdom of Great Britain. Some historians suggested several reasons
behind this union. First, Scotland was in heavy debt after trying to establish a colonial
empire in the Americas the same way that England, Portugal and Spain had done.
Second, England was concerned that if it did not unite with Scotland, then Scotland
might side with France against England. So in 1707, England agreed to give Scotland
money to pay off its debts, and both countries’ parliaments passed the Acts of Union
to become one nation: Kingdom of Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland).

The flag of Scotland

(It represents the cross of Saint Andrew, who is the

patron saint of Scotland)

The flag of Great Britain after the union between

England and Scotland

(The flag consists of the red cross of Saint George,

patron saint of England, along with the cross of
Saint Andrew, patron saint of Scotland.)

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 Kingdom of Ireland

The first evidence of human habitation in the island of Ireland dates back to many
thousands of years ago. The earliest known inhabitants of Ireland were the Celts,
who arrived in around 300 BC. British rule in Ireland began with the Anglo-Norman
invasion of Ireland in 1169 AD.

In 1542, the lands of Ireland were united forming the Kingdom of Ireland which was
under the rule of King Henry VIII of England who was also made King of Ireland. This
helped the English to establish control over the island, which later led the Irish
people to rebel against the British government demanding independence.

Ireland was later united with Great Britain through the Act of Union of 1800, and the
name United Kingdom wasn’t adopted till 1801 when Ireland was officially brought
into the union, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

However, during the 20th, most of Ireland gained independence from the UK
following the Anglo-Irish War, also known as the Irish War of Independence. The
Anglo-Irish War was fought in Ireland from 1919 to 1921 between the Irish
Republican Army (IRA) against the British government. The IRA was an Irish
republican revolutionary organization that sought making Ireland an independent
Irish Republic.

This war ended when the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed in 1921 between Ireland and
the UK. This treaty ended the British rule in most parts of Ireland except for Northern
Ireland which remained within the UK. The Republic of Ireland was officially
established in 1922, and in the same year the UK's name was changed to the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

The old flag of Ireland

(It represents the cross of Saint Patrick, who is the

patron saint of Ireland)

8
The current flag of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland

(The flag is known as Union Jack or Union Flag.

It combines the cross of St. George of England, St.
Andrew of Scotland, and St. Patrick of Ireland)

The current flag of the Republic of Ireland

(It represent a union between Roman Catholics who

are symbolized by the green color, and the
Protestants, who are symbolized by the orange
color)

9
 Summary of the UK's history

Established by the unification of

927 AD The Kingdom of England Anglo-Saxon tribes across modern
day England

A bill enacted by King Henry VIII

which effectively made England
6351 AD Kingdom of England and Wales
and Wales the same country,
governed by the same laws

The Kingdom of England (which

includes Wales) joined with the
6171 AD Kingdom of Great Britain
Kingdom of Scotland to form The
Kingdom of Great Britain

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland joins the union, and once
6101 AD
Ireland again the name changes

The Republic of Ireland (Eire, or

‘Southern Ireland’ ) withdraws
United Kingdom of Great Britain and
1922 AD from the union, leaving just the
Northern Ireland
northern counties of Ireland. This
is the UK that remains to this day

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 Early History

During ancient times, the land now known as Iraq encompassed the region of
Mesopotamia (meaning “Land Between
the Rivers”), which refers to the land
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In
this region, some of the world's earliest
civilizations developed and flourished
including the Sumerian, Akkadian,
Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations. For
this reason Iraq has been known as the
Cradle of Civilization.

One of the most well-known figures of ancient Mesopotamia is the Babylonian king
Hammurabi. He is best known for setting one of the earliest set of laws that
emphasized physical punishment of the perpetrator. These laws are known as the
Code of Hammurabi, which are related to justice, crime and punishment. The Code
of Hammurabi was carved into black stone stele. A carving at the top of the stele
portrays Hammurabi receiving these laws from Shamash, the Babylonian god of the
sun and justice. This symbolizes that Hammurabi was chosen by Shamash to bring
these laws to people and achieve divine justice.

Code of Hammurabi

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Hammurabi was seen by many as a god within his own lifetime. After his death, he
was recognized as one of the greatest kings of his time, and even after the empire he
built collapsed, his role as the ideal lawgiver became the primary aspect of his legacy.
Following the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian empires, the
Mesopotamian region was ruled by Greeks, Romans, Persians, Arabs, and the
Ottoman Turks.

Christianity reached Mesopotamia regions since the 1st century AD, and ancient
Mesopotamian religious traditions disappeared during this time. As for Islam, it
reached the land around 633 AD, beginning with the Arab conquest led by Khalid ibn
al-Walid that took most parts of what is today known as Iraq under Muslim Arab rule.

At some point in history during the 16th century, the Mesopotamian region (now
known as Iraq) was ruled by the Ottoman Empire. At that time, the region was made
up of three provinces only: Mosul, Baghdad and Basra. This region remained part of
the vast Ottoman Empire until the end of World War I (1914- 1918), when Great
Britain won over the Ottoman Empire.

Iraq in the 20th Century

Ottoman rule over the regions of Iraq ended with their defeat in World War I. And in
1920, Great Britain took control of the region as a mandate of the League of Nations.
Great Britain united the three provinces of Mesopotamia: Mosul, Baghdad and Basra,
giving rise to "The Kingdom of Iraq under British Administration" or "Mandatory
Iraq".

The League of Nations (LON) was an international diplomatic organization created

after the First World War to resolve international disputes.

A mandate of the League of Nations means an authorization granted by the League

of Nations for a country to govern a previously German or Turkish colony after the
World War I. Great Britain was given a mandate to rule Iraq that lasted from 1920 to
1932. Iraqi borders were formed gradually during the British rule starting from 1920
up to the following few years.

On October 3rd 1932, Iraq gained independence from Great Britain following the
Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930. This gave rise to "The Kingdom of Iraq" as an independent
monarchy under King Faisal I. Thus, the 3rd of October became a national holiday in
Iraq that is celebrated annually as Iraq's Independence Day, marking the official and

12
international recognition of Iraq's independence. In 1958 the monarchy was
overthrown in a military coup led by General Abdul Karim Kassem and Iraq was
declared as a republic.

The following text, taken from the book "Iraq", describes the relation between Iraq
and Britain:

 "The Iraqi nationalists were far from satisfied with the mandate. They demanded
independence as a matter of right, as promised in war declarations and treaties.
Various attempts were made to redefine Anglo-Iraqi relations, as embodied in the
1926 and 1927 treaties, without fundamentally altering Britain’s responsibility. In
1930 Britain decided to reconcile its interests with Iraq’s national aspirations. It
notified Iraq that the mandate would be terminated in 1932, and a new treaty of
independence was negotiated. On Oct. 3, 1932, Iraq was admitted to the League
of Nations as an independent state "
(Etheredge, 2011, p. 123)

The above text describes the relation between Iraq and Great Britain from 1920 to
1932. The Iraqi nationalists, who emphasized Iraq's national identity, played an
important role in achieving Iraq's independence. Anglo-Iraqi treaties were signed in
1926 and 1927 as an attempt to modify the relations between Iraq and Britain.
However, the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930 granted Iraq independence, but stated that
the British would still have a variety of commercial and military rights within Iraq
even after independence. Iraq was admitted to the League of Nations as an
independent state on 3rd October 1932 with King Faisal I as Iraq's first King.

King Faisal I
(Ruled from 1921 to 1933)
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