Low

Speed Aerodynamics
ASE 320
Lecture 3: Dimensional Analysis,
Buckingham Pi theorem
 Why dimensional analysis?

• How do you test the performance of a Boeing 737

flying at 800 km/hr?
 NASA-Ames 120x80 ft tunnel
• You could rent the largest wind-tunnel in
the world.
– Ship your aircraft to Mountain View, CA
– Install a bunch of sensors all over the aircraft
– Get data for a range of test conditions
– Hope nothing goes wrong
• Per user hour costs are ~$25K, so a weeks
worth of tests will cost ~$1M
• This doesn’t include transportation,
personnel costs etc. etc.
• A reasonable amount of good data usually
takes weeks, if not months of testing.

• Full-scale testing is cost-prohibitive

• What do you do for an A380? (No tunnel big enough)
http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2011/RAND_TR999.pdf
 Scale-model testing
• In the 1800s, wind-tunnels were essentially a whirling
arm with a model object at the end of the arm.
• The first wind-tunnel in 1871 was 12ft long x 18”
square.
• With small wind-tunnels researchers started
developing test based theories for small objects.
• The question still remained if small scale tests would
be able to predict full-scale performance
• In 1894, Osborne Reynolds showed that if a parameter
called ”Reynolds number” were held constant, then
scale model results could be scaled to full-scale
performance
• The Buckingham Pi theorem provides a theoretical
basis to prove Reynolds’ observation
The principle of dimensional homogeneity
• Any equation describing the physical world adheres to a
simple, but powerful, fact that the dimensions (or units)
of the different terms of the equation must be
consistent
• s = u t + 0.5 a t 2
– The units of each of the terms in m
• How about the equation of state, p = r R T ?
• Just because F = ma and E = hn, we can’t say F+E = ma +
hn
• This is also a good thing to check when solving problems
Fundamental dimensions in science
http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Fundamental_dimensions

• Every other physical parameter known to us currently can

be expressed as some combination of the above
Examples of derived dimensions
 Buckingham Pi Theorem
• Let K equal the number of fundamental dimensions
required to describe the physical variables.
– For mechanics K = 3 (Mass, Length, Time), M, L, T
• Let P1, P2, . . . , PN represent N physical variables in the
physical relation (pressure, density, length, velocity etc)
– f1(P1, P2,..., PN) = 0
• Then, the physical relation may be re-expressed using
– (N − K) dimensionless products (called P products)
– f2(P1, P2,..., PN−K) = 0
• Each product is a dimensionless product of a set of K
physical variables plus one other physical variable
– P1 = f3(P1, P2,..., PK+1)
– P1 = f4(P1, P2,..., PK+2)
 Buckingham Pi Theorem for Aerodynamics
• Consider an airfoil at an angle of attack in a flow
• The resultant aerodynamic force is R. On a physical, intuitive
basis, we expect R to depend on:
– Freestream velocity V∞ .
– Freestream density ρ∞ .
– Viscosity of the fluid μ∞.
– The size of the body, represented by chord length c.
– The compressibility of the fluid via the speed of sound a∞.
• In general we can say,
– R = f (ρ∞, V∞, c, μ∞, a∞) explicitly, or
– g(R, ρ∞, V∞, c, μ∞, a∞) = 0
• In this particular case, N = 6, and K = 3
• From the Pi theorem, we can find 3 non-dimensional
parameters which are functions of ρ∞, V∞, c, μ∞, a∞ , such that
– f2(P1, P2, P3) = 0
 Buckingham Pi Theorem for
Aerodynamics

Physical Variables Pi Products

• [R], force = MLT−2
• [ρ∞], density = ML−3 • P1 = f3(ρ∞, V∞, c, R)
• [V∞], Velocity = LT−1 • P2 = f4(ρ∞,V∞, c, μ∞)
• [c], distance = L • P3 = f5(ρ∞, V∞, c, a∞)
• [μ∞], Viscosity = ML−1T−1
• [a∞], speed = LT−1
Buckingham Pi Theorem for Aerodynamics
• P1 = f3(ρ∞, V∞, c, R)
• Assume, P1 = ρ∞d V∞b ce R
• In dimensional terms, [P1] = (ML−3)d (LT−1)b(L)e(MLT−2)
• Because P1 is dimensionless, the exponents on the
RHS must add to zero for M, L and T
d + 1 = 0
−3d + b + e + 1 = 0
−b − 2 = 0
• Solving the above equations, we find that d = −1, b =
−2, and e = −2.
• Therefore, P1 = R/ρ∞ V∞2 c2
Buckingham Pi Theorem for Aerodynamics
• Since c2 is dimensionally same as wing surface area, S
and we can multiply the whole product by a
constant, we can write

Non-dimensional
force coefficient, CR

Reynolds No., Re Mach No., M

Re and M are called “Similarity Parameters”

• Consider two geometrically similar airfoils, one is small, used in a wind

tunnel. The other is large, used on an actual wing.
• These operate in different environments - density, velocity, since high
altitude conditions are not easily reproduced in wind tunnels.
• They will therefore have different Lift forces and pressure fields.

• However, they will have identical CL , CD and CP, CM (lift, drag, pressure and
moment coefficients) if they operate at similar dynamic conditions
(identical angle of attack, Mach number and Reynolds number)
• This allows designers (and engineers) to build and test small scale models,
and extrapolate qualitative features, but also quantitative information,
from a small scale model to a full size configuration.
• It also allows for A/B comparisons of different airfoils under similar flight
conditions
 Parameter matching
1. A 1:4 scale-model of an aircraft wing is being tested in an open-return
wind-tunnel for cruise performance(air density, 0.4 kg/m3). The aircraft
has a cruise speed of ~550kmph(152m/s). The density of air at the testing
facility is 1.225 kg/m3. Assume viscosity is the same for both conditions.
At what speed does the wind tunnel need to be run to match Re (i.e., to
achieve similarity)?

2. Given temperature at cruise is 223K, and at test facility 293K, are the
Mach numbers closely matched?

• Solution 1: Lets denote the real flight as condition 1 and the tunnel test as 2
• For dynamic similarity, Re1 = Re2
• Or, r1 U1 D1/µ1 = r2 U2 D2/µ2

• Or, U2 = (r1 U1 D1) / (r2 D2)

• 0.4*152*4/(1.225*1) = 198 m/s

• Solution 2: Work out in class

 Parameter matching
In the previous slide what if you do not have a wind tunnel big
enough to test a 1:4 scale model, but only have a 1:8 scale
capability?

• Solution: Lets denote the real flight as condition 1 and the

tunnel test as 2
• For dynamic similarity, Re1 = Re2
• Or, r1 U1 D1/µ1 = r2 U2 D2/µ2

• Or, U2 = (r1 U1 D1) / (r2 D2)

• 0.4*152*8/(1.225*1) = 396 m/s (The flow is supersonic and
the characteristics are completely different!!)

• This shows the typical problems aerodynamicists face when

trying to match flow conditions in wind tunnels
 “Similarity
Parameters”
in fluid flows

Tables 5.1 from White

 Limitations of the Buckingham Pi
theorem
• Some degree of qualitative, intuitive understanding of
the physical system is required
– Example using S instead of c2 for CR
– Dividing by 2 to get dynamic pressure in the denominator for
CR
• It is also possible to miss an entire parameter that may
impact dynamic similarity
• In the problem we discussed, we omitted angle of
attack, a
• We can redo the entire analysis with a included and
we will find that a also needs to be matched for
dynamic similarity
 Example : Pipe Flow
Using Buckingham Pi theorem, determine the
dimensionless P parameters involved in the problem of
determining pressure drop along a straight horizontal
circular pipe. Dp
D

Ø Relevant flow parameters: L

• Dp pressure drop,
• r density,
• V averaged velocity,
• µ viscosity
• L pipe length
• D pipe diameter.
ØTherefore the pressure drop is a function of five variables. (N=6)
• Dp=f1(r,V, µ, L, D)
 Dimensional Analysis
Ø Primary dimensions M(mass), L(length), t(time), K = 3
• [r]=[M/L3]
• [Dp]=[M/(LT2)]
• [µ]=[M/(LT)]
• [V]=[L/T]
• [L]=[L]
• [D]=[L]
Ø We should be able to reduce the total number of the
dimensional parameters to (6-3)=3.
Ø Now, we need to select a set of 3 dimensional parameters that
collectively they includes all the primary dimensions.
ØNote: We do not include µ into this set since it is usually less important
compared to other parameters such as r (density), V(velocity) and a length scale.

Ø We will select r, V and D for this example

 P Groups

Ø Group 1 : r, V, D, Dp
Ø Group 2 : r, V, D, µ
Ø Group 3: r, V, D, L

M a L b c M
[ 3 ] [ ] [ L] [ 2 ] = M L t
0 0 0

L t Lt
So that a + 1 = 0, -3a + b + c-1 = 0 & b+2 = 0
Solved a = -1, b = -2, c = 0.
Dp
Therefore, the first P group is P1 =
r V2
 P Groups

Use similar strategy, we can find the other two P groups:

µ L
P2 = , P3 =
rVD D
The functional relationship can be written as
Dp µ L
P1 = f 2 ( P 2 , P 3 ) or = f2 ( , )
rV 2
rVD D
Therefore, the pressure drop in the pipe is a function of only two parameters:
the Reynolds number and the ratio between its length and diameter.