Ethics Compilation Complete

6/19/2020
LECTURE 1
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy INTRODUCTION:
MAN AS A MORAL AGENT
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 2
Man: Rational and Free Agent
• As human beings we are endowed with • Since we are rational and free agents, we are
rationality. Because of our reason, we can responsible for our actions and our
deliberate and make conscious decisions. responsibility is not only for our actions but
• We are also endowed with free will, through also for their consequences and the quality of
which we determine our own action, its course the choice we make.
and objectives.
Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 3 Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 4
• The extent of our knowledge and freedom • The end of all these is our desire to live a well-
determine the extent of our responsibility,
lived life. As human beings we do not just
hence the greater the freedom and
want to live our lives, we wanted to live it well,
knowledge, the greater the responsibility.
as the saying goes:
• Because of human freedom and responsibility, “A well-lived life is a happy life.”
people are always concerned with what is
right and what is wrong. We contemplate on • Happiness and living well is related to the
what is the right thing to do and what is the good and those that we value in life.
bad thing to avoid.
1
6/19/2020
• The good, could either be a real and objective

Good and Value good or just an apparent good. What we
consider to be good could be real or genuine
• Good is objectively the goal or fulfillment of good, like health, or knowledge, which are
being man. It is the end or the object of the objectively good.
will – faculty of volition.
• Some things or objects which we consider to
• The good as the object of the will is be good are only apparent good, which means
considered to be the driving force of human that they may appear to be good, but in
action and human endeavors. The will when it reality are not. Vices for example may appear
recognizes the good drives or motivates us to to be good to some people but in reality they
act. are evil.
• Objective value is independent of the

• Value is an assessment of worth. It is what an assessment of men, such value does not
individual or group deems to be useful, depend on the valuation or estimation of
significant or desirable; individuals or group of individuals. Whether
such value is recognized or not it remains to
• It constitutes a large part of who we are and be a value.
how we live. People, objects, places, events,
situations or occasions have values. • The value of objective good is independent of
the recognition or appreciation of man; good
• Values could either be objective or subjective. health and proper knowledge have objective
values.
• Subjective values are those that are • Values have certain ranking or hierarchy, one
conferred by individuals on certain objects or value may be higher or more significant than
situation. others; some values have higher worth than
others.
• The subjective value is dependent on the
estimation or valuation of individuals, so that • There is an objective ranking of values, this
something may be valuable to one but not ranking is not dependent on the preference of
valuable to others. individuals.
• Material values are necessarily lower in rank
compared to spiritual values.
2
6/19/2020
• The value of persons is higher than the value • Only man can formulate and express values
which are generally shaped and formed by
of money, the value of education and
his experiences.
knowledge is higher than the value of
physical properties. • Values are inseparable from the endlessly
changing experiences of man’s life. A value
• The more spiritual the value is the higher it is may be material value, societal, aesthetic,
in the ranking of values and the more
religious or moral.
material the value is, the lower it is in the
ranking of values. • What we value in the realm of human
conduct is called moral values, like justice,
honesty, love etc.
The Role of Human Experience
• Lived experience is the awareness on the part • Since one experiences himself and his own
of the individual that when he performs or person as the agent or cause of the act, then
does a certain action, he is aware that he is he also experiences himself as the efficient
the author of the act; that he is the agent of cause of the moral good or evil associated
action. This awareness or experience brings with the action.
with it a sense of responsibility for the moral
value of the action.
Discussion Questions
1. Today most people value their freedom but

hardly take responsibility for their actions. Is
this a fair or correct statement or not? Why?
2. With great power comes great responsibility.
Do you agree? Why?
3. How do the things that we value influence our
sense of right and wrong?
3
6/19/2020
LECTURE 2
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy Nature of Ethics or
Moral Philosophy
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Philosophy and Ethics • Areas or branches of philosophy include the

study of reality – metaphysics, the study of
• Philosophy – (philo – love; sophia – wisdom) correct thinking – logic, the study of
is concerned with the underlying causes and knowledge – epistemology, the study of the
meaning of reality including our existence morality human conduct – ethics.
and actions or human conduct. • Ethics is concerned with the question whether
a human action is good or bad, right or wrong,
moral or immoral.
Ethics and Morality

• The term “ethics” from Greek ethos • A moral precept is an idea which driven by a
(character) is commonly used synonymously desire to do something good. An ethical code
with “morals” or morality hence being ethical is a set of rules that defines allowable actions
is equated with being moral. or correct behavior. Correct behavior is not
always the good behavior.
• Being moral is usually associated with one
value system and the desire to be good. Being • Hence the term ethical or moral both refers to
ethical has something to do with following the act or behavior although they have
certain rules or guidelines. difference references.
1
6/19/2020
• Morality refers only to human acts, that is,

actions which proceed from man’s rationality;
these are actions which are done with • If human actions are to be judged whether
knowledge, freedom and voluntariness. morally good or morally evil, then there
• Actions which do not have a rational must be something by which actions could
character can be considered amoral, they be measured as good or evil, this is what we
cannot be judged as morally good or morally refer as the norm or standard of morality.
evil.
• Moral philosophy or ethics deals with the • Hence, it does not only to say that abortion is
norms or codes governing our conduct or evil, but also to give the reasons why it is evil.
act. It serves as a guide in determining what • Ethics as a philosophy is the attempt to
is good and right or bad and wrong. achieve a systematic understanding of the
• As the study or science of the morality of nature of morality and what it requires of us -
human acts, it deals with the issue whether how we ought to live and why.
an action is good or bad and the reasons why
a particular action is good or bad.
• There are acts that are ethically neutral which

means that they do not have a moral value or • Some aspects of reality simply out of the
sense – they are called amoral; some people realm of morality and are therefore regarded
can also be called amoral if they are as nonmoral. Inanimate objects for example
indifferent to morality or the sense of right are nonmoral but our use of them can be
and wrong. moral or immoral like when we use a knife to
stab someone.
2
6/19/2020
• Manners or etiquette on the other hand is

• Morals is different from manners or concerned with something or an act or
etiquette. Morals is concerned with whether behavior is socially acceptable or follows a
something or an act or right or wrong in the certain social or cultural practice. It is more
moral sense based on the matter of taste or social
preference.
•Eating using hands may be bad manners for
some but for others it may be socially or
culturally acceptable.
Origin of Morality
• Morality can be considered as having a • These possible explanations of the objective
origin of values are expressed in the
subjective or objective origin based on the “supernatural theory,” the theory of “natural
origin of value. law,” and “objectivism.”
• As to the objective origin there are three • As subjective, the origin of value is related to
possibilities for the origin of value: human beings. Without human beings,
1. Values are given by a supernatural being subjectivist theorists argue, there would be
2. Values are part of the fabric of nature no value.
3. Values are part of the “furniture” of the

world, independently of human beings
Customary/Traditional and Reflective

Morality
1. Customary or traditional morality.
Traditional morality refers to the moral Traditional morality can become reflective
systems handed down through custom from and dynamic when those moral ideas that
generation to generation. We might call this are simply handed down and accepted are
static morality. subjected to analysis and criticism.
2. Reflective morality. Reflective morality
requires that moral ideas are carefully
examined and tested.
3
6/19/2020
Application of Morality
• Morality may be applied to four areas: 3. Individuality. Morality determined by

relation the individual has to him or herself.
1. Religion. Morality determined by relation
between human being and supernatural
4. Society. Morality determined by relation
being.
between human being and society.
2. Nature. Morality determined by relation
between human being and nature.
Critical Question: Is morality a repressive • However, the fact that morality imposes
institution? certain “restrictions” does not make it
• The rightness or wrongness; or the goodness or repressive.
badness of an action is the focal point of • While morality imposes on us some rules or
morality. Morality sets standards by which we standards through which we determine
can measure or judge whether an action is good what is right and what is wrong and which
or bad. eventually shape our moral judgment and
• Many view morality as a repressive institution, a conduct, the moral wisdom by which we
set of rules which society and religion, parents judge an action is not imposed on us by
and the like impose on us to prevent us from others, but by ourselves in so far as we are
living our lives the way we wanted it to be lived. committed to attaining a kind of life that is
well-lived.
1. How important do you think is Ethics in your
would-be career?
2. In our modern world, do you think we need to
follow the traditional or the reflective type of
morality? Why?
3. Do you consider morality as oppressive?
4
6/19/2020
LECTURE 3
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy ETHICS, RELIGION AND LAW
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Religion and Ethics

• Some religions provide ethical norms or rules
of conduct like the monotheistic religions.
• Religion and ethics may overlap and may
influence each other but they are different • Some ethical norms are outside the confines
and can be independent of each other. of religions and one can be ethical without
being religious.
Ethics and Law

• Law is an ordinance of reason. • Natural law is the law of God as
understood by human reason.
• Law can be eternal, divine, natural or human.
• Eternal law is the expression of the God’s • Human law is the ordinance of man
which could either be legal – the law of
providence; it is an ordinance of God based
civil authority or ecclesiastical/canon –
on his divine intelligence.
the law of the Church.
• Divine law is the law of God as expressed in • One of the standards of Christian morality is
revelation and as such are expressed in the
the law.
Holy Scriptures
1
6/19/2020
Levels and Stages Moral

Kohlberg: Moral Reasoning Reasoning
• Children are "moral philosophers" they Levels and Stages Illustrative Behavior
develop moral standards of their own
• These standards do not necessarily come from Level I - Pre-conventional Morality
parents, but emerge from their cognitive
1. Punishment Orientation Obeys rules to avoid
interaction with their social environment. punishments.
• Kohlberg sought to determine whether there 2. Reward Orientation Conforms to obtain
are universal stages in the development of rewards to have favors
moral judgments. returned.
Powerpoint presention of Jove Jim S. Aguas 7 Powerpoint presention of Jove Jim S. Aguas 8
Level III - Post-conventional Morality
Level II - Conventional Morality 5. Social-contract Actions are guided by

Orientation principles commonly agreed on
3. Good Boy/ Good Girl Conforms to avoid as essential to the public welfare;
Orientation disapproval of others. principles upheld to retain
respect of peers and self-respect.
4. Authority Orientation Upholds laws and social rules 6. Ethical Principle Actions are guided by
to avoid censure of authorities Orientation self-chosen ethical principles
and feelings of guilt about not (justice, dignity, equality);
doing one's duty. principles upheld to avoid self-
condemnation.
Powerpoint presention of Jove Jim S. Aguas 9 Powerpoint presention of Jove Jim S. Aguas 10
1. Today most people tend to be more legalistic

than ethical, do you think it is better to be
legalistic than ethical? Why or why not?
2. Should ethics and religion be independent from
each other of should they go hand in hand?
3. What insights we can learn from the reasoning
of children?
2
6/19/2020
LECTURE 4
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy TYPES OF ETHICS
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Types of Ethics Types of Ethics

Meta-ethicists distinguish two types of ethics: 2. Non-normative – either describes or
1. Normative - determines what moral evaluates moral attitudes or statements
standards to follow so that our actions • Descriptive/Scientific
may be morally right or good
• Meta-ethics
• General Normative Ethics
• Applied Normative Ethics
NORMATIVE ETHICS • It attempts to determine what moral

standards to follow so that our actions may
1. General Normative Ethics be morally right or good.
• It is a reasoned search for principles of • It tries to defend a system of basic ethical

human conduct, including a critical study principles that presumably are valid for
of the major theories about what things everyone.
are good, what acts are right and what • The two broad categories: teleological
acts are evil. (consequential) and deontological (non-
consequential).
1
6/19/2020
2. Applied Normative Ethics • It uses the general ethical principles in an

attempt to resolve a specific moral
• It is an attempt to explain and justify problem or apply ethical principle to
positions on specific moral problems or situations.
issues, like capital punishment, abortion,
discrimination.
• Bioethics, environmental ethics,
professional ethics, legal ethics, business
ethics.
NON-NORMATIVE ETHICS • Anthropologist and sociologist investigate

and describe moral attitudes, how moral
1. Descriptive or Scientific attitudes and codes differ from society to
• It is the scientific or descriptive study of society, and investigating and describing
morality which involves the factual the values and behaviors of different
investigation of moral behavior; societies.
concerned with how people do in fact • Two categories: absolutism and relativism.
behave.
2. Meta-ethics • It is concerned with the meaning of such

• It is a highly technical discipline ethical terms like right, obligation,
investigating the meaning of ethical responsibility etc.
terms, including a critical study of how • It does not propose any moral principles or
ethical statements can be verified norms for action; it consists solely of
philosophical analysis.
2
6/19/2020
Three Meta-ethical positions: Three Kinds of Naturalism

1. Naturalism - maintains that ethical • Autobiographical naturalism — ethical
statements (statements with moral statements simply express the approval
valuation or assessment) can be translated or disapproval of the speaker. When he
into non-ethical statements, (statements says “Killing is bad,” he means he
without moral valuation or assessment). disapproves killing.
2. Non-naturalism - ethical statement cannot

• Sociological naturalism - ethical statement be translated into a non- ethical form.
simply expresses the approval or Some ethical terms can only be defined in
disapproval of the majority. “Killing is bad.” terms of other ethical words. Hence
- The majority dislikes killing. statements like “King was right” can be
• Theological naturalism - ethical statement translated into other ethical statements
expresses a divine approval or disapproval. like “King’s action was proper.” Or “King’s
“Killing is bad. - God or some divine being action was good.”
disapproves killing. However, they cannot be verified as true or
false but can only be believed.
3. Emotivism or Non-cognitivism - claims Discussion Questions

that ethical statements are used to evoke a
predetermined emotive response or to 1. What do you think the most crucial issue in
encourage a predetermined behavior, they Bioethics? Why?
can be used to make someone feel or
behave in a certain way. 2. From a meta-ethical perspective how should we
interpret the saying “Honesty is the best
Statement like “Cheating is bad” is meant policy?”
to say, “do not cheat.”
3
6/19/2020
LECTURE 5
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy CLASSIFICATION OF
ETHICAL THEORIES
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Ethical Theories
• they also provide the reasons why a
• Ethical theories are set of principles that particular action or behavior is good or bad;
serve as the basis in determining the morality acceptable on unacceptable.
of human actions or conduct; we use or rely
on them in making moral judgment,
• Meta-ethicists distinguish two main
categories of ethical theories: the
teleological and deontological.
Lecture 5.a
• The final determinant of the morality of an
A. Teleological Theories act is the comparative amount of good or the
comparative balanced of good over evil
• A teleological theory states that ultimate produced.
criterion or standard of what is morally right
or wrong or obligatory is the non-moral value
• The teleological theories are also called
consequentialist theories.
that is produced by an act or rule.
1
6/19/2020
1. Hedonism - the rightness of an action 2. Epicureanism - right action promotes

depends upon the amount and/or the mental or spiritual pleasure and minimizes
quality of physical pleasure it promotes or spiritual or mental pain. The ultimate good is
the amount of physical pain it avoids. what will give man mental serenity.
Hedonism equates good with physical or Epicureanism equates good with spiritual or
sensual pleasure and evil with physical pain mental pleasure and evil with spiritual or
or discomfort. mental anguish.
Egoism may prefer unpleasant and painful

3. Egoism - an action is right insofar as it experiences and temporary sacrifice if these
promotes the self or personal interests of its will advance their long term happiness.
agent.
Egoist may prefer virtues like honesty,
An act or rule of action is right if and only if it
generosity for as long as these virtues are
promotes at least as great a balance of good
over evil for a person in the long run as compatible with their long term interest, it
practices these virtues.
Everyone should always act in his own self-
interest regardless of the interest of others, Egoism is not the same as hedonism. While
unless their interests also serve his. some egoists are hedonist, others may identify
Individuals have no natural duties to others. the good with knowledge, power or rational
self-interests.
4. Classic Utilitarianism - the rightness of an

action depends upon how useful or beneficial it Utility is equated with benefit, advantage,
is, as opposed to how useless or harmful it is. An pleasure, happiness and goodness.
action is good or right when it promotes the
greatest amount of happiness for the greatest The principle of greatest happiness states that
number of people. the ultimate end is an existence that is exempt
When we have to choose between alternative from pain and rich in enjoyment
actions, we have to choose the one with the
best overall consequences for everyone By happiness means the intended pleasure and
concerned. the absence of pain, by unhappiness, pain and
the privation of pleasure.
The ultimate moral principle is the principle of
utility.
2
6/19/2020
Analysis:
• The are two kinds of utilitarianism: The principle of utility may conflict with that of
1) Act Utilitarianism - everyone should justice. Utilitarianism tends to associates justice
perform that act that will bring about the with efficiency rather than fair play, it determines
greatest good over bad for everyone what is just by a calculation of total benefit, not
by appeal to merit.
affected by the act.
There is difficulty of formulating a satisfactory
2) Rule Utilitarianism - everyone should rule. It is difficult to design or imagine a situation
always follow the rules that will bring about wherein we can test the effectiveness of certain
the greatest number of good consequences rules. With so many exemptions that one need to
for everyone concerned. accommodate to certain rules, it is difficult to
establish common rules of moral behavior
Rule utilitarianism ignores what appear to be 5. Instrumentalism or Pragmatism - an action

blatant wrongs. Some rules even if they seemingly is right if it improves the existing situation,
produce the greatest good for the greatest remedies some deficiencies in it or resolves a
number of people still compromise the intrinsic specific problem.
value of the human individual.
Since Utilitarianism equates morality with The value of an action whether good or bad
usefulness for the greatest number of people then depends on the consequences, if the
actions that are directed to the minority no matter consequence is good then the action has a
how good they are become immoral because they moral worth.
are not useful or good for the majority.
1. Do you think we should judge our actions based
on their consequences? Why?
2. What do you think is the most appropriate
teleological theory that we can apply to
euthanasia? Why?
3. In considering who should get priority in
medical care what possible teleological theory
can we apply?
3
6/19/2020
Lecture 5.b
B. Deontological Theories
Ethics and • A deontological theory denies what a
Moral Philosophy teleological theory affirms. It affirms that the
right or obligatory or good act is not always
dependent of certain non-moral value
produced or the outcome of an act or rule.
Jove Jim S. Aguas
• It is dependent on other considerations other
than the outcome, like the command of God
or the state.
Morality is ultimately based on the commands

1. Divine Command Theory - rightness is or character of God, and that the morally right
established by God, who either establishes
action is the one that God commands or
general moral laws and standards or
requires. The specific content of these divine
prescribes and prohibits particular actions;
commands varies according to the particular
and action is good or right if it conforms to
religion and the particular views of the
these laws, prescriptions and prohibitions.
individual divine command theorist.
2. Natural Law Theory - moral standards exist

According to St. Thomas , the natural law is
in the very fabric or nature of the universe;
the way that the human being
an action is right if it conforms to these
“participates” in the eternal law. The
natural moral laws.
precepts of the natural law are universally
God is the giver of the natural law. Man is binding by nature and that the precepts of
recipient of the natural law; the natural law the natural law are universally knowable by
constitutes the principles of practical nature.
rationality, those principles by which human
action is to be judged as reasonable or
unreasonable.
1
6/19/2020
4. Social Contract Theory - rightness is a

3. Natural Rights Theory - human beings share
function of rules and institutions
certain basic rights which oblige us to treat
established in a society and implicitly or
one another in certain ways. Human rights
explicitly agreed to by its members for the
are universal rights, they are inalienable and
purpose of peaceful cooperation and
they inhere in the person as a human being. harmonious co-existence.
These rights include the right to life, liberty
and property.
In some way, the agreement of all

individuals subject to collectively enforced 5. Categorical Imperative – morality can be
social arrangements shows that those summed up in an imperative, or ultimate
arrangements have some normative commandment of reason, from which all
property (they are legitimate, just, duties and obligations derive. It is an
obligating, etc. absolute, unconditional requirement that
The members of some society have reason must be obeyed in all circumstances and is
to endorse and comply with the justified as an end in itself.
fundamental social rules, laws, institutions,
and/or principles of that society.
Nothing was good in itself except a good will The unconditional moral principle
and the will is the uniquely human capacity commands that one's behavior should
to act according to the concept of law or accord with universalizable maxims which
principles. The moral principles require us to respect persons as ends in themselves; the
fulfill our duties simply because those duties obligation to do one's duty for its own sake
make valid claims on us. and not in pursuit of further ends
2
6/19/2020
6. Prima Facie Duties. There are moral 7. Virtue Ethics - One should seek to develop
guidelines that determine what we ought to the character traits known as virtues and act
do, prima facie duty is an obligatory duty, in accordance with them. Virtue theorists
for example fidelity or keeping promises. stress the importance of developing good
Other prima facie duties are reparation, habits of character, such as benevolence.
gratitude, non-injury, justice and self- Once a person had acquired benevolence,
improvement. for example, he will then habitually act in a
benevolent manner.
1. Do you think we should judge our actions based
on deontological consideration? Why?
2. What do you think is the most appropriate
deontological theory that we can apply to
abortion? Why?
3. In considering who should get priority in
medical care what possible deontological
theory can we apply?
3
6/19/2020
Lecture 5.c
Other Theories
Ethics and Ethical Relativism
Moral Philosophy The moral rightness or wrongness of action varies

from one society or social group or culture to
another and that there are no absolute universal
moral standards binding on all men at all times.
Jove Jim S. Aguas
It holds that whether or not it is right for individual
to act in a certain way depends on or is relative to
the society or culture to which one belongs.
Conventional Ethical Relativism

It is the view that there are no objective Cultural Relativism
moral principles that could be used to
It believes that cultures have different moral
determine the morality of human actions in a
codes.
particular social group.
Our sense of right and wrong differs from
All valid moral principles are justified by
culture to culture, for example the practice of
virtue of their social acceptance.
polygamy may be right in one culture and
Morality therefore has a social character; it is may be wrong in another.
relative to the accepted practices of a certain
group or society.
Analysis:
• It does not follow that simply because there are
differences in cultures or in what society accepts as good
There is no universal moral law that governs or bad, there no longer a universal truth about morality.
all cultures and that should bound every • If some societies or people do not know the universal
culture to follow. moral truth it does not mean that there is no moral
truth.
Therefore, there is no objective standard that
can be used to judge one social code as better • There are some moral rules that societies and cultures
have in common and adhere to because they are
than the other. necessary for society and culture to exist.
• What may be relative is the interpretation and
application of those moral principles in a particular
culture or society.
1
6/19/2020
Ethical Subjectivism
Our moral judgments are based on our feelings and It could lead us to conflict and contradiction
nothing more; there is no such thing as objective when sentiments or feelings conflict. Whose
right or wrong. sentiments or feelings should prevail if there
Whatever moral judgment we make, we are only are conflicting sentiments?
expressing our personal feelings and our emotions,
nothing more. Feelings and sentiments are transitory.
Hence, morality is based primarily on our feelings, It could not account for reason in ethics, one
emotions and prejudices.
must present reasons or else he is not making
An action is good if it arouses in us a good feeling or a a sensible moral judgment.
positive emotion; one thing is good if we feel good
about it and one thing is bad if we feel bad about it.
Ethical Egoism Each person ought to pursue his own self-

It holds that everyone must always do what interest exclusively and individuals have no
will promote his own greatest good. natural duties to others. It is one’s moral duty
to promote one’s own interest. Accordingly,
An act or rule of action is right if and only if it there is only one ultimate principle of conduct,
promotes at least as great a balance of good the principle of self-interest.
over evil for a person in the long run as
Ayn Rand, the proponent of rational ethical
Everyone should always act in his own self- egoism stresses that as rational human beings
interest regardless of the interest of others, we must act on our rational self-interest and
unless their interests also serve his. not think about the interest of others.
The consequences of actions are not always

Analysis: certain. It is difficult to determine what would
It is inconsistent and cannot provide solutions be good consequences for others, and there is
to conflict of interests. What happens when the danger of determining the social worth of
everybody wants to promote his or her self- individuals.
interest?
Some actions despite their good
It tends to be arbitrary because it assigns consequences are in themselves morally
greater importance on one’s interest than that
objectionable. Some acts may involve
of others when there is no general difference
between oneself and others. There is the danger injustice, lying, violating a rule, but may result
of falling into a system where people will simply to some good consequences like increase
be manipulated by others just to promote their sales, getting things done, even helping the
own self-interest. needy.
2
6/19/2020
1. In determining the moral or ethical value or

character of our action, do you think we should
also consider its social character? Why?
2. In a world that is rapidly changing do you think
moral values and principles are still relevant?
Why?
3. Given the current pandemic that we are
experiencing, what valuable insight have you
learned from the different theories?
3
6/19/2020
Lecture 6
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy CHRISTIAN ETHICS
Jove Jim S. Aguas
The Christian Ethics

Introduction • Self-interests are always self-serving and
There are moral laws and these laws are may marginalize the interests of others.
constant and universal, they do not change. • What is useful is not always moral. What is
The standards by which we judge the morality useful to one may not be useful to others;
of a particular action do not change, regardless persons can be the object of use, the
of culture, social acceptance, sentiments, self- usefulness of a person cannot be the
interest and utility. What is socially or culturally standard of morality particularly in human
accepted is not always moral. relations.
• Christian Ethics asserts that there are universal The Norms of Morality
and unchanging moral principles from which
we based the morality of our actions. There are two norms or standards of morality:
• First of all there is the precepts of God which Conscience – last practical judgment of
human reason can understand. There might be reason
differences in the way men understand these
precepts but they do not invalidate the • the proximate norm of morality
universality of God’s precepts. The Laws (Divine, natural and human laws)
• Second there are teachings in the Scriptures ordinance of reason
which serve as our moral guide and the
teachings of Christ himself. • ultimate norm of morality.
• Third is the teachings of the Church.
1
6/19/2020
• Our conscience is the one that initially tells us The Christian Virtues
that an action is good or bad, it is the one that
bothers us when we have done something. • Virtues are good habits and habits are
permanent dispositions to do or act in certain
• The Laws are the ultimate standards by which ways. Habits are formed through repeated
we judge the morality of an action. actions.
• We are always advice to follow the law. The • For example, honesty is a virtue or a good
divine and natural laws ultimately determine habit which disposes a person to tell the truth.
the rightness or wrongness of an action. One because honest by repeatedly telling the
• An action therefore is moral if it is in truth. One an act becomes permanent it
becomes second nature to the person.
accordance with our conscience and the law.
• There are two sets of virtues: the cardinal • Prudence - also described as wisdom, the
and theological virtues. ability to judge between actions with regard
to appropriate actions at a given time
• The cardinal virtues: Prudence, Justice,
Temperance, and Courage (or Fortitude). • Justice - also considered as fairness, the most
extensive and most important virtue[20]
The cardinal virtues are so called because
they are regarded as the basic virtues • Temperance - also known as restraint, the
required for a virtuous life. practice of self-control, abstention, and
moderation tempering the appetition
• The three theological virtues, are Faith, • Courage/fortitude - forbearance, strength,
Hope, and Love (or Charity). They are endurance, and the ability to confront fear,
called theological because their proper uncertainty, and intimidation.
object is God or eternal life with God.
• Faith - belief in God, and in the truth of His Discussion Questions

revelation as well as obedience to Him.
• Hope - expectation of and desire of
receiving; refraining from despair and 1. Do you believe in the universality of moral
capability of not giving up. The belief that principles? Why?
God will be eternally present in every 2. Conscience is a significant part of our moral
human's life and never giving up on His character, how can we develop a good
love. conscience?
• Charity - a supernatural virtue that helps 3. What is the virtue that is most applicable in
us love God and our neighbors, the same your would-be career in the medical field?
way as we love ourselves.
2
6/19/2020
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy
Jove Jim S. Aguas
JOVE JIM S. AGUAS
Introduction  Hinduism - the merging of two ancient cultures, the

Aryan and the Indus Valley which resulted in the
 Hinduism is one of the oldest religions in the world formation of the Indian civilization in the second
and it also one of the most rich and diverse. millennium before the common era. It evolved from
 There is no unified or common definition of ancient teachings and doctrines.
Hinduism. It does not have a single founder and a  Thus, no single founder of Hinduism.
common doctrine.
 It now comprises several and varied systems of
 It as “a complex set of interrelationships among many philosophy, belief, rituals and practices.
sorts of people, belief systems, and practices rather
than a single uniformly structured, bureaucratically
organized, and centrally codified religion.
 The ultimate goal of life is to attain Nirvana. Nirvana and Moksha

 This is attained when one is released or liberated from
 The basic Hindu teaching s that all living things are
the earthly life or moksha.
Brahman in their core. Enlightenment is attained by
 Samsara is the cycle of death and rebirth and one can becoming tuned in to the Brahman within.
attain a release from the samsara through
 Only then can one reach Nirvana which is the ultimate
enlightenment.
goal of life.
 Enlightenment starts with the understanding that this
 Nirvana is the state of bliss when the soul is released
world is an illusion or maya. Man should not cling to
from the seemingly endless cycle of rebirths.
this world as everything in this world is temporary.
 The release from the wheel of life that allows access to
 Human action is governed by a law which is Karma
Nirvana is known as “moksha.”
which states that good action results to positive
outcome, bad action result to bad outcome.
1
6/19/2020
 The ultimate goal of life referred to as moksha, nirvana The Notion of Maya
or samadhi, is understood in several different ways.
 the realization of one's union with the divine  The Brahman as the cause of all things has a unique
 the realization of one's eternal relationship with the
power (shakti) called “maya”
divine reality  The Brahman manifests itself in the world with the
 the realization of the unity of all existence help of Maya.
 the perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self  The term “maya” means illusion.
 the attainment of perfect mental peace  The world and the things in it come into existence due
 the detachment from worldly desires. to the power of maya; but the world as a creation of
 But in any case such a realization liberates one from Maya is only an illusion.
samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth.
 Only the Brahman is real and the world and the things  The world and the objects in the world is not the way
we found here are just illusion. they appear to us. The world appears as an illusion.
 What does illusion mean?  So the things in this world are neither ultimately real,
 Illusion must not be interpreted as unreal or non- nor wholly unreal; they are illusory.
existence; the world as an illusion does not mean that  One should not cling to the objects in the world
it is unreal. because they are only illusory or impermanent.
 The world is real because we can experience it but it is
an illusion because Maya has created the world as an
appearance.
 In this sense the world is only an illusion. In Advaita
Vedanta, this is illustrated with the help of the famous
“rope–snake” illustration.
 The cause of clinging to the world of illusion is  The freedom from bondage of ignorance is Moksha.
ignorance (Avidya )  When we realize the true nature of the world as Maya
 Avidya means not only absence of knowledge, but also and reality of Atman and Brahman we become free
erroneous knowledge. from the shackles of desires, aspirations, passions,
 A man trapped in Avidya does not know what is real karma and avidya.
and thinks that the appearances are real.  Moksha is to be attained here and now during this life-
 An individual identifies himself with empirical self span only. The goal of our life is moksha.
and equates his existence with the physical body.
 Under the influence of Maya and Avidya, he
dissociates himself from the Ultimate Reality or
Brahman and clings to the illusion.
2
6/19/2020
Karma and Samsara  In the “circle of life” each person experiences as series
of physical births, deaths, and rebirths. With good
 Samsara is the whole process of rebirth. karma, a person can be reborn into a higher caste, or
 Life is cyclic, with no clear beginning or end, and even to godhood.
encompasses lives of perpetual, serial attachments.  The life of an individual is shaped by a process of
 Karma is the law that states that good begets good, and moral cause and effect which extends over many lives.
bad begets bad. Every action, thought, or decision one The results of past deeds, including those done in past
makes has consequences – good or bad – that will lives, shape the present lifetime.
return to each person in the present life, or in one yet  The actions generated by desire and appetite bind
to come. one’s spirit (jiva) to an endless series of births and
deaths.
The Paths to Liberation or Moksha  The second is the path of devotion (bhaktimarga or
 Hinduism recognizes three possible paths to moksha,
bhakti yoga), loving surrender of the self to God, often
in the form of worshipful service of an individual deity.
or salvation; they are methods (yogas or margas) that
 Devotion is an act of self-surrender to one of the many
sages have taught for reaching that goal.
personal gods and goddesses of Hinduism. Such
 The first is the path of knowledge (jnanamarga or devotion is expressed through acts of worship, temple
jnana yoga), study of the sacred texts and rituals, and pilgrimages.
contemplation of the soul’s oneness with Brahman.  The third is path of action (karmamarga or karma
 Salvation is achieved through attaining a state of yoga) the way of good deeds, as well as properly
consciousness in which we realize our identity with following religious ceremonies, traditions and ethical
Brahman. This is achieved through deep meditation, duties.
often as a part of the discipline of yoga.  Liberation may be obtained by fulfilling one’s familial
and social duties thereby overcoming the weight of
bad karma one has accrued.
The Dharma  The universal dharma emphasizes the goal of

maintaining personal and universal equilibrium; this
 Each human person has his dharma or duty. is done by forming certain virtues like truthfulness,
 Dharma is understood a religious and moral law that non-injury, and generosity.
governs one’s conduct and relates to the ultimate end  Specific dharma is doing the duties according to one’s
or purpose of life. class, status, and station in life.
 There are two basic kinds of dharma: the dharma that
applies to everyone (sadharana dharma) and specific
dharma (svadharma).
3
6/19/2020
 In traditional Hindu society there are four varnas or  In principle the behavior or action of the individual
classes of people according to their status and each person is dictated by his respective dharmas as
class has its specific dharma or duty. member of a particular varna, particular caste,
 Brahmins – these are the priests, teachers and preachers; particular gender and stage in life.
their duty is to teach and lead.
 Kshatriyas - kings, governors, warriors and soldiers;
their duty is to lead or govern and protect the society.
 Vaishyas - cattle herders, agriculturists, businessmen,
artisans and merchants; their duty is to produce.
 Shudras - labourers and service providers; their duty is
to serve and labor.
4
6/19/2020
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy BUDDHIST ETHICS
Jove Jim S. Aguas

Jove Jim S. Aguas
Introduction: Basic Hindu Concepts Introduction
Samsara  Ethics has been at the heart of Buddhist

thought. The Buddhist path aims at liberating
Karma oneself and others from suffering.
Moksha  Suffering is caused by egocentric attachment,
egocentric aversion, and ignorance, which are
Nirvana themselves based on misunderstanding or
ignorance of phenomena, especially the self, as
substantial.
 The aim of Buddhism is enlightenment which
would pave the way to Nirvana.
Ppt presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas Ppt presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas
 Buddhism is an offshoot of Hinduism and offers  The development of the Buddhist teachings can
a different view of reality and how we can be traced to the life of its founder Siddhartha
attain enlightenment and reach Nirvana. Gautama Buddha.
 It proposes certain truths about human life and  The life of Siddhartha Gautama is a constitutive
how we can live a life towards enlightenment part of his teaching.
or Buddhahood.  By finding the path to Enlightenment,
 The dhamma (in Sanskrit – dharma) of the Siddhartha Gautama was led from the pain of
Buddha that is the truth taught by the Buddha suffering and rebirth towards the path of
is revered by the Buddhists as a source of Enlightenment and became known as the
wisdom and guidance. Buddha or 'awakened one.'
1
6/19/2020
 Siddhartha Gautama lived a privileged life which The Enlightenment of the Buddha and
insulated him from the sufferings of life; Nirvana
sufferings such as sickness, age and death.
 After meditating for a long time under the Bodhi
 One day, Siddhartha went outside the royal
tree, Siddhartha Gautama awakened to a new
enclosure where he lived. When he went vision, the vision of the nature of human life.
outside he saw, each for the first time, an old
 As the Buddha, or the enlightened, he saw himself
man, a sick man, and a corpse. This greatly
and all life as part of an unending process of
disturbed him, and from then on, he learned change.
that sickness, age, and death were the inevitable
 The whole universe is a system of interconnected,
fate of human beings.
inseparable parts and composed of all varieties of
 Finally, Siddhartha saw a monk, and he decided life forever moving from one form to another.
this was a sign that he should leave his  The Buddha reached the state of bliss and utter
protected royal life and live as a homeless holy detachment from the physical world called nirvana.
man. Ppt presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas Ppt presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas
The Four Noble Truths

 It describes a disease and its symptoms, • The truth of suffering (Dukkha)
identifies its cause, outlines what freedom from • The truth of the origin of suffering
this disease would be like, and prescribes the (Samudāya)
course of treatment required to attain this • The truth of the cessation of suffering
healthy state. (Nirodha)
 The truth of suffering is like a disease, the truth • The truth of the path to the cessation of
of origin is like the cause of the disease, the suffering (Magga)
truth of cessation is like the cure of the
disease, and the truth of the path is like the
medicine.
Suffering The Cause of Suffering

 Second Noble Truth is the truth of the origin of
 First Noble Truth is about suffering: birth is
suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death suffering: it is this craving which leads to
is suffering; union with what is displeasing is renewed existence, accompanied by delight and
suffering; separation from what is pleasing is lust, seeking delight here and there; that is,
suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in craving for sensual pleasures, craving for
brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are existence, craving for extermination.
suffering.  The root of all suffering is desire, tanhā. This
 Suffering comes in many forms. Three obvious comes in three forms, which he described as
kinds of suffering correspond to the first three the Three Roots of Evil, or Three Poisons.
sights the Buddha saw on his first journey outside These are the three ultimate causes of
his palace: old age, sickness and death. But suffering: Greed and desire; ignorance or
according to the Buddha, the problem of suffering delusion; hatred and destructive urges.
goes much deeper.
2
6/19/2020
The Cessation of Suffering The Path to the Cessation of Suffering

 The Third Noble Truth. is the truth of the  The Fourth Noble Truth is the truth of the way
cessation of suffering: it is the fading away and leading to the cessation of suffering. The final
cessation of that same craving, the giving up Noble Truth is the Buddha's prescription for
and relinquishing of it, freedom from it. the end of suffering.
 The third Noble Truth is the possibility of  This is a set of principles called the Eightfold
liberation. Path. The Eightfold Path is also called the
 A Buddhist aims to know sense conditions Middle Way: it avoids both indulgence and
clearly as they are without becoming severe asceticism, neither of which the Buddha
enchanted or misled by them. had found helpful in his search for
enlightenment.
The Eight-fold Path  4. Right Action - Sammā kammanta - Behaving

 The eight stages are not to be taken in order, but peacefully and harmoniously; refraining from
rather support and reinforce each other: stealing, killing and overindulgence in sensual
 1. Right Understanding - Sammā ditthi - pleasure.
Accepting Buddhist teachings. (The Buddha never  5. Right Livelihood - Sammā ājīva - Avoiding
intended his followers to believe his teachings blindly, making a living in ways that cause harm, such as
but to practice them and judge for themselves exploiting people or killing animals, or trading
whether they were true.)
in intoxicants or weapons.
 2. Right Intention - Sammā san̄kappa - A
commitment to cultivate the right attitudes.  6. Right Effort - Sammā vāyāma - Cultivating
 3. Right Speech - Sammā vācā - Speaking positive states of mind; freeing oneself from evil
truthfully, avoiding slander, gossip and abusive and unwholesome states and preventing them
speech. arising in future.
 7. Right Mindfulness - Sammā sati - Developing Dasa Sila

awareness of the body, sensations, feelings and
states of mind.  Buddhist ethics presents 10 precepts or dasa-
 8. Right Concentration - Sammā samādhi - sīla, which become the rules of conduct which
Developing the mental focus necessary for this prohibits certain activities.
awareness.  One must not (1) take life; (2) take what is not
given; (3) commit sexual misconduct (for the
monk anything less than chastity and for the lay
person any sexual conduct contrary to proper
social norms, such as adultery); (4) engage in
false speech; (5) use intoxicants;
3
6/19/2020
 (6) eat after midday; (7) participate in worldly Doctrine of interdependent origination
amusements; (8) adorn the body with  everything is dependent on and connected to
ornaments and use perfume; (9) sleep on high other things. Nothing in the nexus is
and luxurious beds; and (10) accept gold and independent; everything arises from something
silver. else.
 The first five are required of lay person while  Mahayana Buddhism - The ultimate reality is
the ten are required of monks. sunyata, which means “Emptiness” or “The
Void.” According to the Buddhist metaphysic,
there is no “thing” which has independent
existence. Nothing has inherent existence.
 Everything has dependent existence. So the The Annihilation of the Ego

fundamental reality is emptiness.  It is the nature of the ego to think of itself as
unique and detached from other egos. The ego
 There is neither Atman nor Brahman, there is always emphasizes its differences from others.
no self but Anatman, or no-self.
 The annihilation of this ego according to
 All things- the world, mountains, trees, animals, Buddhism results in the emergence of the soul
or people – are just results of events or or the true self.
processes which are also dependent on other  The awakened or reborn self or soul sees
events or processes similarities rather than differences, it acts from
love rather than fear, helps rather than judges.
 The bliss of nirvana comes from the

annihilation of the self-consciousness,
judgmentalism, greed and fear that characterize
the ego.
 The Buddha taught that the way to transcend
the ego and see the interconnectedness of life
is through loving-kindness. Lotus is a symbol of purity of the body, speech, and mind as while
rooted in the murky water of the world.
 This loving kindness is interpreted as The lotus flower blossoms on long stalks as if floating above the
compassion muddy waters of attachment and desire.
It is also symbolic of detachment as drops of water easily slide
off its petals.
4
6/19/2020
5
6/19/2020
Ethics and TAOIST ETHICS

Moral Philosophy
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Introduction  In his journey through a mountain pass the

keeper of the pass pleaded to Lao Tzu to
 According to some traditional accounts Lao write a book. Lao Tzu did and the book
Tzu was a scholar (philosopher) who lived in became known as the “Tao Te Ching,” the
the 6th century B.C. Is the founder of most important book of Taoism.
Taoism.
 He was assigned as the keeper of the
 Based on the Tao Te Ching, most scholars
Archives for the royal court of Chu which consider Lao Tzu as the founder of Taoism.
gave him broad access to the works of the Although he never opened a formal school he

Yellow Emperor and other classical works of attracted loyal disciples and a large number of
the time. students.
Taoism Main Teachings  The doctrines of Taoism represents its three

aspects:
 Lao Tzu’s vision reality is holistic; it
encompasses the totality of the cosmos. ◦ preservation of life and avoidance of injury;
 Viewed holistically, the universe expresses ◦ discovery of the laws underlying the
harmony, purpose, order and calm power. changes of things in the universe;
 But when we attempt to separate things and ◦ transcendence of the world - seeing things
understand only the parts without from a higher point of view.
understanding the whole, the results are
error, suffering and unhappiness.
1
6/19/2020
The Tao and the “Invariables”  “Tao” has a distinctive metaphysical meaning.
It means the all-embracing origin of all things,
 “Tao” literally means “way” or “path.” the first principle from which all appearances
 “Tao” may have several meanings: arise.
• 1) the primordial principle from which all  It is the unknowable source of all things; it is
things emanate and which underlies all the ‘way’ that brings into being, by various
that is; stages, the whole creation, physical, mental
• 2) that which operates in all that is and and spiritual.
which provides the natural way of being
and acting;  In this sense it is similar to the notion of
• 3) that which provides norm of morality “Logos” of the Greeks and “Brahman” of
Hinduism.
The “Invariables”
 In many traditions “Tao” denotes the way of  Lao Tzu observes that although things are
man or an outline of moral behavior. It is a ever changeable and changing, however, the
way of living, a moral guide. laws that govern them are not themselves
changeable.
 These unchangeable laws are called

“invariables” from the Chinese word “ch’ang”
which could also be translated as eternal or
abiding.
 The “Invariables” or “ch’ang” are the laws  The idea is that if anything develops certain
that govern all the changes of things. extreme qualities, those qualities invariably
revert to become their opposites.
 Among the invariable laws the most
fundamental is that “when a thing reaches  To resist this process or rule would be to go
one extreme, it reverts from it.” against the law of nature.
 In the Tao Te Ching, Lao Tzu writes:  The opposites are not only mutually causal;
“Reversion is the action of the Tao.” they are of merely relative value in
comparison with one another. For example,
beauty has meaning only in relation to an
opposite meaning of ugliness.
2
6/19/2020
 To know the invariables is to be enlightened;  To know the “invariable” or be enlightened is

to be enlightened is to know the invariable to be liberal, that is, to be without prejudice,
law of nature. to be generous towards things.
 To the ordinary people who have no idea of
this law, it may seem paradoxical indeed.  The enlightened man associates the Tao with
 Lao Tzu says,
spontaneity and creativity. He frees himself
from selfishness and desire, and appreciates
 “When the highest type of men hear the simplicity.
Tao, they diligently practice it, when the
average type of men hear Tao, they have
believe it, when the lowest type of men
hear Tao, they laugh heartily at it.”
The Yin and Yang  The yin is weak, negative dark and
destructive; the yang is strong, positive, light
 If the Tao is the “one,” the “two” are the twin and constructive.
forces of “yin” and “yang.”
 The whole of nature consists of the  The 'yin' represents aspects of the feminine:
continual interaction of these two opposing being soft, cool, calm, introspective, and
forces: yin – the passive element and yang – healing... and "yang" the masculine: being hard,
active element. hot, energetic, moving, and sometimes
aggressive.
 The yin and yang are always thought of
together, each is an expression of the other,
they operate together in a never-ending cycle
of coming together and falling apart.
 The ceaseless interplay of yin and yang is Union of Relative Opposites

manifest in the natural order of things.  Based on the concept of the “Tao” and the
“yin” and “yang” there is one ultimate reality
 Things cannot be understood separate from and strict distinctions are in a way arbitrary
others, everything is part of a seamless cycle. and misleading.

 Nothing is purely matter or purely spirit,

 Nothing is absolutely permanent, conditions
nothing is completely female or male, bad or
call up opposite conditions, the bad produces
good.
the good, today’s unfortunate circumstances
will change into something good in the future.  The good and bad both exist in an everlasting
exchange. Rain for example is good in time of
drought and bad in time of flood.
3
6/19/2020
Wu-Wei: The Doctrine of Inaction  The wu-wei theory is an offshoot of the

general theory that “reversing” is the
 The literal meaning of wu wei is "without movement of the Tao.” According to the wu-
action.” It is often expressed by the paradox wei everything is the universe originated from
wei wu wei, meaning "action without action" the ultimate “wu” or “nothing.”
or "effortless doing.”
 “Nothing” should not be interpreted as
 The Wu-Wei Theory is the theory of non- absence or privation but as the “unnamed” or
action, “doing things by doing nothing.” the “invisible”. The Tao is the “unnamed” and
it acts by “non-acting.”
 Wu-wei as non-action means lesser activity or  The main idea is that things must be done
doing less or acting without artificiality or without excess and nature shows us how to
arbitrariness. do it. For wu-wei theory things are
accomplished when done naturally, that is
 The goal of wu wei is to achieve a state of without artificiality.
perfect equilibrium, or alignment with Tao,
which reveals the soft and invisible power  Man should restrict his activities to what is
within all things. As a result, an irresistible necessary and what is natural. Necessary
form of "soft and invisible" power is obtained. means what is just enough to achieve a
certain purpose and not over-doing.
 Too much of activities become harmful rather The Virtue or “Te”

than good. The purpose of doing something
is to have something done or accomplished,  Virtue or “Te” is genuineness or being true to
but if there is overdoing, if there is excessive one’s own nature that is, avoiding artificiality
activity, then, we do not accomplish the task and pretense.
and worse than not doing anything at all.  When man has too many desires and too
much knowledge he tries to satisfy his many
 To be guided by wu-wei therefore is to follow desires and in the process he does not attain
nature, that is, to act naturally and his ends and obtains the opposite results.
spontaneously. Artificiality and arbitrariness Consequently he loses his original virtue or
are the opposites of naturalness and Te.
spontaneity.
4
6/19/2020
 The wise man is very conscious of the work The Sage

of the “Te” in everything, so he allows things
to develop according to their own nature.  The man who is enlightened in the Tao and
practicing enlightenment in his life embodies
 He does not interfere, he just let things be. the Taoist ethical ideal; he is the sage.
He is guided by the wu-wei, but this does not
mean passivity but conformity with the law of  The sage is different from the ordinary man.
Nature which is the law of the Tao working The sage knows the Invariables, the laws of
through its powers. nature and conducts his activities in
accordance with them.
 He knows the general rule that if he wants to  The sage discards the excessive, the
achieve anything, he must start from the extravagant, the extreme. The sage learns
opposite, and if he wants to preserve from the reversal motion of the Tao when to
anything he admits in its something of its stop.
opposite.
 In the sage, the paradoxical qualities of the
 He understands that to yield is to be Tao: being through non-being, action through
preserved whole, to be bent is to become non-action and strength through softness all
straight, to be empty is to be full, to be worn are present.
out is to be renewed, to have little is to
possess, to be plenty is to be perplexed.
Conclusion: Moral Lessons

 By being humble, one never reaches the limit.
 The man who lives prudently must be meek, When things are done and one doing them
humble and easily content. To be meek is humbly relinquishes all claims to merit, is far
the way to preserve ones strength and to be from the limit and he has mastered the
strong. natural way.
 Humility is the direct opposite of arrogance,
 To be content safeguards one from going too
so that if arrogance is a sign that a man’s far and therefore from reaching the extreme.
advancement has reached its extreme limit,
humility is a contrary sign that limit is far
from reached.
5
6/19/2020
 In order to live in any specified manner, one  the universe works harmoniously according
must begin by living in a manner exactly the to its own ways. When someone exerts his
opposite. If we want to be strong we have will against the world, he disrupts that
to be weak because by being weak one is harmony.
strong.
 Human conduct must characterized by
 Man should not interfere with nature nor spontaneity, humility, simplicity, non-
resist it. Water symbolizes the behavior of interference and contentment.
the sage because it does not compete, but
rather takes the path of least resistance.
6
6/19/2020
Ethics and CONFUCIAN ETHICS

Moral Philosophy
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Introduction  Confucius emphasized morality over practical

skills. He wanted his disciples to be more than
 Confucius or Kung Tzu lived in 500 B.C. and a literati or Ju, but well-rounded men, men
he established a school to teach others how who are not only literate but also useful to
to govern - the Ju School, the school of the the state and the society.
literati. The curriculum focused on writing,
mathematics, music, ritual, archery, and  Confucian conception of ethics is centered on
charioting. the proper conduct of man in society.
Powerpoint presentation: Jove Jim S. Aguas 3 Powerpoint presentation: Jove Jim S. Aguas 4
 Personal development and cultivation happen

 Central to the Confucian teaching is the
in the context of human relationships
cultivation of the human virtues. Every normal
particularly in the society. So a fully developed
human being cherishes the aspiration to
person is one who maintains a good relation
become a superior man – the sage.
with others and is a good member of the
 The sage is more than a literati or a learned society.
man; he is well-rounded he is not only literate
but also useful to the state and the society.  Ritual and filial piety are the manners in which
one should act and relate with others and this
should be based on the attitude of
benevolence.
1
6/19/2020
Benevolence/Human-heartedness -  Jen stresses correct procedure for human

Jen/Ren relations, the proper way for men to meet
each other and leading to positive efforts for
 The doctrine of Jen stands out from the the good of others.
collection of thought that Confucius
developed as the central thesis of his whole  Jen interpreted as benevolence, is a generous
system. Confucian ethics, politics and life ideal and authentic concern for the welfare of
flows from Jen, which is the perfect virtue. others; it is manifested in our readiness to
 Jen expresses the ideal of cultivating human help others in times of need.
relations, developing human faculties,
cultivating one’s personality and upholding
human rights.
 The Jen person is one who, wishing himself to Chung and Shu - The Golden Rule
be settled in position, sets up others; wishing The golden rule is expressed in the positive way
himself to have access to the powerful, and negative way
achieves access for others.
Positive – (Chung) - do to others what you
 It is an enunciation of the Golden Rule: Do to wish others do to you.
others what you want others to do to you.
Negative – (Shu) - do not do to others what
 The man of Jen is a man of virtue, for the Jun- you wish others not to do to you.
Tzu (the gentleman) it is the supreme virtue.
 The principle and practice of the Chung and  Shu can also be translated as altruism or the
Shu become the standard of measurement to state of mind when one has a complete
regulate one’s conduct; this is called the understanding and sympathy with the outside
principle of Applying a Measuring Square. world or others.
 Chung can also be translated as faithfulness

or the state of mind when one is completely
honest with himself.
2
6/19/2020
Righteousness –Yi  The Jun Tzu or gentleman recognizes that

there are certain things that need to be done
 Yi means “oughtness of a situation” this means
for their own sake because they are obligatory
that everyone in the society has a certain
or appropriate.
thing which he needs to do, but this has to be
 Since the practice of Jen brings about the
done without ulterior motive.
carrying out of one’s responsibilities and
 A righteous act is done without any selfish
duties in society then it must be accompanied
motive or intention, it implies an obligation or
by the Yi.
an imperative which is absolute and without
conditions.
Propriety – Li  In the course of its evolution Li has

transformed into a set of general rules of
 Li or propriety is the code of the ritual which propriety, the regulating principle in a well-
embodies the essence of ancient culture. ordered society.
 Although Li is translated as code or ritual, it  Thus from a standard of a gentleman’s
means more in the Confucian tradition; it conduct, it has become an ethical standard
includes all forms of rituals especially in that governs the conduct of all men.
connection with the proper conduct of the  Li as the outward expression of moral
gentleman - Jun Tzu. sentiment and standard of conduct sheds light
on Jen and Yi by bringing the whole conduct
into harmony with reason and order.
Sincerity – Hsin  But Hsin is based not on simply promoting

harmonious relations; it is based on one’s love
 Hsin or sincerity means honesty and
for the virtue.
trustworthiness. Hsin is being truthful and
 According to Confucius the sincere man acts
sincere in our speech; it means fulfilling or
keeping our promises and being true to our not because he only wants to promote
words; harmonious relations; his conduct is always
based on the love of virtue.
 it means being conscientious performing our
duties and obligation to others and to the  Hence the sincere man observes the rules of
community. right conduct in his heart as well as in
outward actions.
3
6/19/2020
Filial piety – Xiao  Xiao is the virtue that motivates children to

love and respect their parents, to be
Another fundamental virtue in the Confucian concerned for their welfare and comfort, to
system is filial piety. Confucius said: Filial piety bring happiness and honor to their family.
is the root of all virtue."--"Of all the actions of
man there are none greater than those of filial  However, during the ancient times, this has
piety." been practiced to the extreme because of the
 Xiao is the attitude of obedience, devotion patriarchal system.
and care for one’s parents and the elderly in
the family.
 As a result, the system became faulty. A son is The Gentleman – Jun Tzu
obliged to live with the family even after
marriage and be obedient to his father as long  The term Jūn Tzu literally means gentleman or
as he lived. “nobleman.” Confucius enjoins all people to
strive for the ideal of a "perfect man" or the
 However, for Confucius this has to be
virtuous man.
practiced properly following the rule of right
 A description of the "perfect man" is one who
conduct and moderation.
combines the qualities of gentleman with that
of a saint and scholar.
 The gentleman is expected to be a good

model of proper conduct for others and in  The opposite of the Jūn Tzu is the Xiǎorén,
the society. literally a "small person."
 He is expected to develop a good moral
 The xiaoren has the qualities of being trivial in
character, to practice filial piety and loyalty to
mind and heart. He is egotistical and always
other in the proper manner especially to the
thinks of his own welfare and interests. He is
elderly, and to practice benevolence.
disrespectful and does not show any concern
 A good model of the perfect gentleman or the for others.
virtuous man is Confucius himself.
4
6/19/2020
 Counsel
 Understanding
Seat work: One fourth yellow pad  Fortitude
 Wisdom
Relate one Christian virtue with one  Piety
Confucian virtue and explain how these  Fear of the Lord
virtues can be developed?
 Prudence
Powerpoint presentation: Jove Jim S. Aguas 27
5
6/19/2020
PLATO’S ETHICS
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy
Jove Jim S. Aguas
JOVE JIM S. AGUAS
PPT Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas
Introduction
 Plato’s ethical theory, like the other Greek  Two basic philosophical conceptions which are
philosophers, is an attempt an answer to the relevant to the Plato’s ethical theory:
question:
“What is the good life?” • the doctrine of teleology
• theory of ideas or forms.
 Following his teacher Socrates that ‘virtue is
knowledge,’ Plato develops that thesis that the life of
reason is the happiest and the best.
PPT Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas PPT Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas
 The theory of forms or ideas stresses that general

 The doctrine of teleology stresses that everything in concepts or ideas are not derived from experience
the universe has a purpose or proper function within but are logically prior to it, they exist by themselves
a harmonious hierarchy of purposes. in their own world, the world of ideas.
 Ideas or forms like that of circle, good, humanity are
unchanging while physical objects that copy them in
the spatio-temporal world are changeable.
 The forms or ideas are real and the physical objects
are just faint copies of these forms.
1
6/19/2020
The Two Worlds Allegory of the Cave
Ethics as Science
 Plato maintains that ethics is as objective as the  The ethical forms are objective standards of morality
mathematical sciences. which serve as guide and provide direction in life
 Just as mathematics is concerned with forms or amidst the arbitrary power and persuasion of society
circularity, triangularity and equality, ethics is also and the influence of our irrational desires.
concerned with forms like justice, good, virtue etc.  The bodily appetites, the irrational desires and the
shadow world of false values, could persistently
cloud one’s vision and temp him away from the
truth.
The Idea of the Good
 The idea of the Good is the conception that unites  In the world of knowledge the idea of the Good
the principle of teleology and the theory of forms appears last of all, it is seen only with an effort.
with ethics.
 The Good is at once the final goal which all things in  When understood it is also inferred to be the
the universe are seeking to realize and the ultimate universal author of all things beautiful and right,
source of their intelligibility and meaning. parent of light and of the lord of light in this visible
world, and the immediate source of reason and truth
in the intellectual world.
2
6/19/2020
Sophists Claim The Categories of Good
 The Sophists claim that man is the measure of all  Three categories of things being good:
things; they teaches that we base our moral norms
either on subjective personal opinions or social  first, some things are good for their own sake and not for
conventions. their consequences;
 second, some things are good for their own value and for
 There are no higher moral standards beyond
their consequences,
conventions, but such notion would make it
 third, some things are may be burdensome but are good
impossible to evaluate or criticize the moral norms of
for their consequences.
other society.
Morality and Human Nature
 Plato claimed that the just life falls into the second  The essential core of the person is his psyche or soul.
category.  Although we have one soul, based on our inner
 The highest form of good is the thing which anyone experience, we find inner conflicts and competing
would prefer and gain happiness both for its value forces warring within us.
and for its consequences.  The tripartite soul:
 Bodily appetites
 Reason
 Spirit – passion and emotions
 The bodily appetites are associated with our bodily  The spirit is associated with passion or emotion.
needs and desires. The spirit is distinct from the two because we can be
 These appetites pull us toward physical gratification. moved by either the bodily desires or by moral
fervor.
 The spirit is a motive force but it receives its
 Reason is the rational and more reflective part of the
soul sometimes vetoes the urgings of the appetites. direction from the two other faculties, it can follow
either the commands of the appetites or reason.
 This is reason which also has its own rational
desires, like desire for truth and understanding.
3
6/19/2020
 The appetites are the lowest but the most dangerous  The spirit that could either make a motive out of the
of our desires, it is the voice that tells us “I want” competing commands of the appetites and reason.
even in harmful or compromising situations or  The appetites would naturally seek gratification and
circumstances hence it is irrational to always follow reason must control the spirit’s desire for self-esteem
on its desires. and pride otherwise it would conspire with the
 It is reason, the highest faculty that seeks the higher appetites and put the person in a difficult situation.
good, it is reason that controls the appetites and put
order into the desires of the appetites.
The Charioteer The Virtues
 The four primary moral virtues:
Reason Emotion
• Wisdom
• Courage
• Temperance
• Justice
The Virtues
 Each virtue finds its place within the elements of the  The virtue of courage enables the spirit to
soul. subordinate itself to the counsel of reason and
 It is wisdom that allows reason to be in control of the applies its energy, ambitions and assertiveness
person and guides the other parts of the soul. towards the right goal.
Reason becomes like a commander or a director who  The healthy spirit holds fast to the command of
understand the whole picture and helps others to reason and ignores the pulls of pain and pleasure.
play out their respective roles. With the virtue of courage, the spirit finds its glory
and esteem only in doing what is right, fears what is
genuinely fearful and bravely confronts all enemies
of truth and goodness.
4
6/19/2020
 The virtue of temperance is manifested when the  Justice the over-arching virtue that is present when
appetites control and moderate their desires for all the other elements have achieved their correct
pleasure and subordinate themselves to the two balance within the person.
higher elements.  The just person is one who possesses wisdom,
 Temperance is not a complete denial of the body’s courage and temperance and in whom all the
needs and desires but a sense of balance and elements or faculties play their proper roles and
mastery. maintain proper places.
 Justice is a condition wherein all the various
elements of the person are balance and in the right
order.
 The morally virtuous person is one who is rationally,  In the virtuous person, desires and passions function
biologically and emotionally balanced, in Platonic harmoniously under the governance of reason.
terms, one who is wise, temperate, courageous and  Knowledge produces a harmonious person, in the
just. sense that when reason governs the desires and
passions, and orderly and well-balanced personality
results.
The Well-ordered Life
 The person who has the virtues of justice and

wisdom knows the physical pleasure and allows
Only knowledge can lead to virtue. them their proper place. He knows the pleasure of
honor and reputation and enjoys them in the proper
degree.
 The truly happy person sets in order his own inner
life and is his own master and his own law and at
peace with himself.
5
6/19/2020
PPT Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas
6
6/19/2020
Ethics and ARISTOTELIAN ETHICS

Moral Philosophy
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Ppt by Jove Jim S. Aguas
Aristotle’s Works on Ethics Ethics as Science

 Aristotle’s thoughts on ethics can be  Aristotle conceives ethics as body of
found in his two treatises on ethics: objective knowledge, as systematic
◦ Nicomachean Ethics organization of concepts and principles or
◦ Eudemian Ethics. laws. Hence it can be considered as a
 These two works cover almost the same science.
ground, they both start with a discussion
of eudaimonia which means “happiness”
or “flourishing,” and then turn to an
examination of the nature of arête or
“virtue” or “excellence”
Ppt by Jove Jim S. Aguas Ppt by Jove Jim S. Aguas
 There are three types of knowledge or General Notions

science,  Central to Aristotle’s ethics are the notions of
◦ Speculative or theoretical - knowledge for the happiness, virtues, freedom of the will and
sake of knowledge responsibility, and moral character.
◦ Practical - knowledge for the sake of the proper
conduct of man  Like Socrates and Plato he considers happiness
as the end of human desires. He also considers
◦ Productive - knowledge or science concerned
with providing for the human needs.
the virtues as central to a well-lived life.
 Ethics belongs to the practical science and is  Like Plato, he regards the ethical virtues
concerned with the correct conduct that (justice, courage, temperance and wisdom) as
guides man toward a life of excellence. complex rational, emotional and social skills.
1
6/19/2020
 Aristotle insists that in order to apply

 However, he rejects Plato's idea that a
general understanding to particular cases,
training in the sciences and metaphysics is a
we must acquire, through proper upbringing
necessary prerequisite for a full
and habits, the ability to see, on each
understanding of our good.
occasion, which course of action is best
 What we need in order to live well, is a supported by reasons.
proper appreciation of the way in which
 Knowing the general rule is not enough, one
such goods as friendship, pleasure, virtue,
must apply the general rule to real
honor and wealth fit together as a whole.
situations which is done through good
upbringing and good habits.
 Hence, ethical life requires practical wisdom,  Plato claims that the form of the moral
and practical wisdom cannot be acquired good is independent of experience,
solely by learning general rules. personality and circumstances and that the
moral evaluation of daily life is based on the
 We also must also acquire, through practice, knowledge of this good.
those deliberative, emotional, and social
skills that enable us to put our general  Aristotle rejects this idea and insists that
understanding of well-being into practice; the basic moral principle is immanent in the
and this is done through good upbringing activities of daily lives and can be discovered
only through a study of these daily activities
II. The Notion of Happiness or  The ultimate good or ultimate end of men
Eudaimonia must have the following characteristics:
 Every action and pursuit aims at some good, ◦ self-sufficient – that which even when isolated
hence the good is that at which all things makes life desirable and lacking in nothing;
aim. ◦ final – that which is always desirable in itself and
never for the sake of something else;
 For Aristotle goals like wealth and honors ◦ attainable.
are not the ultimate desires of men; they are
intermediate goals which must ultimately aim  The goal that meets all these requirements
at some final good which we desire for its is happiness or eudaimonia.
own sake.
2
6/19/2020
 Happiness contains two vital concepts:

reason and virtue.
 Happiness is related to the highest activity

of the soul which is reason.
 Reason is man’s highest and distinctive

function or activity and happiness depends
upon the actualization or the full realization
of one’s rationality.
 The purpose of human life stresses that it  The second concept is virtue, - the
entails a life lived according to certain plan performance of an activity must be in
or purpose furnished by reason. accordance with virtue or excellence.
 Reason involves two things:  Virtue refers to the excellence of a thing or

knowing/thinking and doing. the disposition to perform effectively its
proper function.
 Hence the good life involves both thinking
and doing; the way to happiness involves  This virtue or excellence is attained through
knowing the right principles to follow and repeated action.
applying these principles in real life.
 For Aristotle, happiness is not a passive III. The Virtues

state that we achieve, but it characterizes
what we do and how we do it.  For Aristotle virtues are good habits - the
proper or right way of doing something.
 Happiness is achieved by a virtuous person
who lives according to reason, thus realizing  When we do repeated good acts we
his or her distinctive rational potentiality. develop virtues.
 A life of reason involves knowing the right  Human virtues are human excellences or
principles and doing or practicing those the dispositions to perform or act in a
principles. proper manner or way
3
6/19/2020
 Two types of Virtues  The intellectual virtues are intellectual

excellences; they excellences of our rational
faculty.
moral virtues
intellectual virtues.  Further subdivided into philosophic and
practical wisdom.
 Philosophic wisdom is purely theoretical and

is achieved by understanding the unchanging
structure of reality.
 Practical wisdom on the other hand is the  The moral virtues concern the habitual
rational understanding of how to conduct choice of actions in accordance with
one’s daily life. rational principles.
 Moral virtue is the right disposition to make

 Understanding the rules of conduct or the right decisions and prudent action.
norms of society and how to behave or act
in a particular community are manifestations
of practical wisdom.
 It is knowing how to make moral decisions  To enable us to balance our desires and the
and doing the right actions not just knowing emotions, we need more than intellectual
that certain things are true or that certain virtues, we need moral virtues.
actions are good and right.
 It is not enough to understand the
 Hence, “we become just by doing just acts, theoretical truth or the principles
temperate by doing temperate acts and underlying reality, we must be able to make
brave by doing brave acts. a balance between our desires and our
emotions.
4
6/19/2020
The wise or intelligent individual personifies


the intellectual virtues, whereas the
IV.Virtue as a State of Character
continent or moral individual personifies the  For Aristotle there are three elements of
moral virtues. human personality,
 The excellence of a wise person is attained  passions,
through instruction and evidenced by
 faculties
knowledge;
 states of character.
 The excellence of the continent or moral
person is produced by habits of choice and  As human beings we feel, we desire and we
expressed in practical actions tempered by act.
both the circumstances and the individual.
 The passions like anger and fear, and the  Virtue as a state of character means that a
faculties like the ability to feel anger and morally good person is not just one who
fear, are not in and of themselves good or performs morally right actions but one who
bad but they can be excessive and can be has developed a habit or disposition to do
out of control. what is right, he is one who has controlled
his emotions, desires and appetites.
 Therefore they must be disciplined to
follow the rational rules or principles  Virtue as a state of character is a disposition
to always do the right thing.
 A well-formed character does not only tell V. Virtue and the Mean
the truth but readily, happily and easily tells
the truth, such character is manifested in  Virtue is “a state of character” concerned
one’s motives, desires and intentions. with choice, lying in a mean.
 Hence the virtuous person delights in  The mean relative to us, this being
virtuous actions and dislikes vicious or determined by a rational principle, and by
immoral actions. that principle by which the man of practical
wisdom would determine it.”
5
6/19/2020
 Every ethical virtue is a condition  “with respect to acting in the face of

intermediate between two extreme states: danger, courage is a mean between the
excess and deficiency. excess of rashness and the deficiency of
 This is the “doctrine of the mean.” cowardice;”
 “with respect to the enjoyment of
 Too much and too little are always wrong; pleasures, temperance is a mean between
the right kind of action always lies in the the excess of self-indulgence and the
mean.
deficiency of insensibility;”
 The virtuous habit of action is always an
intermediate state between the opposed
vices of excess and deficiency.
SPHERE OF ACTION
 “with respect to spending money, OR FEELING
EXCESS (VICE) MEAN (VIRTUE) DEFICIENCY (VICE)
generosity is a mean between the excess of Fear and confidence Rashness Courage Cowardice
wastefulness and deficiency of stinginess;” Pleasure and pain Licentiousness Temperance Insensibility
 with respect to relations with strangers, Getting and spending

(minor)
Prodigality Liberality Illiberality
being friendly is a mean between the Getting and spending

Vulgarity Magnificence Pettiness
excess of being ingratiating and deficiency (major)
Honor and dishonor
of being surly;” (major)
Vanity Magnanimity Pusillanimity
Honor and dishonor

 “and with respect to self-esteem,
Ambition Proper ambition Unambitiousness
(minor)
magnanimity or self-honesty is a mean Anger

Self-expression
Irascibility
Boastfulness
Patience
Truthfulness
Lack of spirit
Understatement
between the excess of vanity or Conversation Buffoonery Wittiness Boorishness
boastfulness and the deficiency of Social conduct

Obsequiousness or
flattery
Friendliness Cantankerousness
pusillanimity or self-deprecation.” Shame Shyness Modesty Shamelessness
Indignation Envy Righteous indignation Malicious enjoyment
 The “mean” according to Aristotle will vary  As human beings we must aim and live a life
from one situation to another and from that is in conformity with our rational
one individual to another. nature.
 There is no universal rule or a mechanical  The satisfaction of our desires and the
procedure that will determine the mean; it possession of material goods though
requires a full and detailed acquaintance necessary for our material and physical well
with the circumstances. being are less important than the acquisition
of virtue.
 Each of the virtues is a state of being that
naturally seeks its mean relative to us.
6
6/19/2020
 Happiness is attained through the VI. Voluntary Action and Moral

appropriate balanced between reasons and Responsibility
desires and the moderation of all things.
 Moral evaluation of an action presupposes
 Hence, true happiness can be attained only the attribution of responsibility to a human
through the cultivation of the virtues that agent.
make a human life complete.
 Only those that are undertaken or
performed voluntarily can have the element
of responsibility.
 Decisions to act voluntarily rely upon  For Aristotle, there is a distinctive mode of
deliberation about the choice among thinking that provides adequately for
alternative actions that the individual could morality, practical intelligence or prudence.
perform.
 Prudence comprehends the true character
 During deliberation individual actions are of individual and community welfare and
evaluated in light of the good and some applies its results to the guidance of human
rational principles, and the best among action.
them is then chosen for implementation.
 Acting rightly, or prudently involves VII. Happiness and the Morally

coordinating our desires with correct Good Person
thoughts about the correct goals or ends.
 Genuine happiness lies in action that leads
 This is the function of deliberative to virtue, since this alone provides true
reasoning: to consider each of the many value and not just amusement.
actions that are within one's power to
perform, considering the extent to which  Aristotle holds that contemplation is the
each of them would contribute to the highest form of moral activity because it is
attainment continuous, pleasant, self-sufficient, and
complete.
7
6/19/2020
 The morally good or virtuous person is

one
 who carefully follows reason,
 desires to do the right thing,
 has a well-formed character,
 knows the proper goals in life and can
deliberate how to achieve these goals in
practice and
 the one who has the most experience
in making difficult moral decisions.
Thank you for listening,

I hope you learned something.
Ppt by Jove Jim S. Aguas
8
6/19/2020
Ppt Presentation by Jove Jim S. Aguas 2
Ethics and EPICUREAN ETHICS

Moral Philosophy
Jove Jim S. Aguas Jove Jim S. Aguas
Ppt Presentation by Jove Jim S. Aguas 3 Ppt Presentation by Jove Jim S. Aguas 4
Introduction
• Epicureanism was one of the philosophies that arose
Therefore, both old and young alike ought to seek wisdom, during the decline of ancient Greek philosophy as a
the former in order that, as age comes over him, he may be source of relief from increasing social disorganization.
young in good things because of the grace of what has
been, and the latter in order that, while he is young, he may • It is considered as one of the ‘salvation philosophies’
at the same time be old, because he has no fear of the which flourished until the Greco-Roman culture was
things which are to come. superseded by the Christian.
Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus
• Epicureanism distinguished itself for the constancy of its
doctrine.
• The garden served as a sanctuary from the turmoil of

• Epicurus (342- 270 BC) its founder, was born and
the outer world for a select group of men who applied in
educated in Samos and inherited Athenian citizenship their daily lives the precepts of their mentor.
from his parents.
• After the death of Alexander the Great, the Athenians

were driven out of Samos and Epicurus went to Asia
Minor where he taught for several years. Later he
returned to Athens and taught in his famous garden,
the Garden of Epicurus, until his death.
• Epicurus was warmly affectionate to his followers and

they were devoted to him.
• Epicurus taught that happiness involves serenity and is
achieved through the simple pleasures which preserve
bodily health and peace of mind.
1
6/19/2020
• The enemies of Epicurus accused him of sensualism, but

his philosophical teachings, and the frugality and Pleasure as the Purpose of Life
simplicity of his life effectively refuted this charge. It was
the nobility of his character that accounted for his • Philosophy is "the art of making life happy.“
popularity. • “Prudence is the noblest part of philosophy.“
• For Epicurus the whole point of philosophy is to heal the

• The purpose of life, according to Epicurus, is personal
souls and to enable us to live a happy life.
happiness; and by happiness he means pleasure itself.
• He disdains theoretical speculation and stresses that
philosophy should serve practical human needs. • Pleasure is the alpha and omega of a happy life.
• He says, there is no benefit from philosophy if it cannot • It is the first and kindred good and the starting-point of
drive out the disease of the soul. every choice and of every aversion.
• Because pleasure is the first and native good, we do not • The Cyrenaic stresses also pleasure – physical pleasure
choose every pleasure whatever, but often pass over
many pleasures when a greater discomfort ensues from • The Cyrenaic doctrine which was formulated by
them. Aristippus, a student of Socrates who ironically advocates
the hedonistic principle that pleasure is the supreme
• The pleasure is a state equably diffused, "the absence of good.
bodily pain and mental anxiety”
• Epicurus says: • The Cyrenaics looked to the momentary pleasures of
gaiety and excitement.
• That which begets the pleasurable life is not [sensual
indulgence] but a sober reason which searches for the
grounds of choosing and rejecting, and which banishes
those doctrines through which mental trouble, for the
most part, arises.
• Epicurus and the Cyrenaics both maintain that human • However, while Epicurus equates pleasure with peace of
nature is so constituted that people always seek what mind, Aristippus identifies pleasure with sensual
they believe will give them pleasure and avoid pain pleasures
• Both believe that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and
pain is the only intrinsic evil. • Epicurus maintains that the duration of pleasures is more
important than their intensity in achieving happiness.
• They both encourage people to choose pleasure
judiciously for the means that produce some pleasures
• Therefore, mental pleasures are superior than physical
bring with them disturbances that are a lot greater than
the pleasures themselves. since they last longer although less intense.
• Both teach that the person who wishes to be happy must
• Although he finds the physical pleasure to be acceptable
cultivate the ability to choose the right pleasures and that in themselves, he contends that the pursuit of them for
only the actions that further the enjoyment of individuals their own sake does not lead to happiness.
can have moral significance.
2
6/19/2020
• Experience shows that the desire for a life filled with

intense pleasure will be frustrated because there is
The Active and Passive Pleasures
inadequacy of them in the normal course of events.
• The active or positive pleasure comes from the
gratification of specific wants or desires and the passive
• Furthermore, the pleasures derived from goals like fame,
or negative pleasures comes from the absence of pain.
wealth, and the like, are usually outweighed by the pains
necessary to produce them; and the pain that results from • While Aristippus sets the goal of life as the constant
such activities like drinking, merry-making, either cancels seeking of active or positive pleasure, Epicurus maintains
the pleasure or leaves a balance of pain. that the active pleasure are important insofar as they
terminate the pain of unfulfilled desires.
• Hence the most intense physical or sensual pleasure is
self-defeating. • For Epicurus, the passive pleasures are more
fundamental than the active, since it is through them that
happiness is gained.
• A person’s ultimate goal is not a constant succession of • Epicurus categorizes our desires.
intense sensual pleasures, but rather the state of serenity
or ataraxia which characterizes freedom from trouble in • He says: One must reckon that of desires some are
the mind and pain in the body. natural, some groundless; and of the natural desires
some are necessary and some merely natural; and of the
• Epicurus assures that the calm and repose of the good necessary, some are necessary for happiness and some
life are within the reach of all. That everyone is capable of for freeing the body from troubles and some for itself
attaining a life of serenity
• Desires • It is necessary to keep our desires at a minimum and

• - artificial - e.g. fame, material luxury, power distinguish the natural and necessary desires like health
• - natural
and tranquility from those that are artificial like wealth,
excitement and fame.
• - unnecessary - e.g. delicious food
• - necessary - • The artificial are not just unnecessary, they are sometimes
• for happiness - e.g. wisdom & friendship destructive of the natural and necessary desires.
• for comfort - e.g. adequate clothing
• The satisfaction of the necessary desires, i.e., those that
• for life - e.g. water & food preserve bodily health and mental peace, and the
freedom from pain that accompanies such satisfaction
lead to happiness.
3
6/19/2020
Knowledge and the Pursuit of the Right • In order to understand how we should live in order to
Pleasure enjoy the most pleasant and serene existence, we must
know the nature of the various desires and the different
• Our good can be realized through philosophy, the quest
pleasures which come from their satisfaction.
for knowledge, that is practical knowledge.
• Reflection on the desires will lead us to the view that
• Hence, philosophy must have some practical application,
otherwise it is useless. frugality and simplicity are the true roads to happiness.
• By nature men seek pleasure, but it is knowledge that will • Mere sensual enjoyment leads ultimately to unhappiness,
guide them to the choice of the right pleasures. just as a good digestion keeps the body well,
philosophical contemplation keeps the mind at peace.
• Without deliberation, it is impossible to hinder needless
and artificial desires or to secure the right pleasures
needed to attain happiness.
• Prudence • The prudent person is:
• The overall virtue then that must be cultivated is

• the one who truly knows that the truly good things are
easy to obtain and that evils are either short-lived or
prudence; it is the most valuable of all moral attributes
slight.
and the source of all virtues by which we able to live
• knows that he himself and not destiny controls the
happily.
factors that will bring him happiness
• has the power to turn chance occurrence into good
account
• chooses wise decision rather than the fortunate
outcome
• Aside from prudence the following characterize the life of

a happy person: self-sufficiency, sober reasoning, honor,
justice, wisdom, health of the body peace of mind and
plain food.
• The Epicureans although lived a very virtuous life.But they

did not consider moral virtue as a matter of excellence or
something that needs to be pursued for its own sake.
• Virtue is a means towards individual pleasure.
• Epicurus says: One must honor the noble, and the virtues
and things like that, if they produce pleasure. But if they
do not, one must bid them goodbye.
4
6/19/2020
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy St. Augustine’s Ethics
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Introduction  St. Augustine argues that religious faith and

philosophical understanding are
 St. Augustine, the Bishop of Hippo and one of
the early Fathers of the Church, followed the
complementary rather than opposed and that
idealist tradition set by Plato and was also one must "believe in order to understand and
influenced by the writings of the apostle St. Paul. understand in order to believe.“
 His philosophy is a combination of the Pauline  He considers the soul as having a higher form
theology and Platonic idealism. of existence than the body and teaches that
 In his writings we find an eloquent expression of knowledge consists in the contemplation of
the process of reconciling the Greek emphasis Platonic ideas that have been purified of both
on reason with the emphasis on religious
emotion in the teachings of Christ and the sensation and imagery.
apostles.
 He combines the Neo-Platonic notion of the  He asserts that real happiness is impossible in
One with the Christian concept of a personal the world of the living, where even with good
God who created the world and predestined fortune awareness of approaching death
its course. would mar any tendency toward satisfaction.
 He explains the doctrine of the fall of
 He believes that without the religious virtues
humanity, requiring the divine incarnation in
of faith, hope, and charity, which require
Christ and provides a rational solutions to
divine grace to be attained, a person cannot
the problems of free will and predestination,
develop the natural virtues of courage, justice,
the existence of evil in a world created by a
temperance, and wisdom.
perfect and all-powerful God,
1
6/19/2020
Ethical Principle  Second, the creative works of the Truth,

where he explains actions of God like
 The main focus is the Divine Truth or God. creation and the principles which governs
 St. Augustine’s philosophy may be divided into God’s creative works;
three main parts:  Third, the possession of the truth, where he
explains how the creatures, particularly, man
 First, the description of the existence and can find his way back to the Divine Truth or
nature of the Truth, where he defends the God through stages of detachments and
existence of God from criticisms and explains purifications. This contains his ethical or
his existence and his nature and attributes; moral thoughts.
 The possession of Truth is the source of  As a creature of God, there is a natural urge
happiness and the rule of morality for man. or drive within us to return to the source of
The possession of Truth is based on the our being.
principle of return.  Although we achieve a certain degree of
 Our love is a direct participation in the happiness in the physical things for they are
subsisting Goodness in such a manner that it reflections of God’s goodness, we cannot
is God whom we love in creatures as His conceive of true happiness without the
reflections. All physical things are reflections permanence which only God assures.
of God’s goodness hence it is God whom we  It is impossible to attain true happiness here
ultimately love as we love them. in this world for it can only provide us with
things that are temporary and fleeting.
The Ultimate End of Man  The movement of love can find repose only
in God: "our heart is restless until it rest in
 God is the supreme object and natural goal Thee.”
of our activity, the ultimate resting place of  All men desire happiness and peace and
our love. everything is directed towards this goal.
 Since our desire for happiness is the love of
God, no created good can capture our heart
except by presenting a reflection of the
absolute Good and portraying the
countenance of God.
2
6/19/2020
The Two Loves: Two Cities  The earthly city is built up by the love of self
to contempt of God, and the heavenly is built
 The material man desires only a material up by the love of God to the contempt of
happiness and a temporal peace; the spiritual self.
man on the other hand the man who loves  “In the city of the world both the rulers
God, seeks a spiritual happiness and an themselves and the people they dominate
eternal peace. are dominated by the lust for domination;
 These two loves produce two types of whereas in the City of God all citizens
human beings and two types of states. serve one another in charity, whether they
serve by the responsibilities of office or by
the duties of obedience.”
 The two cities based on the two loves of man  The heavenly city uses also the earthly peace
cannot be separated. The good and the bad in the course of its earthly pilgrimage.
citizens are mixed.
 It cherishes and desires without
 The real purpose of the citizens should be to
compromising its faith and devotion, the
attain harmonious living with each other and
peace among them. orderly coherence of men’s concerns about
their mortal nature.
 The earthly dwelling is temporal and is a
shadow of a higher dwelling. The earthly  Earthly peace is important in the attainment
(society) must follow the ideal heavenly state, of heavenly peace.
that it must live in concord and peace of
righteous men in union among themselves
under God and in God’s presence.
The Human Person as a Wanderer and his

 The end of the intellect is the possession of
Ultimate End the immutable Truth while the end of the will
is the union with the immutable Good.
 Man, is an intermediate creature between
 The Truth and the Good are united into one
brutes and angels – a rational animal with a
in the Being of God.
body and soul, guided and ordered by the
loving Providence of a personal God.  The union and the possession of God is the
ultimate destiny of man.
 Man has two characteristics faculties: the
intellect and the will.
3
6/19/2020
 But man because he is also physical exists and  It is the divine in man that directs him
lives in the space-time continuum. towards his ultimate end and destiny which is
 He is also a man of this world and true to his heavenly happiness. The divine image is the
material nature he also loves or desires the compass of human life.
objects in this world.  However, when it was shattered by sin, man
 But although man is in the world, because he became lost and disoriented.
has a body, he is not of the world because he  He became a stranger to his own nature, a
has a spiritual nature and his soul cannot find stranger to his destiny, a stranger to himself.
fulfillment in the world.
 Man’s spiritual disorientation is likened to a  Man’s excessive love for the world is a love
group of wanderers who wanted to return to that degrades man’s own nature and true
their homeland. destiny.
 Like wanderers, man seeks to return to his  Man cannot ascend to God without being
fatherland or homeland which is the Kingdom detached from creatures or worldly things.
of God. He must abandon all attachments to worldly
 Man’s life is a spiritual journey, but is often happiness.
distracted by the things of this world and he
is continually entrapped in its temporal and
material grandeur.
 Virtue entails an intellectual and moral On Happiness and Virtue

purification through which our intellect and
will are progressively detached from every  Virtue is the perfection of the reasonable life
sensible object. through which one loves that which one
ought by conforming oneself to the order of
 The goal of this detachment and purification creation.
in this life is the future life, where man can  It constitutes our progress towards
have a loving contemplation of God. happiness, for reason tells us to conform all
our activity to the order of creation.
4
6/19/2020
 The virtues are important for they are those The Role of the Will
that temper the worldly desires of man.
Through the virtues man is able to detach
himself from the worldly pleasures.  The will is love, and it is necessary to love in
order to know, and not vice versa.
 The Law as the highest reason is united to
the will of God, determining and  In man, the will is directed by the intellect in
preserving the natural order. its pursuit of its object which good.
 Law and virtue are related so that virtue
governs all our activity in the order which law
obliges us to preserve.
 Since the first love must be God, then all The Good Will and Happy Life
other loves must be subordinated to this first
 The eternal law and the temporal law. are
love.
good (“an unjust law is no law at all”). Both
 Love signifies order, a moral act is an act
guarantee a perfect order - “live perfectly!”
based on love, while sin is an act of hatred,
 Man possesses reason thus has the possibility
for sin is separation.
to not merely to live, but to live with reason
and understanding. Not only do we live, but
we can live well.
 Man can live well when the impulses of the  When the mind or reason has control and
soul [emotions, passions, desires, fears, one possesses the virtue he cannot be made
angers] are guided by reason. slave to inordinate desire.
 If reason rules then the person is wise; if not,  Hence it is only by one’s own will and free
he is a fool. Human wisdom consists in the choice that he can make his mind a slave to
rule of the mind. selfish desires.
 But it is possible, that the mind does not rule.
It is the choice of man whether to follow the
rule of reason or not.
5
6/19/2020
 A good will is a will by which we desire to  A good will allows us to have the virtues of
live upright and honorable lives and to attain prudence, fortitude, temperance and justice;
the highest wisdom. possessing these virtues makes our life happy
 A good will is worth more than wealth or Therefore, it lies in our own will’s power to
honor or physical pleasures. be happy or not.
 It is in the will’s own power to be good or  But it is not enough to will to be happy, but
bad. Thus it is up to us whether we are good one must will it in the right way – one must
or bad. deserve happiness.
6
6/19/2020
Ethics and THOMISTIC ETHICS

Moral Philosophy
JOVE JIM S. AGUAS
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Ppt Presentation by Jove Jim S. Aguas 2
Introduction  For St. Thomas Ethics is concerned about

the end that is worthy for human to
 St. Thomas asserts that all events in the pursue - the moral good which is not
universe occur because of some ends or
purposes toward which these events are something alien to man because it is the
directed. fulfillment of his natural end.
 Everything has its own natural inclinations  Evil on the contrary is a kind of privation
and ends.
or deficiency and as such it prevents man
 Man is different from the rest of nature; he
from achieving fulfillment or attaining his
is the only physical creature or being who is
natural ends.
endowed with reason and therefore he can
consciously and freely choose if and how he
will fulfill a particular end.
Nature of Human Act  “Wherefore those actions alone are

properly called human, of which man is
 Human acts are voluntary, consciously and master. …. those actions are properly called
deliberately willed actions performed human which proceed from a deliberate
because of some ends or purposes. will.”
 The acts of man are unconscious or  “And if any other actions are found in man,
involuntary actions or behaviors of which they can be called actions "of a man," but
man does not exercise any volition. not properly "human" actions, since they
 Only actions done voluntarily, consciously are not proper to man as man.”
and deliberately are properly called
“human.”
1
6/19/2020
 The end is the intention, motive or purpose

The Determinants of Morality of the act.
 There are three factors or determinants of ◦ An objectively good act done for a good end
the morality of a human act. takes a new goodness, while an objectively evil
act done for an evil end takes a new malice or
 the object of the act,
evil.
 the end that the act seeks and
◦ An objectively good act which is done for an
 the circumstances of the act. evil end or intention is entirely evil. An
objectively evil act can never be a good act by
 The object is the human act performed or reason of a good end.
the deed done. It can intrinsic, that is good ◦ An act which is indifferent becomes a good act
in itself or evil in itself or indifferent, that is, if it is done for a good end and evil if done for
neither good nor evil in itself. an evil end.
 The circumstances are conditions which  An indifferent act becomes good or evil by
affect an act. reason of its circumstances.
 1. The person - who did the act; to whom it  A good act may become evil by reason of its
was done. circumstances.
 2. The place - where the act was done or  An objectively evil or good act may become
committed. worse or better by reason of circumstances.
 3. The means or instrument - with what means  An evil act can never be made good by
was the act done. circumstances.
 4. Quantity or quality - what was the extent of  A circumstance which is gravely evil destroys
the act. the entire goodness of an objectively good act.
 5. Manner - in what disposition was the act  A circumstance which is evil but not gravely so
done. does not entirely destroy the goodness of an
 6. Time - when was the act done or objectively good
committed
Law and Conscience as Norms of Conscience

Morality
 There are two parts of the moral act: - Subjective norm of morality
 Subjective part: Freedom of the will and the
- Last judgement of practical reason about
free volitional act. the morality of a particular act
- Also called Synderesis
 Objective part: the conformity of volition to
the supreme norm of morality.
2
6/19/2020
The Law  The morality of an act depends upon its

 an ordinance of reason for the common conformity to the law of conscience and
good, made by him who has the care of the hence to the eternal law; nonconformity
community. brings about moral evil, sin.
 The objective norm of morality  The more regularly moral law is observed,
 The supreme norm is called by Aquinas the the easier such observance becomes; hence,
eternal law; virtue consists in the habitual and conscious
conformity of action to the moral law.
 it resides in God and is the norm of the
order established by God in the creature.  The natural virtues, for Aquinas as for
Aristotle, are four: prudence, temperance,
 The eternal law, in so far as it is manifested
fortitude, and justice.
and recognized by reason, constitutes the
natural law.
The Eternal and Natural Laws  The real good is always in accord with
reason which means that it is always in
 The natural law in morality is the natural conformity to the natural law of morality.
guidelines or precepts that man needs to
 Aquinas shows that by reflecting on what is
discover and follow..
in accord with nature and our natural
 Aquinas claims that human nature is inclination, we can derive certain moral
basically the same from culture to culture principles.
and throughout history, hence the precepts
of the natural law are universal and evident
to reason.
 First there is a natural tendency among all  Third, since man is higher than the brutes,
creatures to preserve their own life. Hence man has an inclination to fully realize his
killing whether another person or one’s self rational and human capacities.
is against the natural law.  Therefore, man has an obligation to pursue
 Second, all animals, man included seek to the true which include the knowledge of
preserve their species and care for their God and to follow all the precepts
offspring. necessary for a harmonious life in society.
 For man this requires not only biological
and emotional nurturing of children but
also educating and helping them achieve
their potentials.
3
6/19/2020
How come some men do agree  The moral law, that is the natural law in
morality is an expression of God’s eternal
with the natural law? law.
 The moral law is not based on the arbitrary
Because some people are blinded either by and voluntary decision of God, but an
passion, bad habits or ignorance. The person expression of the divine reason, which is
who is unaware of the natural law is like a rooted in God’s nature.
color blind person, who has limited capacities  Since God’s nature is not arbitrary, then,
and cannot perceive reality correctly. neither is the moral law.
Four ways in which God’s law is manifested.  Although all nature follow the law blindly, it
is only the rational who can understand and
 In each case, the law is rooted in the reflect upon the moral dimension of the
rational order that God created. eternal law and the rational, or man alone
 First there is the eternal law, the rational can either obey or disobey it.
order that the creator of the universe, God,
established for his creation.
 All his creations are subject to this law. The
physical or natural and spiritual creatures
follow this law.
 Second the natural law, or the law of God  Third is the divine law as given to man
as available to reason that govern human through revelation.
moral behavior.  The divine law goes beyond reason and the
 The natural law guides us in so far as we natural law and guides man in achieving
are natural and social creatures. eternal happiness. In following this law the
 Through this law we are able to form moral natural virtues are surpassed by the
character and develop the natural virtues theological virtues of faith, hope and love.
like temperance, justice, courage and
wisdom.
4
6/19/2020
 Unlike the natural virtues, the theological

virtues can only be attained through the
workings of God’s grace. Happiness is secured through virtue;
it is a good attained by man's own will.
 The fourth kind of law is the human law
instituted by governments. If such law is in
St. Thomas Aquinas
conformity with God’s law then it is
legitimate, hence by obeying a legitimate
law, man also obeys God’s law.
5
6/19/2020
Ppt Presentation by Jove Jim S. Aguas
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy
Jove Jim S. Aguas
DAVID HUME’S ETHICS
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Ppt Presentation by Jove Jim S. Aguas Ppt Presentation by Jove Jim S. Aguas
I. Ethics Based on Epistemology • Hume’s theory of ethics is based on his theory of

knowledge or epistemology which is based on the
• Hume provides a descriptive ethics rather than a senses experience
prescriptive ethics. • He distinguished two types of truths:
• His moral philosophy is a description of moral • based on the relations of ideas - provided by reason
assertions and evaluations; he does not provide a and is necessarily true
sort of standard or norm of moral evaluation. • based on matters of fact - known through experience
• Hume tries to tie up morality with psychology or his and contingently true.
account of the nature the mind. Morality is natural • Example:
to man and based on his natural make-up. • Relation of ideas: “A triangle has three side and three
• Hume acknowledges both the rational and angles.”
passionate natures of man. • Matter of fact: “The sun is shining.”
• The matters of fact of scientific assertions lie in the

• Hume believes that this distinction is applicable to
object, while those of moral assertions are rooted
all types of knowledge including knowledge about
in the in human feelings.
morality.
• The justification of the empirical/scientific
• There is a generic similarity between moral statement is based on the conjunction of two
assertions and scientific or empirical assertions. external and experiential events,
• both deal with matters of fact and like other • That of moral assertion is based on the
factual judgments are only contingently true and conjunction of experienced events one of which is
not necessarily true. an external behavioral event and the other internal
• Moral assertions: “Helping others is good,” mental event; specifically, one is a voluntary action
and the other is a feeling of either approval or
• Scientific assertion: “Water is drinkable.”
disapproval.
1
6/19/2020
II. The Rule of Passions and the Role of

• Reason is used to discover truth or falsehood, it
Reason tells us what is logically necessary and what is
• The role of reason is to provide information to our contradictory.
will, reason cannot compel us to act, it is the
passion that drives man to act, ethically or
• But when it comes to moral issues, one cannot just
unethically.
be concerned with what is true or necessary,
• Hence ethics is related to the human passions. because morality is concerned with what one ought
to do.
• Morality is practical, it influences and regulates our
conduct. The fact that reason in itself does not
provide a spring of action, it cannot be the source of
moral conduct
• The rightness or wrongness of an act cannot be

discerned from the relationship of ideas which is
III. Morality Based on Sentiments
provided by reason. • Sentiments according to Hume are natural and
psychological givens. It is a moral feeling common
• Our sense of wrongness or rightness is not even to everyone.
based on the appreciation of facts, because
wrongness or rightness is not a matter-of-fact • The human community can survive because we
issue, but a matter of sentiments or passion. have some kind of moral feelings that tend to lead
us to work for the good of the community.
• Hence sentiments or passions are the ultimate
source of morality, although reason plays a role in • Morality is therefore more properly felt than judged.
rendering moral decisions
• Moral distinctions are not derived from reason but • The virtue of an action (goodness) or the vice of
rather from sentiment. an action (its wickedness) is not found in such
matters, but only in the sentiments of the observer.
• Hume argues against the position that we discover
Therefore moral good and evil are not discovered
by reason alone.
good and evil through reasoning vice and virtue
are not the object of demonstrative nor causal • Virtue is not the same as reasonableness and vice
reasoning. is not contrary to reason.
• Passions, volitions, and actions can be neither
• Reason discovers relations of ideas. reasonable nor unreasonable.
• Actions can be laudable or blamable. Therefore it
follows that “laudable and blameable are not the
same with reasonable or unreasonable, such
properties are not identical.
2
6/19/2020
IV. The Moral Evaluation of Character • Approval (approbation) is an expression of

Traits: Virtue and Vice pleasure or happiness, and disapproval
• Our moral evaluations of persons and their (disapprobation) is an expression of a pain or
character traits arise from our sentiments. uneasiness.
• The character traits: virtues and vices are those • The moral sentiments are typically calm rather
traits the disinterested contemplation of which than violent, although they can be intensified as a
produces approval and disapproval, respectively, result of our awareness of the moral responses of
in whoever contemplates about the trait. others.
• The approval or disapproval of the traits that are

produced in the disinterested individual as
expression of moral sentiments is an emotion.
• The sentiments of approval or pleasure and • The virtues are based on agreeableness or
disapproval or uneasiness are associated with the approval: they are either immediately agreeable to
passions of love and hatred. the person who has it or to others, or it is useful
(advantageous over the longer term) to its
• When we feel moral approval for another we tend
possessor or to others.
to love or esteem her, and when we approve a trait • Vices are based disagreeableness or disapproval:
of our own we are proud of it. they are either immediately disagreeable or
disadvantageous either to the person who has
• Otherwise we feel the opposite, hatred or them or to others.
aversion.
• These are not definitions of ‘virtue’ and ‘vice’ but
empirical generalizations about their effects on the
moral sentiments.
• A character trait is a psychological disposition

consisting of a tendency to feel a certain sentiment • “Moral sense makes the ultimate distinction
or combination of sentiments, ones that often between vice & virtue; both moral sense and
move their possessor to action. reason play a role in the formation of moral
judgments. The basis of virtue lies in its utility
• We reach a moral judgment by feeling approval or (usefulness), fulfilling two requirements for moral
disapproval upon contemplating the trait in a sentiments: (1) It is useful to ourselves (agreeable)
disinterested way from the common point of view. or (2) to others.”
David Hume
3
6/19/2020
• First, observation of the effects of another person's

VI. The Nature of Sympathy “affection” and its outward expressions in his
• The sentiments of moral approval and disapproval “countenance and conversation” conveys the idea
are caused by the operations of sympathy, a of his feelings/passion into my mind.
psychological mechanism that enables one person
to receive by communication the sentiments of • For example, if we think of the surgical procedure
another. and the instruments laid out for someone’s
• Sympathy in general operates in this sequence: operation (patient), even if that person is unknown
observation – association – impression – sympathy to us, they evoke in us the feeling of fear and pain.
• Through association, the images or impressions of • Because of the resemblance and our contiguity to
the surgical operation is automatically transferred the observed person (patient), the appearance of
to those others that are related to it by his feelings/passion (pain) is associated in our
resemblance, contiguity/proximity, and cause and mind with our impression of ourselves (if we are to
effect. All human beings, regardless of their undergo the same operation) and acquires great
differences, are generally similar in body and in vividness from it.
their possession of parallel feelings/passions. • So great is this acquired vividness that the
appearance of his feelings/passion (pain) in our
• We associate what we observed (images) in the mind that it becomes impression on our part, and
surgical operations and the feelings (pain) of the so we actually experience the patient’s
patient. feeling/passion (his pain).
• When we reflect upon a character or mental

quality knowing its tendency either to the benefit or
• When we come to share in the affections of
enjoyment of strangers or to their harm or
strangers, and feel pleasure because they are uneasiness, we come to feel enjoyment when the
pleased, and when we experience an aesthetic trait is beneficial or agreeable to them, and
enjoyment of a well-designed ship or fertile field uneasiness when the trait is harmful or
that is not our own, that pleasure can only be disagreeable to them. This reaction can only be
caused by sympathy. explained by sympathy.
4
6/19/2020
• Sympathy can take the form of a general VII. The Approval of Natural and Artificial
benevolence for all humanity, a sentiment which is Virtues
a feeling for the happiness of mankind and • Hume divides the virtues into the natural and
resentment for its misery. artificial.
• Such sympathetic benevolence is a natural to • Natural - our approval of them does not depend
humankind, it is a principle that cannot be upon any cultural inventions or jointly-made social
explained by any other principle or motive, it is our rules
moral bedrock.
• Artificial – our approval is dependent both for their
• We need not ask as to why we have this existence as character traits and for their ethical
“humanity or fellow-feeling with others,” it is merit on the presence of conventional rules for the
sufficient that this is experienced to be a principle common good.
of human nature.
• The natural virtues are more refined and • The natural virtues:
completed forms of those human sentiments we • greatness of mind – Pride, Modesty, Good
could expect to find even in people who belonged Sense, Wit, Humor, Articulateness (“a hearty
to no society but cooperated only within small pride, or self-esteem, if well-concealed and well-
familial groups. founded,”
• The artificial virtues are the ones we need for • goodness or benevolence (an umbrella category
successful impersonal cooperation; our natural covering generosity, gratitude, friendship, and
sentiments are too partial to give rise to these more),
without intervention. • natural abilities like prudence,Compassion
• They produce pleasure and approbation by means Temperance Fidelity Charity Beneficence
of an artifice or contrivance, which arises from the Clemency Cleanliness Decorum Temperance
circumstances and necessities of mankind. Frugality Perseverance Patience
• The artificial virtues: • Moral sentiment is where moral decision-making is

• honesty with respect to property (which he often grounded.
calls equity or “justice”
• Sympathy is the capacity to be moved or affected
• fidelity to promises (sometimes also listed under
“justice”) by the happiness & suffering of others-to be
• allegiance to one's government, conformity to pleased when others prosper and distressed when
the laws of nations (for princes) others suffer.
• chastity (refraining from non-marital sex) • Sympathy is not a virtue but the source of moral
• modesty (both primarily for women and girls) approval. When we ascribe moral praise or blame,
• good manners the praise or blame derives from an attitude of
• material honesty sympathy.
• faithfulness to promises and contracts.
• Sympathy, if not universal, is a feature for any
• Artificial virtues may vary from society to society. normal human being.
5
6/19/2020
Ppt Presentation by Jove Jim S. Aguas
On Benevolence:
“Nothing can bestow more merit on any human

creature than the sentiment of benevolence in an
eminent degree; and that a part, at least, of its merit
arises from its tendency to promote the interests of
our species, and bestow happiness on human
society” (2.2.14).
David Hume
6
6/19/2020
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy JOHN STUART MILL’S
UTILITARIANISM
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Introduction • Jeremy Bentham followed the hedonist

• Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill principle, pleasure is the only source of value.
proposed the utilitarian principle in ethics. He wrote: “Nature has placed mankind under
the governance of two sovereign masters,
• Utilitarianism claims that humans are naturally pain and pleasure.
governed by pain and pleasure. These alone • This fundamental principle expresses both
determine ‘all we do’, say and think. And psychological hedonism and ethical
these alone indicate ‘what we ought to do, hedonism.
... the standard of right and wrong’. The idea
at the heart of utilitarianism is that actions
and institutions should increase the overall
amount of happiness in the world
• Since pleasure and pain are the standards of

• Psychological hedonism is a claim that the
morality then actions are evaluated in terms
causes of human behavior are pain and
of their consequences, particularly their
pleasure, they determine what we shall do.
‘utility.’
• Ethical hedonism is the claim that the moral • The term utility has two related meanings: first
rightness and wrongness of an action is a it refers to usefulness, that is, how well
function of the amount of pleasure or pain it something performs its specific function;
produces. second meaning refers to pleasure-producing
• or pain-avoiding.
1
6/19/2020
A Refined Utilitarianism
• John Stuart Mill accepted but refined some
of the basic concepts of Bentham’s • While Bentham maintains a quantitative
utilitarianism. hedonism, Mill adds a qualitative hedonism
wherein pleasures differ not only in quantity
• Like Bentham he also points out that people but also in quality.
always pursue happiness or pleasure. • The pleasures which are the products of our
Happiness is the experience of pleasure and intellectual and more refined capacities are
absence of pain, and is the only thing higher and better that the physical
desirable in itself. pleasures.
• Hence the criterion of morality is the sum
total of happiness or the greatest good of
the greatest number.
• Like Epicurus, Mill believes that intellectual • Human beings are more than pleasure-
pleasures are superior to the pleasures of the seeking beings, in seeking pleasure, they
body, and only those who are capable of also seek to develop their higher faculties to
experiencing the life of the intellect can become well-developed human beings.
make this assessment.
• Man is a being capable of pursuing spiritual
• The higher yet elusive pleasure of the
perfection as an end; of desiring, for its own
intellect is superior than the easily attainable
sake, the conformity of his own character to
and plentiful pleasures of the body.
his standard of excellence.
• If there is a difference in opinion it is better
to resolve the difference by someone who
understands both.
• Bentham advances egoistic hedonism. • Mill on the other hand emphasizes strongly
While Bentham recognizes that we the idea that we have a natural social
sometimes experience personal pleasure feeling for humanity and the desire for unity
from making others happy, what he calls with our fellow creatures very much similar to
‘pleasure of benevolence,’ he thinks that the idea of Hume.
the most universal motive for action is
always the individual’s self-interest. • Based on utilitarian calculation, one’s
happiness cannot be given more weight
• We promote other’s interest because in the than the happiness of others. He argues that
long run it will also promote our self-interest. ‘each person’s happiness is a good to that
person and the general happiness is a good
to the aggregate of all persons.
2
6/19/2020
• For Mill the happiness of all people should be • The lack of altruistic feelings and
pursued equally. Hence his utilitarianism is ignorance of the higher or more refined
sometimes referred to as altruistic pleasures are not really qualities of human
utilitarianism.
nature, they are rather due to poor
• Happiness which forms the utilitarian education and harsh condition.
standard of right conduct is not the agent’s • Hence he advanced the cause of social
own happiness but that of all concerned. reform through wider representation of
• The possibility of altruism is based on our people in the government, including
capacity to promote the welfare of others. women.
• He also advocated a universal education

aimed at producing well-rounded
individuals.
• Selfishness and lack of mental cultivation
are the chief causes of unhappiness
which can be cured by proper education.
3
6/19/2020
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy
IMMANUEL KANT’S
Jove Jim S. Aguas ETHICS
Jove Jim S. Aguas
• Immanuel Kant is German philosopher during Ethics Based on Duty

the 18th century. He is one of the most important
• Kant’s moral theory emphasizes duties, motives, the
and influential philosophers of the modern period
particularly the Age of Enlightenment. dignity and worth of persons and a moral law that is
absolute and unchanging; these are certain
• He is known for his great works especially the
elements that are based on his Christian roots.
•
three “Critiques” – Critique of Pure Reason,
• However, in his discussion of the moral law,
Critique of Practical Reason and Critique of
because of his empiricist stance there was no
Judgement.
mention about God in the religious sense and his
commands.
• Kant insists that the principles of morality cannot Aims and Method of Moral Philosophy
be derived from empirical facts about human
practices. • The most basic aim of moral philosophy is to
“seek out” the foundational principle of a
• If moral principles are not derived from
metaphysics of morals. He proceeds by analyzing
experience, then the mind must bring its own
and elucidating commonsense ideas about
rational principles to experience.
morality.
• For Kant acting morally can be reduced to acting • Kant’s purpose is to come up with a precise
rationally and acting immorally is the result of statement of the principle or principles on which
acting irrationally. all of our ordinary moral judgments are based.
1
6/19/2020
• The second fundamental aim is to “establish” this • Moral philosophy also addresses the question,
foundational moral principle as a demand of each What ought I to do? - Duty
person's own rational will.
• However, the answer to that question requires
• This is based on Kant’s belief that as creatures much more than delivering the fundamental
with rational will, we possess autonomy – we principle of morality.
make free decisions and choices.
• We need to know based on this principle, the
nature and extent of our various ethical
obligations.
• Moral philosophy should also explain the demands The Good Will
that morality makes on human psychology and
forms of human social interaction. • The only thing that is good without qualification is
a ‘good will’. “Nothing in the world can possibly
• Finally, moral philosophy should say something be conceived which could be called good without
about the ultimate end of human endeavor, the qualification except a good will.”
Highest Good, and its relationship to the moral life.
• While the phrases ‘he's good hearted’, ‘she's
• Kant argues that this Highest Good for Humanity is good natured’ and ‘she means well’ are common,
complete moral virtue together with complete ‘the good will’ as Kant thinks of it is not the same
happiness, as any of these ordinary notions.
• The idea of a good will is closer to the idea of a • However, although these things are good, they are
‘good person’, or, more archaically, a ‘person of not good without qualification; without a good will,
good will’ these positive qualities could be misused for evil
ends.
• There are three categories of good.
• Intelligence -
• 1) mental abilities, like intelligence, wit and
• Courage
judgment;
• Power
• 2) qualities of temperament, like courage,
perseverance and resoluteness and
• 3) gifts of fortune, like honor, power, riches.
2
6/19/2020
• The basic idea is that what makes a good person • The value of all other desirable qualities, such as
good is his possession of a will that is in a certain courage or intelligence, can be diminished or
way ‘determined’ by, or makes its decisions on the sacrificed under certain circumstances.
basis of the moral law.
• Possessing and maintaining one's moral goodness
• The idea of a good will is supposed to be the idea of is the very condition under which anything else is
one who only makes decisions that she holds to be worth having or pursuing.
morally worthy, taking moral considerations in
themselves to be conclusive reasons for guiding her
behavior.
• The value of a good will then, cannot be based on Duty, Law and Rationality
certain valuable ends, since the value of these
particular ends is in fact entirely conditioned by • The decisions of a good will are wholly determined
possessing and maintaining a good will. by moral demands or the demands of the Moral
Law.
• A good will must then also be good in itself and not • The Moral Law is decisive, is motivated by the
in virtue of its relationship to other things such as thought of duty. A morally good will moves or acts
the agent's own happiness or overall welfare. on the basis of a moral duty.
• It is concerned to do what is right from the sole

motive that it is the morally right action to perform.
• Acting in accordance with duty and acting from duty.

• The decisions of a good will are wholly determined
by moral demands or the demands of the Moral • If one avoids cheating because he wants to project
Law. a good image is in fact doing the right thing of not
cheating and he may be doing something in accord
• An action has a genuine moral worth when it is with duty.
done only because of duty and not by any other • But since his ultimate intention is one of self-
inclination. interest, then, his action is not based on duty.
• If his motive is one of conforming to the moral law,
then it proceeds from good will, and therefore his
action has a moral worth.
3
6/19/2020
• What is singular about motivation by duty is that it

consists of bare respect for lawfulness or the law.
• Hence any dutiful action with motives of self-
• Duties are created by rules or laws of some sort.
interest, self-preservation, sympathy and happiness,
But anyone could be motivated by any kind of duty
however praiseworthy, that does not express a good
arising form any kind of law.
will, therefore has no genuine ‘moral worth’.
• There is a difference between being motivated by a
sense of duty in the ordinary sense, and being
motivated by duty in Kant's sense, there is a
difference between ordinary laws and the moral law.
• In the ordinary sense, our duty is also motivated by • Our respect for the laws guiding us is qualified, in
our respect for certain laws, like the laws of nations, the sense that the duty that such laws require us is
a city or a state or an organization. compelling only when such law and duty is not in
conflict with some other laws and duties or for as
• But in these cases, we can rationally ‘opt out’ of our
long as we are members of such organization or
membership in the nation or city, state, or any other social body.
social arrangement and its laws.
• Duty in this sense is conditioned by our membership

to a social group from which we can stay out.
• Eventually, however, we will come to laws that apply

to us not as members of a social body but simply as • When we do something because it is our moral duty
members of the body of rational agents, as beings we are motivated by the thought that, because we
who are capable of guiding their own behavior on are rational beings, we must act only as this
the basis of directives, principles and laws of fundamental law of (practical) reason prescribes, a
rationality. law that would prescribe how any rational being in
• We cannot choose to opt out of this category of our circumstances should act.
such beings.
• Then we have a duty from which we cannot
rationally opt out of.
4
6/19/2020
Categorical and Hypothetical Imperatives • A categorical imperative is different from a

hypothetical imperative.
• The fundamental principle of our moral duties is a
categorical imperative. • There are ‘oughts’ other than our moral duties, but
• It is an imperative because it is a command, it these oughts are distinguished from the moral ought
commands us to exercise our will in a particular because they are based on a different principle: the
way, it commands us to perform or not some hypothetical imperatives.
actions.
• It is categorical because is applies to us
unconditionally, or simply because we possess
rational will, without reference to any ends. It does
not apply to us on the condition that we have
antecedently adopted some goal for ourselves.
• A hypothetical imperative is a command that also • The categorical imperative tells us what we
applies to us because of our rational will, but, not ought, should or must do, and what we ought to
merely because of our rational will. do does not depend on any prior conditions or
subjective wishes or wants; it contains no
• It requires us to exercise our rational will in a certain qualifications.
way because we have some antecedent ends. A • It tells us what we ought to do at all times, under
hypothetical imperative is thus a command in a all conditions.
conditional form.
• The categorical imperative although is just one
principle of morality, can have different
formulations which emphasize different aspects
of morality.
• First: “Act only according to the maxim by which

you can at the same time will that it should become • Second: Act so that you treat humanity, whether in
a universal law.” your own person or in that of another, always as an
end and never as a means only.
• Principle of Universalizability
• The categorical imperative asks whether the • Respect for human dignity.
maxim of our action could become one that
everyone could act upon in similar circumstances.
• This formulation means that each person has
Our action must be based on a maxim that applies
intrinsic worth and dignity and therefore we should
to everyone.
not treat humans as object.
• Hence, it is always wrong to act in one way while
wishing that everyone else would act otherwise.
5
6/19/2020
• Third: It centers on the idea of the will of every VI. Virtue and Vice
rational being as making universal law.
• Kant defines virtue as “the moral strength of a
• Sometimes referred to as principle autonomy
human being's will in fulfilling his duty” and vice as
principled immorality.
• It stresses that the moral law is not something that
imposes itself on one person from the outside, but
• Kant's account of virtue presupposes an account
rather it is an expression one’s rational nature.
of moral duty already in place. He sets out the
principles of moral conduct based on his
• Hence in morality one wears two hats, first as a
philosophical account of rational agency, and then
moral agent, one is bound by the moral law, and
on that basis defines virtue as the trait of acting
second as a rational person, he is an autonomous
according to these moral principles.
legislator of the moral law.
• Second, virtue is a strength of will, and hence does • Kant holds moral virtue to be a trait grounded in
not arise as the result of instilling a ‘second nature’ moral principle, hence there is sharp distinction
by a process of habituating or training ourselves to between non-moral and moral virtues. While virtue
act and feel in particular ways. is important, it is does not hold a lofty place in
Kant's system.
• Though a disposition, it is a disposition of one's will, • That one acts from duty, even repeatedly and
not a disposition of emotions, feelings, desires or reliably can be compatible with an absence of the
any other feature of human nature. moral strength to overcome contrary interests and
desires.
• In fact, it may often be no challenge at all to do

one's duty from duty alone.
• Someone with a good will, who is genuinely

committed to duty for its own sake, might simply fail
to encounter any significant temptation that would
reveal the lack of strength to follow through with that
commitment.
6
6/19/2020
Ethics and
Moral Philosophy
Jove Jim S. Aguas
Jove Jim S. Aguas
 John Rawls is a contemporary American moral  He hoped to offer a workable method for solving
and political philosopher in the liberal tradition. problems of social morality.
 His theory is based on a thought experiment on

 He proposed a theory of justice that tries to use
how people will conceptualize a just society.
the strengths of consequential and
nonconsequential ethics.
 His theory attempts to maximize the lot of those
minimally advantaged, hence it is called the
 His theory is within the domain of distributive maximin principle.
justice – what is the ethically correct way to
distribute benefits and burdens in society
Powerpoint presentation by Jove Jim S. Aguas 3 Powerpoint presentation by Jove Jim S. Aguas 4
 The ideal or the most fundamental idea of the

theory is a society with a fair system of co-
operation among free and equal citizens.
 Justice as fairness tries to formulate principles
 Rawls claims that this ideal, with its component of justice whose realization in social institutions
ideals of fairness, freedom and equality, is would make a reality of this ideal of a society
implicit in the public political culture of a that is fair to all its citizens, who are free and
democratic society. equal.
 This ideal will be realized through Justice as  Justice as fairness regards citizens as free and
fairness. equal.
Powerpoint presentation by Jove Jim S.

Aguas 1
6/19/2020
They are equal in that each has ‘the two moral

powers’:
 a capacity for a sense of justice, that is, a Theory of Justice as fairness is a

capacity to understand, apply and act from hypothetical, not real, moment – but still
principles of justice; a doable thought experiment
 and a capacity for a conception of the good,
that is, a capacity to form, revise and rationally
pursue a conception of what is valuable in life.
The “Original Position”

 Rawls claims that in the original position,
 Imagine a “natural state,” (similar to Locke), a people share certain characteristics.
hypothetical state of nature in which all persons
 They are mutually self-interested; rational, that
are ignorant of their talents and socioeconomic
conditions – this the “original position.” is, they more or less accurately know their
interests; and similar in their needs, interests,
and capacities.
 A moment when people know nothing about

their future – people behind the veil of
ignorance.
 No class or social status and they will formulate

their own rules that would be fair
 The principles of justice and the institutions

they imply characterize an ideally just, but
practicable, society - a ‘realistic utopia’.

Aguas 2
6/19/2020
 In the “original position” Rawls assume they

 The Difference Principle
would formulate a fundamental principle that
would ensure justice for all: Social and economic inequalities are to be
arranged so that they are both (a)
reasonably expected to be to everyone’s
 The Liberty Principle
advantage, and (b) attached to positions and
Each person is to have an equal right to the offices open to all.
most extensive scheme of equal basic
liberties compatible with a similar scheme
of liberties for others.
 The basic liberties for all citizens:
The Liberty Principle  Political liberty (right to vote and be eligible

for public office).
 people in the original position would expect  Freedom of speech and assembly.
each person participating in a practice or  Liberty of conscience and freedom of thought.
affected by it to have an equal right to the
 Freedom regarding your own person.
greatest amount of liberty that is compatible
with a like liberty for all.  Right to hold personal property.
 Freedom from arbitrary arrest and seizure as
these are understood under the rule of law.
 Equality does not mean all are the same. For

 So, “equitable administration,” means that the
Rawls it means the impartial and equitable distribution must be fair and just to begin with.
administration and application of rules that
define a practice.
 The equal liberty principle decrees that
everybody be judged by these criteria.
 The equal liberty principle expresses the
concept of impartial equality which means the
spirit of disinterestedness that should  But the equal liberty principle expresses the
characterize the distribution of goods and evils, idea of equality in another and more important
to the fact that no person should receive way.
preferred consideration.

Aguas 3
6/19/2020
The Difference Principle

 An intrinsic part of all regulations is that they
infringe on personal liberty.  people in the original position would allow
inequality only insofar as it serves each
 In his equal liberty principle, Rawls recognizes person’s advantage and arises under conditions
this inherent characteristic of all laws and other of equal opportunity.
practices: By nature they encroach on the equal
liberty of those subject to them.  Person means not only individuals but also
 To address this, Rawls proposes the second
collective agencies. And practice means any
principle: the difference principle. form of activity that a system of rules specifies,
such as offices, roles, fights, and duties.
 Rawls’s difference principle defines what kinds

 In the application of laws there will always be of inequalities are permissible. It specifies
some inequality. Crucial to any theory of social under what conditions the equal liberty
justice is the determination of when inequality is principle may be violated.
permissible.
 For Rawls, equality is not contingent. It does not
 After all, a just society is not one in which all are
depend on something else, such as on the
equal, but one in which inequalities are greatest happiness for the most people, for its
justifiable. To address this problem Rawls justification.
offered his difference principle.
 For Rawls, equality is fundamental and self- • Holding positions of authority and offices of
justifying. But this does not mean that equality command is open to all
can never be violated.
– No hereditary positions.
 It means that inequality is permissible only if in – No exclusions based on gender, race, etc.
all likelihood the practice involving the – No “tests” based on wealth or property.
inequality works to the advantage of every
individual affected or to the advantage of the
least well-off.

Aguas 4
6/19/2020
 Who are the “least advantaged”?

• Arranging social and economic inequities so
that everyone benefits.
 Those with lowest expectations for/access to
• Rawls arranges inequalities so that ideally “primary goods” these are “what free and
they benefit all affected or at least those most equal persons need as citizens.”
in need or least advantaged.  Those who lack access these goods are
“least advantaged.”
 Rawls specifies five kinds of such goods:

 Basic rights and liberties (freedom of thought,
liberty of conscience)
 Freedom of movement, free choice of
 Reciprocity is the principle that requires that a
occupation practice be such that all members who fall
 Powers and prerogatives of offices & positions under it could and would accept it and be
of responsibility; bound by it.
 Income and wealth
 Social bases for self-respect – “aspects of
basic institutions normally essential if citizens
are to have a lively sense of their worth as
persons & advance their ends with self-
confidence”
 It requires the possibility for mutual

acknowledgment of principles by free people,
having no authority over one another; this
makes the idea of reciprocity fundamental to Thank you for listening!
justice and fairness.
 Without this acknowledgment there can be no

basis for a true community.

Aguas 5

Ethics Compilation Complete

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ethics Compilation Complete

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

6/19/2020

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 2

Man: Rational and Free Agent

• The good, could either be a real and objective

• Objective value is independent of the

The Role of Human Experience

1. Today most people value their freedom but

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 17

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 2

Philosophy and Ethics • Areas or branches of philosophy include the

Ethics and Morality

• Morality refers only to human acts, that is,

• There are acts that are ethically neutral which

• Manners or etiquette on the other hand is

3. Values are part of the “furniture” of the

Customary/Traditional and Reflective

• Morality may be applied to four areas: 3. Individuality. Morality determined by

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 23

Jove Jim S. Aguas

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 2

Religion and Ethics

Ethics and Law

Levels and Stages Moral

Level III - Post-conventional Morality

Level II - Conventional Morality 5. Social-contract Actions are guided by

1. Today most people tend to be more legalistic

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 11

Jove Jim S. Aguas

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 2

Types of Ethics Types of Ethics

NORMATIVE ETHICS • It attempts to determine what moral

• It is a reasoned search for principles of • It tries to defend a system of basic ethical

2. Applied Normative Ethics • It uses the general ethical principles in an

NON-NORMATIVE ETHICS • Anthropologist and sociologist investigate

2. Meta-ethics • It is concerned with the meaning of such

Three Meta-ethical positions: Three Kinds of Naturalism

2. Non-naturalism - ethical statement cannot

3. Emotivism or Non-cognitivism - claims Discussion Questions

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 2

1. Hedonism - the rightness of an action 2. Epicureanism - right action promotes

Egoism may prefer unpleasant and painful

4. Classic Utilitarianism - the rightness of an

Rule utilitarianism ignores what appear to be 5. Instrumentalism or Pragmatism - an action

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 17

Morality is ultimately based on the commands

2. Natural Law Theory - moral standards exist

4. Social Contract Theory - rightness is a

In some way, the agreement of all

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 15

Moral Philosophy The moral rightness or wrongness of action varies

Conventional Ethical Relativism

Ethical Egoism Each person ought to pursue his own self-

The consequences of actions are not always

1. In determining the moral or ethical value or

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 13

Jove Jim S. Aguas

Ppt Presentation of Jove Jim S. Aguas 2

The Christian Ethics

• Faith - belief in God, and in the truth of His Discussion Questions

Introduction  Hinduism - the merging of two ancient cultures, the

 The ultimate goal of life is to attain Nirvana. Nirvana and Moksha

The Dharma  The universal dharma emphasizes the goal of

Jove Jim S. Aguas