Lec-10, Ch-5, Pavement Evaluation-4 Roughness & Skid

Pavement Management System
By:
Bishnu Prasad Devkota
Course Contents
1. Introduction to Pavement Management (2hrs)
2. Pavement Management Methods (2hrs)
3. Management Information & Data Management (2hrs)
4. Pavement Defects in Flexible & Rigid Pavement (4hrs)
5. Pavement Evaluation (12hrs)
6. Pavement Condition Prediction Models (3hrs)
7. Defects and Remedy Measures (2hrs)
8. Treatment Selection (2hrs)
9. Importance of Maintenance (2hrs)
10. Financing of Roads for Maintenance(2hrs)
11. Prioritization(2hrs)
12. Road Investment Model (The HDM-IV) (2hrs)
13. Airport Pavement Management System(2hrs)
14. Network-Level PMS - M&R Work Planning(2hrs)
15. Project-Level Management (2hrs)
16. Ride Quality and Safety and Case Studies(2hrs)
2 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016
Lecture-5
Ch-5, Pavement Evaluation
Measurement & Analysis of Roughness and
Skid Data
By: Bishnu Prasad

Devkota
Lecture Outlines
 Longitudinal Profile: Roughness

– Introduction
– Factors contributing
– Methods of measurement
 Measurement of Friction: Skid
– Introduction
– Factors contributing
– Methods of measurement
– M&R Techniques to improve skid resistance
Roughness Measurement &
Analysis
Introduction: Concept
 Pavement roughness consists of random multi-

frequency waves of many wavelengths and
amplitudes.

Introduction: Concept
 The roughness of a road surface is an

important measure of road condition when
related to the type of pavement construction,
and it is a key factor in determining Vehicle
Operating Cost (VOC).
 Roughness
– Increases the wear on vehicle parts and Rolling
resistance
– Appreciable impact on VOC, Safety, Comfort and
7 Speed of travel.
By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016
Roughness: Definition
 Longitudinal roughness has been defined as

"the longitudinal deviations of a pavement
surface from a true planar surface with
characteristic dimensions that affect vehicle
dynamics, ride quality and dynamic pavement
load" (Janoff et al. 1975).

Introduction: User’s View
 From an auto driver's  From an aircraft

point of view, rough pilot's viewpoint,
roads mean airfield pavement
– discomfort, roughness can cause
– decreased speed, – discomfort,
– Potential vehicle – vibration of the
damage, and instrument panel, and
– increased operating – Potential danger both
cost. to the aircraft and its
passengers.
Introduction: Need
 Roughness is an important indicator of

pavement riding comfort and safety.
 All pavements have irregularities built into the
surface during construction, so even a new
pavement that has not been opened to traffic
can exhibit roughness
 Therefore, roughness is a condition indicator
that should be carefully considered when
evaluating primary pavements.
Introduction: Use of Roughness
 At the network level,

– for dividing the network into uniform sections,
– establishing value limits for acceptable pavement
condition, and
– setting maintenance and rehabilitation priorities.
 At the project level,
– to locate areas of critical roughness and
 by examining a plot of the roughness index against distance
– to maintain construction quality control.
 attained by specifying acceptable roughness limits.
Introduction: Use of Roughness

– Several agencies combine the roughness condition
index with other pavement condition indices, such
as distress, to formulate a composite index that is
used for various management activities.

Introduction: Limitations of Roughness

– Roughness may not correspond to the best
economic timing for performing major rehabilitation.
 For example, an asphalt pavement that is structurally
deficient and showing low-severity alligator cracking can
still provide a good level of riding comfort.
 At project level,
– Roughness measurement is neither necessary nor
economical for all project analysis.
 For example, when a pavement is to be reconstructed,
roughness measurements are of no value except for record
13 keeping. By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016
Roughness and Texture

Factors Contributing to Roughness
 There are several causes of pavement

roughness:
– Traffic loading,
– Environmental effects,
– Construction materials, and
– Built-in construction irregularities.

 The roughness of a pavement normally

increases with exposure to traffic loading and
the environment.
 Short-wavelength roughness is normally
caused by localized pavement distresses, that
is, depressions and cracking.
 Long-wavelength roughness is normally
caused by environmental processes in
combination with pavement layer properties.
 Poor drainage, swelling soils, freeze-thaw

cycles, and nonuniform consolidation of
subgrade may all contribute to surface
roughness.
 Warping and curling of long concrete slabs will
also cause roughness.

Roughness Measuring Systems
1. Static road profile measuring device

– Simplest method using rod and level
2. Based on output from a road meter installed
in a vehicle
– Response type road roughness measuring system
(RTRRMS).
– Has been very popular in the past due to cost
3. Based pavement surface profile or Profile-
based indices
18 – Is popular now a days due to new technologyMay 26, 2016
 Static road profile measuring device

– The simplest in concept are the static road profile
measuring device such as rod and level, which
measure surface undulations at regular intervals.

 Response type road roughness measuring

system (RTRRMS).
– Response-type indices are vehicle dependent and
are not repeatable even when the same vehicle is
used due to change in the vehicle's characteristics
over time.
– Response-type indices can be made more useful by
calibrating them with a repeatable index; most likely
a profile based one.

 Profile-Roughness Measuring Systems

– Profile-based indices, on the other hand, are
repeatable because they are based on
mathematical modeling of the measured profile.
– The use of profile indices has not been very popular
in the past due to the historical cost of profile
measuring devices.

Vehicular Response-Roughness
Measuring Systems:
 System Descriptions: These systems consist of

1. A vehicle (or trailer),
2. The driver and the contents of the vehicle, and
3. A device called the road meter, which measures
vehicle response to roughness.
 The road meters are mounted
– either on the body of a passenger car above the center of the
rear axle, or
– On the frame of a single-wheel trailer.

Vehicular Response-Roughness
Measuring Systems or RTRRMS :
 System Descriptions
– Most road meters measure the relative movement of
 the axle with respect to the vehicle body or
 the vertical acceleration of the vehicle body or axle.
– Measurements reported are normally in units of
 inches per mile or
 meters per kilometer
which is the cumulative movement of the suspension
between the axle and the body divided by the traveled
distance.
– These systems are also referred to as RTRRMS,
23 By: 1986;
(Sayers, Gillespie, and Paterson B. P. Sayers
Devkotaand Gillespie 1986; Sayers, Gillespie, and May
Queiroz
26,1986
2016
RTRRMS
 The some of the instruments in use are

– Profilographs
– Straightedge
 The instruments that are in use by DoR

– MERLIN Roughness Machine
– The Vehicle Mounted Bump Integrator (BI)

RTRRMS
 Profilographs
– A profilograph is primarily used for construction
acceptance purposes.
– A profilograph consists of a rigid beam or frame with
a system of support wheels at either end, and a
center wheel (NHI2001).
– The support wheels at the ends establish a datum
from which the deviations of the center wheel can
be evaluated.

RTRRMS
 Profilographs
– The center wheel is linked to a strip chart recorder
or a computer that records the movement of the
center wheel from the established datum.
– The profilograph is pushed along the pavement, and
3 to 5 km (2 to 3 miles) can be measured in an hour.
– Figure 5-21 is a photograph of a truss type
California profilograph.

Video of Profilograph
RTRRMS
 Straightedge
– The straightedge is used primarily for construction
acceptance purposes.
– Typical smoothness specifications indicate a
maximum deviation of 3 mm (1 /8 in.) for a 3 m (10
ft) straightedge.
– Figure 5-22 shows a schematic diagram of a rolling
straightedge.

RTRRMS

RTRRMS
 The MERLIN
Roughness
Machine
– It is a machine for
evaluating
roughness using
low cost instrument
as shown in figure-
a. (Source: DoR,
1995)
RTRRMS
 The MERLIN Roughness Machine

– The device is designed by the TRL, UK, and can be
used either for direct measurement or for calibrating
non-standard response type instruments such as
the Vehicle Mounted Bump Integrator (VMBI)
– It can be locally manufactured, is relatively cheap to
produce and is wheeled along the road to measure
surface undulations at regular intervals.

RTRRMS
 Vehicle Mounted Bump Integrator (VMBI)

– Consists of essentislly three components
 A vehicle
 A Bump Integrator (BI) unit and
 A display counter
– BI is fixed to the rear floor of the vehicle and is
connected to the differential by means of a special
cable and attached hook
– The measurement obtained represents the
response of the vehicle to the road surface and is
32 recorded on the display counter (in meter or inch)
RTRRMS

RTRRMS

– The factors affecting for the measurement are:
 The function of the instrument
 The operating procedure
 The vehicle itself
 Other variables including weight, tyre balance, shock
absorbers, tyre pressure etc.
– Thus, the instrument has to be calibrated to a
standard reference to ensure that the results
obtained are consistent with the standardized
values.
RTRRMS

– Mechanical properties, vehicle weight and tyre
pressure of the vehicle must be kept constant
throughout the measurement.
– As the Department of Roads has been using the
non-standard VMBI, the MERLIN is used for
calibrating it.
– Regression analysis is used to establish the
relationship between MERLIN results and VMBI
results.
RTRRMS
– Test section for calibrating roughness by DoR, 1994/94

– Field data
recorded on
a standard
sheet, which
is used to
calaulate IRI-
value.

Profile-Roughness Measuring
Systems
 A profile-roughness measuring system involves

– measuring the profile,
– filtering the profile
 to include only those waves of interest, and
– mathematically computing a roughness index
 by modeling the response of a standard vehicle or by
evaluating the amplitude properties of selected wave
bands.

Profile-Roughness Measuring
Systems
 Profile Filtering
– A profile consists of different wavelengths, varying
from a few inches to hundreds of feet.
– This can be achieved using a technique called the
"moving average filter," (Sayers and Gillespie 1986).
– This technique smoothes the profile at each point
by averaging the elevation over a selected base
length as shown in Figure 5-1.

Profile-Based Indices
1. International Roughness Index (IRI)

2. Half-Car Roughness Index (HRI)
3. Ride Number (RN)
4. Root Mean Square of Vertical Acceleration
(RMSVA)
5. Waveband Indices
6. Slope variance
7. Acceleration

– In 1982, the International Road Roughness
Experiment (IRRE) was held in Brazil (Sayers,
Gillespie, and Queiroz 1986).
– The purpose of this experiment was to publish
guidelines for measuring roughness on a standard
scale and to develop an international roughness
index (IRI) for exchanging data.


– The IRI is a standard roughness measurement
related to measurements obtained by road meters
installed on vehicles or trailers.
– The model simulates a Quarter-Car System
(QCS), shown in Figure 5- 3, traveling at a
constant speed of 80 km/hr.

Video


– The IRI is computed as the cumulative movement
of the suspension of the QCS divided by the
traveled distance.
– The IRI scale is shown
in Figure 5-4.

 Half-Car Roughness Index (HRI)

– The HRI is the roughness index obtained when the
IRI is calculated for the average of the left and right
wheel path profiles.
– This is different than first calculating the IRI for each
wheel path and then averaging it.
– The HRI was shown to be highly correlated to the
average IRI of both wheel paths (HRI - 0.89 IRI),
(NHI, 2001).
– There is little or no additional information provided
47 by the HRI over By:the IRI.
B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016
 Ride Number (RN)

– The RN was developed (NHI 2001) to agree with
mean panel ratings (MPR) of road roughness using
a scale from 0 to 5 where 5 is a perfect ride.
– This scale was selected to be similar to the present
serviceability index (PSI) that was introduced during
the (AASHTO) road test, (Highway Research Board
1962).
– The RN is a nonlinear transform of a longitudinal
profile statistic called PIC (profile index).
 Root Mean Square of Vertical Acceleration

(RMSVA)
– The RMSVA is the root mean square (RMS) of a
variable called vertical acceleration (VA) associated
with the rate of change of slope.

 Waveband Indices
– Waveband analysis is used to reduce a road profile
to several indices, each quantifying roughness over
a given waveband (range of wavelengths).
– Roughness can be analyzed over short, medium,
and long wavelengths.
(wave number = 1/wavelength = cycles/distance).

 Slope Variance
– The slope variance (SV) is a roughness index based
on the changes in the slope of a pavement profile. It
is described by the following equation:
SV = Σ(Xi – X)2/(n-1)
where
SV = slope variance
X i = ith slope measurement
n = number of slope measurements
X = mean slope measurement

 Acceleration
– Acceleration is another indicator of pavement
roughness.
– An acceleration-versus-distance plot along a
pavement can help to locate areas that cause
extreme acceleration, so they can be smoothed out.
– This technique has been used with increasing
success in measuring airport pavement roughness.
– Several computer programs have been developed
to model the aircraft/runway profile interaction.
Skid Data Collection & Analysis
By:
Bishnu Prasad Devkota
Introduction
 Vehicle control and aircraft landing safety is

highly dependent on pavement surface
characteristics.
 When pavements are dry, the friction
generated between the tires and the pavement
is normally high.
 During inclement weather, water can create a
critical situation by increasing potential for
hydroplaning or skidding
Introduction and Definitions
 Skid resistance is defined as the force that

resists the sliding of tires on a pavement when
the tires are prevented from rotating.
 For pavements, the coefficient of friction is
referred to as the friction factor,
Friction Force
Friction Factor , f 
Normal Load
 Hydroplaning occurs when the tire and the
pavement surface are separated by water or
55 contaminants. By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016
Uses
 It is used … … …
– to identify pavement sections with low or rapidly
deteriorating levels of skid resistance.
– as a management tool to help prioritize pavement
maintenance and rehabilitation and
– to select the appropriate maintenance and
rehabilitation (M&R) alternative.

Types
 Two types of hydroplaning:

1. Dynamic hydroplaning
 It is a phenomenon that occurs with high water depth or
vehicle speed on the pavement.
 Although water depth is the most significant variable, the
speed at which hydroplaning occurs for a given water
depth varies.
2. Viscous hydroplaning
 It occurs when the surface is contaminated with a thin film
of water, oil, or other slippery material.
 This phenomenon does not depend on the water depth and
57 can be minimized by keeping the surface clean.
Factors Affecting
 The effects on skid resistance is based on:

(shahin and darter, 1975)
1. Traffic and seasonal variations,
2. Vehicle factors
1. speed,
2. tire pressure,
3. wheel load, and
4. tire tread
3. Pavement factors
1. surface characteristics and
58 2. drainage By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016
Traffic and Seasonal Variations
 Traffic
– Two pavement sections built at the same time may
have different friction coefficients because they
have been subjected to different traffic.
– As traffic rolls over the pavement, the tires polish
the surface microtexture, Wear, dislocation, or
reorientation of aggregates may also occur
especially under heavy traffic.

 Traffic
– Figure 6-2 shows the friction factor for six different
pavement sections and illustrates the effect of traffic
– All sections had the same type of surface course
and were installed at the same time, but they were
subjected to different traffic volumes (over a 3-year).
– It is found that, there is a better correlation with the
number of trucks than total number of vehicles.

 Traffic
– Figure 6-3
illustrates the
fact that skid
resistance
reaches a
mean equi-
librium value
after many
applications of
traffic.
Seasonal
– There is no
specific value
at which it
levels off Due
to seasonal
variations of
skid
resistance
(Fig. 6-1).
Speed
 Speed
– In general, the friction coefficient decreases with
increase in speed.
– It has been determined that on dry pavement, the
friction factor changes very little with change in
speed; however, on wet pavement the decrease is
significant.
– Figures 6-4 and 6-5 show the change in friction with
speed for concrete and asphalt pavements under
dry and wet conditions.
Speed
– As mentioned
earlier, on dry
surfaces the
friction factor
changes only
slightly with
speed. This may
not be the case,
however, for
asphalt surfaces
if bleeding occurs
66 (Fig. 6-6). By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016
Tire Pressure
 Tire Pressure
– Experiments have shown that for a given wheel
load, an increase in tire pressure will cause a
decrease in friction coefficient.
– This can be attributed to the increased area of
contact at low inflation pressure—the heat created
by skidding or deceleration is distributed over a
large area, which results in a cooler tire and a high
friction coefficient

Wheel Load
 Wheel Load
– Studies using varying wheel loads have shown that
the friction coefficient decreases as the wheel load
increases (Fig. 6-7).
– One of the explanations for such a phenomenon is
that the increase in wheel load causes a decrease
in the tire contact area per unit load and therefore a
decrease in the friction coefficient.
– In contrast, it was also reported that a slight
increase in friction coefficient occurred on ice as the
68 rear axle staticBy:load was increased.
B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016
Tire Tread
 Tire Tread
– Tread design has a significant influence on braking
effectiveness.
– Tire grooves provide channels through which water
at the tire-pavement interface can be displaced.
– At high speeds or in the presence of thick water
films, there is not enough time for the water to be
displaced and hydroplaning may occur.
– Figure 6-8 shows a comparison between braking
effectiveness of smooth and five-groove tires for the
70 990A aircraft tires.
Pavement Factors
 Pavement Factors
– Surface texture can be defined in terms of
microtexture and macrotexture (see Fig.6-9).
– Microtexture is what makes an aggregate smooth or
rough to the touch.
 Its contribution to friction is through adhesion with the tire.
– The macrotexture is the result of the shape, size,
and arrangement of the aggregates (for flexible
pavements), or the surface finish (for concrete
surfaces).
Friction Measurement Methods
 Several methods
– Locked-Wheel Mode
– Slip Mode
– Yaw Mode
– Laboratory and Texture Measurement Methods

 Locked-Wheel Mode
– Trailers having weight(L) with one or two wheels are
towed (drag, pull) at a given speed. The test wheel
is then locked and water is applied in front of it.
– After the test wheel has been sliding on the
pavement for a certain distance to stabilize the
temperature, the friction force (F) in the tire contact
patch is recorded for a specified period of time
Friction Force ( F )
Friction Factor , I  ;
Normal Load ( L)
75 Skid Number , SN  100 * I May 26, 2016
Fig: Locked Wheel Skid Tester
 A section of road is market where is slip test is

to be carried out.
 First free rolling of test wheel is done and the
total angular speed (revolution per unit time) is
measured.
 Again in the same section the test wheel is
touched with pavement and the total angular
speed is measured and recorded (say W0).
 Then, Slip, S = 100x(W0 – W)
 Slip Mode
– where
W0 = angular wheel speed at free rolling
W = angular wheel speed at the time of measurement.

 Yaw Mode
– The yaw mode measures the sideways friction
factor by turning the test wheel (unbraked) to an
angle with the direction of motion (yaw angle).
– Since the sideways friction factor varies with the
magnitude of the yaw angle as shown in Figure 6-
17,


 Laboratory and Texture Measurement Methods

– One of the most common laboratory devices is the
British Portable Tester developed by the British
Road Research Laboratory.
– It consists of a rubber shoe attached to a pendulum,
which slides over a sample of the surface.
– Several methods are available for measuring the
texture of a pavement surface, but no successful
correlation has been developed between any of
these individual measurements and skid resistance.
82 – Video By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016
 Laboratory and Texture Measurement Methods

Friction Survey Procedures
1. Frequency
2. Visual Survey
3. Measurement Operations

1. Frequency
– Pavement surface texture wears down over time
due to traffic tire rolling and braking.
– Therefore, friction should be measured periodically
and more frequently with heavier traffic.
– It is recommended that the airport operator should
select the next higher level of aircraft operations in
Figure 6-22 to determine the minimum survey
frequency.

1. Frequency

2. Visual Survey
– It is always beneficial to conduct visual inspection of
the surface condition in addition to the direct friction
measurement.
– During the visual survey note
 The condition of pavement texture,
 Evidence of drainage problems, and
 Presence of distresses that could cause skidding or
hydroplaning.
87 May 26, 2016

2. Visual Survey
– Distresses that lead to decreased skid resistance or
increased hydroplaning potential include
 Bleeding,
 Depressions,
 Rutting, and
 Joint faulting in concrete pavements.
88 May 26, 2016

3. Measurement Operation
– Friction measurement should be conducted along
the wheel path.
– On highways with four or more lanes, the outside
lanes are tested, but some agencies test all four
lanes.
– Several M&R alternatives can be used if the friction
condition survey revealed skid problems or potential
problems.

M&R Techniques to Improve Skid
Resistance
 Following is a brief description of common

M&R techniques to improve skid resistance
– Overlays
– Porous Friction Course (PFC
– Chip Seal and Aggregate Slurry Seal/Surfacing.
– Saw-Cut Grooves
– Removing Contaminants

Overlays
 Overlays
– Overlays are particularly feasible if the pavement is
structurally deficient or needs to be strengthened for
future traffic.
– Overlays are also feasible if defects are severe
enough that a surface treatment will not correct
them.

Porous Friction Course (PFC)
 Porous Friction Course (PFC)

– PFC is an open-graded thin, asphaltic concrete
overlay about 1 to 1.5 in. thick.
– The overlay is designed with no fines so voids will
allow water to drain through the overlay.
– The FAA recommends that PFC overlays not be
constructed on runways at airports that have high
traffic operations (over 91 turbojet arrivals per day
per runway end.) (FAA 1997)

Chip Seal and Aggregate Slurry
Seal/Surfacing
 Chip Seal and Aggregate Slurry Seal/Surfacing

– Seals provide a feasible alternative for low-volume
roads, but should be considered only an interim
alternative for pavement with high-volume traffic.
– These alternatives are normally adequate for 2 to 5
years before they should be repeated or a more
major alternative such as overlay is applied.

Saw-Cut Grooves
 Saw-Cut Grooves
– Grooves provide a significant improvement in
friction during wet weather.
– The grooves provide channels for the water to
escape, thus allowing direct contact between the
vehicle tire and the pavement surface.
– The grooves are sawed transversely across the
highway or runway.
– Grooves are mostly used on concrete pavements
but can also be used on asphaltic concrete
94 pavements. By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016
Removing Contaminants
 Removing Contaminants
– Contaminants include:
 Rubber deposits,
 Oil spills, dust, and
 Any other material that may decrease skid resistance.
– Methods used to remove them are:
 High pressure water,
 Chemical, and
 Mechanical grinding.
 High velocity impact of tiny steel abrasive media against
the pavement surface
95 May 26, 2016
Model Questions
24. Define skid resistance. Discuss its importance on

road safety.
25. Discuss various methods of skid resistance
measurement
26. Explain briefly the road roughness, relating with
road safety
27. Define texture of pavement.


Lec-10, Ch-5, Pavement Evaluation-4 Roughness & Skid

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lec-10, Ch-5, Pavement Evaluation-4 Roughness & Skid

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pavement Management System

By: Bishnu Prasad

 Longitudinal Profile: Roughness

 Pavement roughness consists of random multi-

6 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 The roughness of a road surface is an

 Longitudinal roughness has been defined as

8 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 From an auto driver's  From an aircraft

 Roughness is an important indicator of

 At the network level,

 At the network level,

12 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 At the network level,

14 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 There are several causes of pavement

15 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 The roughness of a pavement normally

 Poor drainage, swelling soils, freeze-thaw

17 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

1. Static road profile measuring device

 Static road profile measuring device

19 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 Response type road roughness measuring

20 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 Profile-Roughness Measuring Systems

21 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 System Descriptions: These systems consist of

22 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 The some of the instruments in use are

 The instruments that are in use by DoR

24 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

25 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

26 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

28 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

29 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 The MERLIN Roughness Machine

31 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 Vehicle Mounted Bump Integrator (VMBI)

33 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 Vehicle Mounted Bump Integrator (VMBI)

 Vehicle Mounted Bump Integrator (VMBI)

– Test section for calibrating roughness by DoR, 1994/94

36 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

37 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 A profile-roughness measuring system involves

38 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

39 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

1. International Roughness Index (IRI)

1. International Roughness Index (IRI)

42 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

1. International Roughness Index (IRI)

43 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

44 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

1. International Roughness Index (IRI)

45 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

 Half-Car Roughness Index (HRI)

 Ride Number (RN)

 Root Mean Square of Vertical Acceleration

49 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016

(wave number = 1/wavelength = cycles/distance).

50 By: B. P. Devkota May 26, 2016