UNIT IV: SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction – Types of Solid Wastes – Principles of Excreta Disposal – Domestic Solid

Waste Production – Collection of Solid Wastes – Transport of Solid Wastes – Management
of Solid Wastes – Methods of Land Disposal – Sanitary Landfill – Composting –
Incineration.

1. Introduction
Solid waste management problem appears to be the most prominent in urban cities and large
towns across the world due to the huge quantity of solid waste generated from domestic and
commercial activities. In most cities and large towns of the world, solid waste is not only
heaped in huge quantities on refuse dumps but also thrown and made to lie around in piles in
the street and in small illegal dump on any piece of unused land. Most third world countries
have worst cases than industrialised countries which have the money, technical knowhow and
public attitudes to control and manage their waste to some degree.

SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISATION

Waste characterization is a waste stream analysis which involves a logical and systematic
approach to obtaining and analyzing data on one or more waste streams or sub-streams.
Waste characterization provides an estimate of solid waste quantity and composition. Two
commonly use method of waste characterization are – material flow approach and site-
specific study. However there is currently no agreed international standard for waste stream
analysis or waste characterisation although many countries have national procedures for
analyzing their waste. Waste characterization has been developed and discussed in this
chapter.

ASSESSMENT OF THE SOLID WASTE CHAIN

Waste management in all ramifications, is simply a planned system aimed at effectively
controlling the production, storage, collection, transportation, processing and disposal of
waste. Waste management is an important element of environmental protection. Its purpose is
to provide hygienic, efficient and economic solid waste storage, collection, transportation and
treatment or disposal of waste without polluting the atmosphere, soil or water system. The
various steps involved in the management of solid waste from generation to the point of
sanitary disposal are referred to as solid waste chain. It therefore means that the solid waste
chain is the path trace by solid waste from generation to the final disposal point. The solid
waste chain has been extensively discussed in this work.

2. Definitions of waste
Waste is a term generally used to describe the materials we throw away. In the United state of
America it includes objects the lay audience commonly calls garbage, refuse and trash.
The oxford advance dictionary defined waste as unused materials or substance produced
while making something. Another dictionary – the word net dictionary defined waste as any
material unused and rejected as worthless or unwanted.

1
 Waste may also be defined simply as left-over, or already used items waiting for reuse or
disposal). In addition another definition state thus, waste is any unwanted material
intentionally thrown away for disposal.
The problem with these definitions is that for any material to be a waste it must be thrown
away for disposal. Not all wastes are thrown away for disposal. A lot of wastes are kept by
the owner for sale which becomes useful raw materials to other persons. The dictionary
meaning and other definitions stated above when carefully examined, rely too much on other
terms (such as garbage, trash, refuse etc), which do not provide a means to determine whether
a given particle, material or item is not a waste based on its composition and its instantaneous
relationship to an owner, a generator, a recycler or a legal designation.
As a follow-up to this, Palmer (1992) proposed the following prescriptive definition of waste
which expressed in concise form the critical properties of waste which make it a subject of
importance by presenting the instantaneous relationship to the owner. “Waste is any object
whose owner does not want to take responsibility for it”. (Palmer, 1992)

Waste is also seen as "any material which the holder discards, is obliged to discard or intends
to discard". It has an objective element in the sense that a material becomes waste by virtue
of a circumstance which is outside the control of the owner or holder of the material; namely
the fact of abandoning the material or the fact that there are provisions which determine that
certain material is to be classified as waste. (Melissa, 2005)
The USEPA, regulatory definition is broader in scope. It defines solid waste thus “solid waste
include any discarded item, things destined for reuse, recycling, or reclamation, sludge and
hazardous waste. The regulatory definition specifically excludes radioactive waste and in situ
mining waste (Davis and Masten, 2004).

PROPOSED DEFINITION
Having examined the definition given by various authors as shown above it became clear that
they are not all encompassing hence there is need to propose a definition that can define
waste more broadly as follows: “Any object that may or may not have served its intended use
and the owner is not ready to continue to take responsibility for ownership and or continuing
to keep it and he or she is ready to discard it if possible is a waste”.

Waste may be asset or a liability depending on the management system applied on it. To the
developed countries wastes are asset because they have the technology and public attitude
that help the nations to reverse the state of their waste which make it become assets instead of
liability. Take for example, the recycling of waste paper save trees use for making fresh
pulps.

3. Municipal solid waste

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is defined Cointreau (1982) as non-air and sewage emissions
created within and disposed of by a municipality, including household garbage, commercial
refuse, construction and demolition debris, dead animals, and abandoned vehicles. Municipal
solid waste is generally made up of paper, vegetable matter, plastics, metals, textiles, rubber,
and glass (USEPA 2000).
 Municipal solid waste disposal is a major concern in developing countries across the world,
as high poverty, population growth, and high urbanization rates combine with ineffectual and
under-funded governments hampers efficient management of wastes (Doan 1998, Cointreau
1982). In most cities and large towns of developing countries, solid waste is not only heaped
in huge quantities on refuse dumps but also thrown and made to lie around in piles in the
street and in small illegal dump on any piece of unused land. Most third world countries have
worst cases than industrialised countries which have the money and technical know now and
public attitudes to control and manage their waste to some degree.

CHARACTERISATION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW)

Municipal solid waste characterization is a waste stream analysis which involves a logical
and systematic approach to obtaining and analyzing data on one or more waste streams or
sub-streams. The analysis usually provides - the composition of the waste stream and an
estimate of the quantity of the waste stream (EPA Ireland, 1996). There is currently no agreed
international standard for waste stream analysis or waste characterization although many
countries have national procedures (EPA, Ireland, 1996). However there are two basic
approaches to estimating quantities of municipal solid waste - Site-Specific Study and
material flow approach (USEPA, 2000).

SITE-SPECIFIC STUDY
This method involves sampling, sorting, and weighing the individual components of the
waste stream. The method is useful in defining a local waste stream. The site-specific study
requires a large numbers of samples to be taken over several seasons. Large sample ensure
that the results are not skewed and misleading.

This method is best applied in the characterization of a solid waste stream that has
components such as food and yard trimmings. A study that involves the use of site-specific
study is usually preceded by survey.

Solid waste survey is a statistical study of a sample population which involves asking
questions about age, income, opinions, size of family, and other aspects of people's lives with
respect to solid waste. Usually survey research method is employed when research is to be
carried out in a large population. Random sampling method is commonly used to observe and
collect data from the population.

The sample size required for a survey partly depends on the statistical quality needed for the
survey findings; this, in turn, relates to how the results will be used (Haruna, 2004, Scheuren,
2004). Two methods commonly applied in Surveys research are the questionnaire and
interview methods. Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments that the
respondent completes. Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on what the
respondent says. Sometimes, it's hard to tell the difference between a questionnaire and an
interview. The procedure for MSW Characterization using site-specific study is discussed in
the following sections.
SELECTION OF A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE

Selecting a representative Sample is one of the most difficult tasks associated with waste
stream analysis (EPA, Ireland, 1996). It is of critical importance that a sample be collected
that is representative of the waste management unit under study. The first step in good sample
design is to ensure that the specification of the target population is as clear and complete as
possible to ensure that all elements within the population are represented. Several sampling
techniques exist - Cluster sampling, Multi-stage sampling, Quota sampling, Simple random
sampling, Stratified sampling, Systematic sampling etc. As you can see listed above there are
many methods available for use with varying degrees of complexity. Certain methods suit
circumstances better than others.

SAMPLING

The most convenient way to select a representative sample is to use the social class grouping.
The population is group into three major social classes – Upper social class, Middle social
class and Lower social class (Lindsey and Beach, 2000). The forth is the Underclass.

The upper social class consists less than 5 percent of the population and is group into two
sub-classes: upper-upper and lower-upper social classes. The middle social class is also
broken into three sub-classes - upper-middle, average or middle-middle and lower middle
class. The membership of the sub-class is determined by educational background and earning.
In India it is assumed that over 50% belong to the lower social class. This class is made up of
those who barely half manage to complete secondary school and less than about 25% are able
to get university education. They own their houses in least desirable neighborhood. Society
segregates the lower social class especially when no education at all.

The forth is the Underclass. Very little percentage of the population is locked up in this class.
The members of this group lack employable skill and have little or no experience in the job
market. Unless given extensive training, they are virtually unemployable. Sociologists
disagree about what to call this class. Some use the term “Underclass”. In America some
argue that this word is stigmatizing, a real concern given the negative classist attitude of most
Americans (Lindsey and Beach, 2000)

SAMPLE SIZE

The size of sample to be taken is dependent on the number of solid waste generation units in
the sampling area. The following procedure may be employed in selecting the sample size.
A breakdown of social class groups in the sampling area is obtained from the census figures.
The number of sampling units (households for domestic waste) to be surveyed is determined.
The minimum number of sampling units is 50 per 500 households. For domestic waste this
will result in a sample of approximately 1,000 kg, assuming a waste generation rate of 20 kg
/household/ week (EPA, 1996). For practical purposes, the weight of the sample for a single
survey should be kept below about 5,000 kg, which is roughly equivalent to the waste
collected from about 250 households. The recommended range for a survey therefore, is,
roughly, 50 – 250 households. However in larger areas, where the sample size will be greater
than 250 households, it is recommended that a survey be split into several sub-surveys.

SAMPLE COLLECTION

In India and in most other industrialized countries such as United States, solid waste
collection is by trucks fig 1. The trucks are usually parkers, tippers and trucks that carry
hydraulic rams to compact the waste to reduce its volume and thus can carry larger quantity.
The sample should be collected from the selected sampling units on the same day as normal
collection.

The vehicle are weighed prior to and after sample collection so that the total weight of the
collected sample can be obtained by determining the deference between the weight of the
collection vehicle before and after collection of the waste. Occupants of households and
operators of firms chosen for the survey should not be informed about the survey so that any
bias that may be created by a temporary change in habits can be eliminated. However in
developing countries the people show indifference to solid waste issues and as such the
approach above is often not easily applicable. The weight of the total sample should be
obtained before sorting and the number of sampling units (households or firms) included in
the survey recorded so that the average weight of waste per household per week can be
determined.

SAMPLE ANALYSIS

The samples are then sorted into the types and classes of solid waste and the weight of each
type and class determined and recorded. The moisture content and the bulk density of the
sample should be measured. This information will help comparison of results of different
surveys as large fluctuations in either moisture content or bulk density will normally reflect a
significant difference in waste composition.

FIGURE 1. Solid waste collection vehicles with hydraulic ram

SAFE DISPOSAL OF SAMPLED WASTE

After the analysis arrangements should be made for appropriate and safe disposal of the waste
to an authorised site having completed a waste composition survey.
MATERIALS FLOW APPROACH
In the material flow methodology production data (by weight) are collected for the materials
and products in the waste stream. Waste generation data is obtained from the data collected
by making specific adjustments to the production data for each material and product category.
Adjustments are made for imports and exports and materials diverted from the municipal
solid waste (MSW) stream (e.g., for building materials made of plastic and paperboard).
Adjustments are also considered for the life spans of various products. One major
disadvantage is that the materials flows methodology requires additional sampling study to
determine food wastes, yard trimmings and a small amount of miscellaneous inorganic
wastes. This method is widely used in the United States of America (USEPA, 2000).

4. The solid waste chain

Waste management in all ramifications is simply a planned system aimed at effectively
controlling the production, storage, collection, transportation, processing and disposal of
waste. Waste management is an important element of environmental protection. Its purpose is
to provide hygienic, efficient and economic solid waste storage, collection, transportation and
treatment or disposal of waste without polluting the atmosphere, soil or water system. The
path trace by solid waste in the management of solid waste from generation to the point of
disposal is referred to as solid waste chain. The solid waste management is a complex
process, involving multiple steps (solid waste chain) shown in fig. 2.

FIGURE 2. The solid waste Chain

As indicated in fig.1, the first step in the solid waste chain is the generation of solid waste.
Once a material no longer has value to the owner, and owner does not want to take
responsibility for it, it is considered to be a waste (Palmer, 1992). The generation of waste
varies by country, socioeconomic status and as a result of many other practices (Davis, eta al
2004). Once solid waste is generated, it must be handled properly and stored at source for
collection by solid waste disposal agents. The processing and handling may include sorting or
segregation, washing and storage so as to ensure recycling of some portion of the waste.
Other steps included in the solid waste chain are collection, transfer to central storage facility,
final processing facility, product utilization and disposal.

5. Solid waste source segregation

There are four common methods of solid waste Disposal – Landfill, incineration, composting
and anaerobic digestion and Recycling (Rao, 2006, Audu, 2007). Incineration, composting
and anaerobic digestion are volume reducing technologies; however, residues from these
methods must be land filled (Seo et.al 2004). Recycling is one of the waste management
techniques that can ensure sustainability of any solid waste management strategy. Recycling
is a waste minimization strategy which can be used to divert or prevent discarded material
from the waste stream. It consists of a series of activities that are preceded by waste
segregation/sorting, processing and manufacturing into new products. Recycling is one of the
solid waste management that can ensure sustainability of solid waste management as it
converts the waste from liability to asset.

In most large towns and cities in India solid wastes including medical waste are commingled
and disposed at the solid waste dump site. Thereafter open air incineration without pollution
control is carried out on the waste. This is not sustainable as it does not bring financial return
at the end point of the waste. If a sustainable solid waste management must be realized
recycling which ensure financial returns at the end point of the waste must be included in the
waste management designed. The first step in solid waste management which will include
recycling is segregation/sorting. If solid waste is sorted about 30% of the work is done
(Chidubem, 2008). Several methods of sorting solid waste exist.

Solid Waste Management:

Types, Sources, Effects and Methods of Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management is a polite term for garbage management. As long as liumans have
been living in settled communities, solid waste, or garbage, has been an issue, and modern
societies generate far more solid waste than early humans ever did.

Daily life in industrialized nations can generate several pounds of solid waste per consumer,
not only directly in the home, but indirectly in factories that manufacture goods purchased by
consumers.

Garbage: many broad categories of garbage are:

i. Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.

ii. Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide
containers, batteries, shoe polish.

iii. Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics.

iv. Hospital waste such as cloth with blood

1. Types & Source of Solid Wastes:

Basically solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source:
2. Effects of Solid Waste Pollution:
Municipal solid wastes heap up on the roads due to improper disposal system. People clean
their own houses and litter their immediate surroundings which affects the community
including themselves.

This type of dumping allows biodegradable materials to decompose under uncontrolled and
unhygienic conditions. This produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects and
infectious organisms besides spoiling the aesthetics of the site.

Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which may spread
on land and can cause changes in physic-chemical and biological characteristics thereby
affecting productivity of soils.

Toxic substances may leach or percolate to contaminate the ground water. In refuse mixing,
the hazardous wastes are mixed with garbage and other combustible wastes. This makes
segregation and disposal all the more difficult and risky.

Various types of wastes like cans, pesticides, cleaning solvents, batteries (zinc, lead or
mercury), radioactive materials, plastics and e-waste are mixed up with paper, scraps and
other non-toxic materials which could be recycled. Burning of some of these materials
produces dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls, which have the potential to cause
various types of ailments including cancer.

3. Methods of Solid Wastes Disposal:

i. Sanitary Landfill
ii. Incineration
iii. Composting
iv. Pyrolysis

i. Sanitary Land Filling:

In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or
plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually
several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner protects the ground water from being
contaminated due to percolation of leachate.

Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. When landfill is full it is covered
with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled near
the landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced
by anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat.

Sanitary Landfills Site Selection:

i. Should be above the water table, to minimize interaction with groundwater.
ii. Preferably located in clay or silt.
iii. Do not want to place in a rock quarry, as water can leech through the cracks inherent in
rocks into a water fracture system.
iv. Do not want to locate in sand or gravel pits, as these have high leeching. Unfortunately,
most of Long Island is sand or gravel, and many landfills are located in gravel pits, after
they were no longer being used.
v. Do not want to locate in a flood plain. Most garbage tends to be less dense than water, so if
the area of the landfill floods, the garbage will float to the top and wash away
downstream.
A large number of adverse impacts may occur from landfill operations. These
impacts can vary:
i. Fatal accidents (e.g., scavengers buried under waste piles).
ii. Infrastructure damage (e.g., damage to access roads by heavy vehicles).
iii. Pollution of the local environment (such as contamination of groundwater and/or aquifers
by leakage and residual soil contamination during landfill usage, as well as after landfill
closure).
iv. Off gassing of methane generated by decaying organic wastes (methane is a greenhouse
gas many times more potent than carbon dioxide, and can itself be a danger to inhabitants
of an area).
v. Harbouring of disease vectors such as rats and flies, particularly from improperly operated
landfills.

ii. Incineration:
The term incinerates means to burn something until nothing is left but ashes. An incinerator is
a unit or facility {Figure(s)} used to burn trash and other types of waste until it is reduced to
ash. An incinerator is constructed of heavy, well-insulated materials, so that it does not give
off extreme amounts of external heat.
The high levels of heat are kept inside the furnace or unit so that the waste is burned quickly
and efficiently. If the heat were allowed to escape, the waste would not burn as completely or
as rapidly. Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to
combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful
for disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water
management. This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 per cent of the
original volume.

Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as
“thermal treatment”. Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by
industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical
method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials. Incineration is a controversial
method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
FIGURE: Schematics of Incinerators

iii. Composting:
Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the biodegradable yard waste (kept
separate from the municipal waste) is allowed to degrade or decompose in a medium. A good
quality nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed which improves the soil
conditions and fertility.

Organic matter constitutes 35%-40% of the municipal solid waste generated in India. This
waste can be recycled by the method of composting, one of the oldest forms of disposal. It is
the natural process of decomposition of organic waste that yields manure or compost, which
is very rich in nutrients.

Composting is a biological process in which micro-organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria,

convert degradable organic waste into humus like substance. This finished product, which
looks like soil, is high in carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for growing plants.

The process of composting ensures the waste that is produced in the kitchens is not carelessly
thrown and left to rot. It recycles the nutrients and returns them to the soil as nutrients. Apart
from being clean, cheap, and safe, composting can significantly reduce the amount of
disposable garbage.

The organic fertilizer can be used instead of chemical fertilizers and is better specially when
used for vegetables. It increases the soil’s ability to hold water and makes the soil easier to
cultivate. It helped the soil retain more of the plant nutrients.

Vermi-composting has become very popular in the last few years. In this method, worms are
added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta of the worms
makes the compost very rich in nutrients. In the activity section of this web site you can learn
how to make a compost pit or a vermi-compost pit in your school or in the garden at home.
To make a compost pit, you have to select a cool, shaded corner of the garden or the school
compound and dig a pit, which ideally should be 3 feet deep. This depth is convenient for
aerobic composting as the compost has to be turned at regular intervals in this process.

Preferably the pit should be lined with granite or brick to prevent nitrite pollution of the
subsoil water, which is known to be highly toxic. Each time organic matter is added to the pit
it should be covered with a layer of dried leaves or a thin layer of soil which allows air to
enter the pit thereby preventing bad odour. At the end of 45 days, the rich pure organic matter
is ready to be used.

Composting: some benefits

i. Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a longer period.
ii. It supplies part of the 16 essential elements needed by the plants.
iii. It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the excessive use of
chemical fertilizer.
iv. It makes soil easier to cultivate.
v. It helps keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.
vi. It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil covered.
vii. It helps in controlling the growth of weeds in the garden.

PROCESS OF COMPOSTING:
 Compost results in a physical breakdown of organic matter layered with small amounts of
soil by a process known as aerobic disintegration.
 Structure of the matter is broken down by bacteria and fungi of decay until it is part of the
soil mass.
For example, a piece of newspaper would, under ideal conditions, become a part of the
humus in the soil within two to four weeks. A tin can biodegrades in about 100 years and an
aluminum can in about 500 years.
 During composting, heat is generated because of interaction of organic material
interaction with moisture, air, bacteria and fungi.

Phases of Composting
The composting process can be divided into three phases determined by temperature and heat
output.
a) During the first phase, the initial 24-48 hours, temperatures gradually rise to 40-50 o C.
During this time, sugars and other easily biodegradable substances are metabolized mostly by
bacteria and fungi.

b) During the second phase, which may occur over extended periods of time, temperatures
between 40 and 65o C prevails. Cellulose and other more difficult substances to biodegrade
are destroyed at that time. Lignins, the darker, woody components in plant tissues, break
down even more slowly. During this high temperature phase, plant pathogens, weed seeds
and biocontrol agents (excepting Bacillus spp.) are killed by the heat. Turning compost piles
ensures uniformly high temperatures and helps produce a homogeneous product.

c) The third stage is the curing phase when the concentrations of materials that readily
decompose decrease. The rates of decomposition, heat output and temperature decline during
 this phase. A micro-flora, similar to that found in soil, now colonizes the compost. Mature
compost has a dark color, consists largely of lignins, humus and biomass and has a distinctive
soil or "earthy" odor. This odor is attributed to the soil microflora present in the compost.

Optimum Conditions for Composting Food:- organic waste containing water (moisture
content between 30-80%) & added nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Sulfur) present organic
matter content in waste serves as a source of carbon, nutrients & energy for the metabolic
reactions during bioremediation process.
Micronutrients in addition to N, P & S many other micronutrients are needed to a lower
concentration such as K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Ni & others.
Oxygen if required (aerobic types): 2-5 kg of oxygen per kg of organic compound to be
converted.
Moderate pH: between 6-9, neither too acidic nor too alkaline.
Moderate Temperatures: 50o to 100o F.

The production of compost helps mitigate GHG emissions in following ways:

1. Decreasing the need of chemical fertilizers and pesticides; thereby reducing GHG
emissions from the use of fossil fuel associated with their production and application

2. Allowing for more rapid growth in plants, thereby increasing carbon uptake and storage
within the plant. This is a form of carbon sequestration which removes CO2 from the
atmosphere.

Types of Composting and Understanding the Process

 Composting Basics
 Onsite Composting
 Vermicomposting
 Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting
 Aerated Static Pile Composting
 In-Vessel Composting

Composting Basics
You may also consider contacting a compostable waste hauler about designing your compost
plan. There are five main areas that must be “controlled” during composting.

1. Feedstock and Nutrient Balance

Composting, or controlled decomposition, requires a proper balance of “green” organic
materials and “brown” organic materials. “Green” organic material includes grass clippings,
food scraps, and manure, which contain large amounts of nitrogen. “Brown” organic
materials includes dry leaves, wood chips, and branches, which contain large amounts of
carbon but little nitrogen. Obtaining the right nutrient mix requires experimentation and
patience. It is part of the art and science of composting.

2. Particle Size
Grinding, chipping, and shredding materials increases the surface area on which
microorganisms can feed. Smaller particles also produce a more homogeneous compost
 mixture and improve pile insulation to help maintain optimum temperatures (see below). If
the particles are too small, however, they might prevent air from flowing freely through the
pile.

3. Moisture Content
Microorganisms living in a compost pile need enough moisture to survive. Water is the key
element that helps transports substances within the compost pile and makes the nutrients in
organic material accessible to the microbes. Organic material contains some moisture in
varying amounts, but moisture also might come in the form of rainfall or intentional watering.

4. Oxygen Flow
Turning the pile, placing the pile on a series of pipes, or including bulking agents such as
wood chips and shredded newspaper all help aerate the pile. Aerating the pile allows
decomposition to occur at a faster rate than anaerobic conditions. Care must be taken,
however, not to provide too much oxygen, which can dry out the pile and impede the
composting process.

5. Temperature
Microorganisms require a certain temperature range for optimal activity. Certain
temperatures promote rapid composting and destroy pathogens and weed seeds. Microbial
activity can raise the temperature of the pile’s core to at least 140° F. If the temperature does
not increase, anaerobic conditions (i.e., rotting) occur. Controlling the previous four factors
can bring about the proper temperature.

I. Onsite Composting
Organizations that are going to compost small amounts of wasted food can compost onsite.
Composting can significantly reduce the amount of wasted food that is thrown away. Yard
trimmings and small quantities of food scraps can be composted onsite. Animal products and
large quantities of food scraps are not appropriate for onsite composting.
Learn how to create your own compost pile

II. Vermi-composting
Red worms in bins feed on food scraps, yard trimmings, and other organic matter to create
compost. The worms break down this material into high quality compost called castings.
Worm bins are easy to construct and are also available for purchase. One pound of mature
worms (approximately 800-1,000 worms) can eat up to half a pound of organic material per
day. The bins can be sized to match the volume of food scraps that will be turned into
castings.
It typically takes three to four months to produce usable castings. The castings can be used as
potting soil. The other byproduct of vermicomposting known as “worm tea” is used as a high-
quality liquid fertilizer for houseplants or gardens.

Night-crawlers and field worms found in gardens are not appropriate for vermiculture.

What Can Be Composted - Vermiculture?

 Food scraps
 Paper
 Yard trimmings such as grass and plants
III. Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting
Aerated or turned windrow composting is suited for large volumes such as that generated by
entire communities and collected by local governments, and high volume food-processing
businesses (e.g., restaurants, cafeterias, packing plants). It will yield significant amounts of
compost, which might require assistance to market the end-product. Local governments may
want to make the compost available to residents for a low or no cost.
This type of composting involves forming organic waste into rows of long piles called
“windrows” and aerating them periodically by either manually or mechanically turning the
piles. The ideal pile height is between four and eight feet with a width of 14 to 16 feet. This
size pile is large enough to generate enough heat and maintain temperatures. It is small
enough to allow oxygen flow to the windrow's core.
Large volumes of diverse wastes such as yard trimmings, grease, liquids, and animal
byproducts (such as fish and poultry wastes) can be composted through this method.

IV. Aerated Static Pile Composting

Aerated static pile composting produces compost relatively quickly (within three to six
months). It is suitable for a relatively homogenous mix of organic waste and work well for
larger quantity generators of yard trimmings and compostable municipal solid waste (e.g.,
food scraps, paper products), such as local governments, landscapers, or farms. This method,
however, does not work well for composting animal byproducts or grease from food
processing industries.
In aerated static pile composting, organic waste mixed in a large pile. To aerate the pile,
layers of loosely piled bulking agents (e.g., wood chips, shredded newspaper) are added so
that air can pass from the bottom to the top of the pile. The piles also can be placed over a
network of pipes that deliver air into or draw air out of the pile. Air blowers might be
activated by a timer or a temperature sensors.

V. In-Vessel Composting
In-vessel composting can process large amounts of waste without taking up as much space as
the windrow method and it can accommodate virtually any type of organic waste (e.g., meat,
animal manure, biosolids, food scraps). This method involves feeding organic materials into a
drum, silo, concrete-lined trench, or similar equipment. This allows good control of the
environmental conditions such as temperature, moisture, and airflow. The material is
mechanically turned or mixed to make sure the material is aerated. The size of the vessel can
vary in size and capacity.
This method produces compost in just a few weeks. It takes a few more weeks or months
until it is ready to use because the microbial activity needs to balance and the pile needs to
cool.

NOTE: For specific methods of composting processes developed by Indians at

different places, please refer to the attached PDF file.

iv. Pyrolysis:
Pyrolysis is a form of incineration that chemically decomposes organic materials by heat in
the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating
temperatures above 430 °C (800 °F).
In practice, it is not possible to achieve a completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some
oxygen is present in any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation occurs. If volatile or
semi-volatile materials are present in the waste, thermal desorption will also occur.

Organic materials are transformed into gases, small quantities of liquid, and a solid residue
containing carbon and ash. The off-gases may also be treated in a secondary thermal
oxidation unit. Particulate removal equipment is also required. Several types of pyrolysis
units are available, including the rotary kiln, rotary hearth furnace, and fluidized bed furnace.
These units are similar to incinerators except that they operate at lower temperatures and with
less air supply.

FIGURE(s): Pyrolysis process

Limitations and Concerns:

i. The technology requires drying of soil prior to treatment.

ii. Limited performance data are available for systems treating hazardous wastes containing
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and other organics. There is concern that
systems that destroy chlorinated organic molecules by heat have the potential to create
products of incomplete combustion, including dioxins and furans. These compounds are
extremely toxic in the parts per trillion ranges. The MSO process reportedly does not
produce dioxins and furans.

iii. The molten salt is usually recycled in the reactor chamber. However, depending on the
waste treated (especially inorganics) and the amount of ash, spent molten salt may be
hazardous and require special care in disposal.

iv. Pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically separating in organics from the
contaminated medium. Volatile metals may be removed as a result of the higher
temperatures associated with the process, but they are not destroyed. By-products
containing heavy metals may require stabilization before final disposal.

v. When the off-gases are cooled, liquids condense, producing an oil/tar residue and
contaminated water. These oils and tars may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper
treatment, storage, and disposal.

Solid Waste Collection

Objective(s): To describe the tasks and logistics of MSW collection, to analyze collection
systems, and to become familiar with the principals and theory behind the use of transfer
stations

Goals:
 Understand problems and concerns associated with MSW collection.
 Compare and contrast privately and publicly operated systems.
 Understand the types of collection systems
 To identify the benefits associated with the use of transfer stations
 To prepare an economic analysis of transfer stations
 To understand the design issues associated with transfer stations

General Information
Collection accounts for 50-70% of a SW budget!
Types of Collection System
 Refuse Collection Systems - Household waste removed from the home
 Commercial Waste Collection - Commercial waste removed primarily using
dumpsters
 Recyclable Material Collection - Collection of recyclable materials separated at the
source of generation
Equipment
 Both Vehicles and Containers are required
 Average life of vehicles: 5-7 yrs
 Residential collection vehicles
o most have internal compactors
o Rear loaders - larger hopper not as necessary with the elimination of larger,
bulky items
o Side loaders - 2 person crew (driver and loader)
o Mechanically loaded
o Front Loader, residential waste place in bin then cycled
 Commercial waste collection vehicles
o Front Loader
o Hoist truck; small operation, few pickup locations, bulky items
o Tilt frame - large containers, widely used
o Trash trailers - heavy rubbish (C/D)
 Recycling - compartmentalized truck

Automated Collection
Usually only one driver required works best:
o without on-street parking, low hanging wires, narrow
streets Where commitment to preventative maintenance
Where commitment to educating
public 60-90 gal containers

Collection Options

City-Run Collection
 More control over collection
 City owns and operates all equipment
 City manages personnel
 Funded from property tax, user fees, or utility bill
 Disadvantages
1. Municipalities tend to be less efficient than private companies
2. Capital expenditures can be difficult
3. May require passage of bond
4. Tendency to minimize short-term spending without considering long-term
implications
 Advantages
1. Non-profit
2. Centralized operation
3. City maintains complete control over waste
Private Collection
City gives contract to firm(s) as a set fee based on bidding process, users are billed
directly
Non-Exclusive Franchises
 Multiple contractors competing for service in community
Exclusive Franchises
 One contractor is responsible for a given area
Advantages
 No capital expenditure for city
 Long-term lower costs
 Impose order on collection (exclusive franchise)
 Regular pickup schedules (exclusive franchise)
 Trash cans/trucks on street one or two days per week (exclusive franchise)
 Lower costs due to improved routing and technology (exclusive franchise)
Disadvantages
 Difficult to compete with large haulers
 Leads to domination by a few haulers (exclusive franchise)
 Citizens provide a profit to waste hauler
 City can become overly dependent
 Requires oversight by city

Problems and Concerns

Labor
 Labor intensive
 Labor unskilled
 High turn-over rates
 Few prospects for mechanical replacement of manual labor
 Injuries and poor working conditions
 Limited career opportunities
Customer Service
 Frequency of service
 Container and storage issues particularly for commercial and industrial
 Location of pickup
 Special wastes
Management and Financing Issues
 Low priority
 Resistance to change and new technologies
 Lack of quality management
 Inflation
 Changing with new regulations
Technological Issues
 Collection of multiple streams (recyclables, yard waste, special wastes)
 Single stream vs. commingled recyclables
 curbside collection costs are $15/ton less for single stream
sorting costs at MRFs are $10/ton more for single-stream
paper quality lower for single stream
 Yard waste containers - bagged material must be debagged prior to composting
 Automated collection (still requires an operator)
 Development of efficient routes
 Vehicle weight restrictions
 Vehicle turning radius and clearance

Frequency of Collection
Collection frequency has been declining since the 1950s. By the 1970s, once per week (1/wk)
collection was common in half of the U.S. This trend continued into the 1980s but at a
reduced rate. The south still uses twice a week collection (2/wk) almost exclusively.
Reasons for declining collection frequency include;
 Proportion of putrescible waste declined (food grinders)
 Better design of collection vehicles controls odors and flies
 Service costs increased
 Time between collection and disposal decreased
 Better management

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Collection Frequencies

Favoring
Alternative Potential Advantages Potential Disadvantages
Conditions
Improperly stored waste can Cold to
Once per week Less expensive,
create odor and vector moderate
or less Requires less fuel
problems climate
Reduces litter, Reduces More expensive, Requires more
Twice per week Warm climate
storage requirements fuel
More than twice Reduces litter, Reduces More expensive, Requires more Dense
per week storage requirements fuel population

Factors Affecting Decisions and Calculations

Fixed Factors
 Climate
 Topography
 Layout - container access (alley, curbside, rear of house)
 Available transportation systems, traffic, roads (Venice uses boats)
 Types of wastes collected
 Population density
Variable Factors
 Storage techniques employed
 Recycling
  Collection frequency
 Crew size
 Equipment

Analysis
1. Analysis of collection time

Y = a + b + c(d) + e + f + g
Where:
Y = total collection time
a = garage to route time
b = actual time collecting waste
c = number of trips to disposal site
d = time to drive fully loaded truck to disposal facility, unload and return to
collection area
e = time to drive to garage at the end of the trip
f = official breaks, including bathroom visits
g = other lost time such as traffic jams, breakdowns
f + g = off route time, usually a fraction of Y

 a, d, and e are a function of distance and speed

 b is a function of the number of customers, time per customer, number of loads (full
or partial)
 c is a function of the capacity of the vehicle and its compaction ratio
2. Analysis of number of vehicles required
N = SF/XW
Where:
N = number of vehicles required
S = total number of customers served per week
F = collection frequency
X = number of customers truck can serve per day
W = number of work days per week

Transfer Stations - Introduction

Alternative to direct haul, justified when transport cost (route to disposal site) is greater than
transport from route to transfer station plus haul to disposal site by larger vehicle

Benefits
 Large transfer trailers replace several collection vehicles for the hauling of waste to
the disposal site
 Collection vehicles are rapidly routed back to work, at-site or turn-around time is
reduced compared to the normal time associated with disposal
  Paved roads/tipping surfaces at transfer station reduce maintenance costs
 Disposal facilities can be located far from populated areas which may diffuse local
siting opposition
 Waste stream inspection opportunity when unloading onto tipping floor or into
compactors - spotters remove hazardous wastes
 Provides another opportunity for recycling, compaction, and/or baling
 Easy use of multiple disposal sites

Need for a transfer station is indicated by the following

 Presence of illegal dumps and litter
 Remote disposal sites (> 10 miles)
 Small capacity collection vehicles (< 20 yd3)
 Low density residential areas
 Widespread use of medium sized commercial containers

Economics
Compare direct haul and transfer costs
Considerations:
 Cost of disposal
 Fixed transfer station costs - cost to build, own, operate, and maintain
 Transport cost - cost/ton/min of transport time
 Plot cost/ton vs. difference between round trip to transfer station and disposal site

Transport Equipment:

Tractor Trailers
 Compaction vs. Open top
 Tractor trailers restriction of highway access due to wt limits (~40 ton)

Railcars
 Generally > 50 mi. haul distance
 Replaces truck hauling – as fuel costs increase rail becomes more cost effective
 Paper Train - hauls paper from New England Area (30 loc) to Chicago hub from there
to West coast and/or Mexico, 2000 tons/day
 60’ box car 90 tons, Seattle and Vancouver, WA
o Seattle to Oregon LF, 325miles
 South Cal 16-20,000 tpd to 3 LF in Mojave Desert
 Montgomery County, Maryland, 20 mi one way
o Waste processed at a modified transfer station then hauled to WTE
o Processing includes separation of recyclables, scrap, and compost
o Residual waste compacted into 30 ton, 37 foot logs and placed in sealed
containers
o Ash from WTE backhauled to transfer station and disposed at Oaks Landfill
 o Hauling cost: $5/ton waste and $2.5/ton ash

Barges
 Common in Europe
 Fresh Kills Landfill, NY - 680 tons/barge (prior to closure)
 Spill concerns limit size

Design Considerations

Types of Transfer Stations

 Direct discharge
 Storage pit (with or without compaction)

Station Equipment
 Fixed equipment
o Scales
o Hoppers
o Hydraulic push pits
o Bridge crane with clamshell bucket
o Stationary Compactors
 Mobile Equipment -
o Front end loaders
o Clamshell dozers (push and break up waste, load transport vehicles)

Site Layout
 Size unloading area, access, storage for peak volumes, surges occur at 10 am, 4 pm
 Provide for expansion - economies of scale exist for capital and operational costs

Location
 Near center of collection area
 Convenient to good haul routes
 An area zoned industrial or commercial
 Min. public objections
 Costs of land and construction
 Avoid flood plains, historical/archeological sites, wildlife habitats
 Closed landfills or incinerators are good sites

Problem Solving
Transfer station problems involve determining whether it is cheaper to haul waste to the
disposal site with the collection vehicles or with separate larger capacity tractor-trailers.
The cost of hauling directly to the disposal site is compared to the cost of constructing and
operating a transfer station as well as hauling the waste with tractor-trailers.
  The waste must be collected in either case so, the cost of collection is not included
however, the decision to use a transfer station may effect the number of collection
vehicles required which may have to be accounted for.
 The capital costs associated with the transfer station are amortized over a return
period typically 10 or 20 years and divided by some amount of waste typically the
amount of waste processed over some unit time (week, month, year, etc.)
 A graph or equations are developed to determine the break even haul time or distance
with the X-axis representing distance or time and the Y-axis having units of $/yd3 or
$/ton
Capital Recovery Factor, CRF
CRF={i(1+i)n}/{(i+1)n-1}
where:
n=number of years
i=interest rate

BIO MEDICAL WASTE:

Bio-medical waste means any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis,

treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or in research
activities pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of biologicals, and
including categories mentioned in Schedule I, of the BMW rules, 2016.
TERMINOLOGIES IN BIOMEDICAL WASTE

For describing biomedical waste, different terminologies are used[3]:

(a) Biomedical waste: It indicates waste material which is generated during diagnosis,
treatment, immunizations, research, slaughtering of animals, and veterinary
practices.
(b)Medical waste: It means any waste which is generated in diagnosis, treatment of
human beings, immunizations, treatment of animals, research, production of
biologicals and testing of biologicals.
(c) Hospital waste: It is the waste produced or coming out of the hospitals which
may be
• Nonhazardous: 85%
• Infectious: 10%
• Hazardous: 5%.
(d)Critical waste: Waste generated as a result of medical care in hospitals, nursing
homes, diagnostic centers, laboratories, domiciliary care.
(e) Pathological waste: This includes human tissues, human organs, and body
fluids, containers which carry above-mentioned items during surgery,
other medical procedures, autopsy, and anatomy dissection.
(f) Infectious waste: It means any waste which can transmit bacterial/viral/parasitic
infection, even infected animal waste.
(g) Hazardous waste: This is hazardous but not infectious, and includes
radioactive substances; chemicals, liquid, gaseous, vapors; pharmaceutical waste,
cytotoxic drugs, outdated drugs, etc.

DISPOSAL OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE

It follows the following steps:

(a) Segregation
(b)Disinfection
(c) Storage
(d)Transport
(e) Final disposal.

a) Segregation
Segregation of the waste is very important[4] for the following reasons:
• General waste does not become infectious
• Segregation reduces chances of infection
• Treatment cost comes down
• Noninfectious waste can be recycled.

Segregation is carried out at the site of waste generation, e.g., wards, operation
theatres, ICUs, stores, pharmacy, autopsy room, etc.

For an easy identification of different types of waste, a specific color code is

followed:
(a) Yellow: Yellow plastic bags are used for segregating human anatomical waste;
dissected parts; tissue removed at surgery; aborted fetus; laboratory
cultures/specimen; items contaminated with blood or body fluids, i.e., dressing
material, cotton, bandages, etc.; animal tissue and carcasses (used in experimental
laboratory). Method of disposal: Incineration/deep burial.
(b) Red: Red plastic bags or disinfected containers are used for segregating laboratory
waste; culture plates; items contaminated with blood; nonsharp disposable items
like gloves, catheter tubings, intravenous sets, etc. Method of disposal: Catheter
tubings, etc. are shredded to prevent reuse. After shredding, they are disinfected by
autoclaving, microwaving, or using chemicals. Finally they are sent for
incineration.
(c) Blue or white translucent plastic bags: Puncture-proof container-like empty cans or
thick cardboard boxes to store sharp items like needles, syringes, scalpel blades,
broken glass items, etc.
Method of disposal: After shredding these items, either autoclaving, microwaving,
or chemical treatment is carried out. The waste is then sent for deep burial or
incineration.
Black: Black plastic bags are used to segregate discarded medicines; cytotoxic
drugs; chemicals which have been used for disinfection; insecticides; incinerated
ash

Method of disposal: Disposal in secured landfills.[1]

(d)Liquid: This waste is disinfected and discarded in drains.
(e) Radioactive waste: This waste is hazardous. It is stored in lead containers in the
basement of hospital buildings for a 3- to 6-week period for the radioactivity to
disappear. After this period, it is discharged into the drains.

b) DISINFECTION

To render infectious tissues free from pathogenic organisms, disinfection[5] is carried

out before transporting and disposing them.

Methods of disinfection
• Thermal: Dry/wet autoclaving
• Chemical: Formaldehyde; sodium hypochlorite; ethylene oxide; bleaching
powder
• Irradiation and exposure to ultraviolet rays
• Use of microwave: A small microwave is used for small quantities of laboratory
waste. Larger units are required for large quantities of waste. Grinding, steam
spraying, microwave irradiation are used.

c) STORAGE

Until adequate quantity accumulates, the waste needs to be stored at the site where it
is generated. It is necessary to have security at this place to prevent unauthorized
persons and ragpickers handling the waste material.[6] If the hospital has its own
disposal site (incinerator), the waste can be sent there by proper garbage trolleys.

d) TRANSPORT

The transportation of the garbage can be within the hospital (internal) and from the
hospital to the final disposal site (external).

Internal transport
From different areas of the hospital, segregated waste bags are sent to the
dumping place of the hospital. Trolleys/carts used for transporting the garbage
should not be used for any other purpose. Persons carrying garbage should wear
disposable plastic gloves. Spillage must be avoided
e) FINAL DISPOSAL

Final disposal of waste depends on its category. Noninfectious waste like papers can be
recycled. Biodegradable waste can be used for landfill or vermiculture or can be just
buried. Infectious solid waste is incinerated. Infectious liquid waste is disinfected and
flushed out in the drains.

INCINERATION

Refuse can be disposed of hygienically by burning or incineration. It is the method

of choice where suitable land is not available. Incineration is not a proper method in
India as the refuse contains a fair proportion of fine ash which makes the burning
 difficult. A preliminary separation of dust or ash is needed. All this involves heavy
outlay and expenditure, besides manipulative difficulties in the incinerator.

Burning has a limited application in refuse disposal in India.

CATEGORIES OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE

• Chemical treatment is done with 1% hypochlorite solution or equivalent

chemical
• Mutilation/shredding must be done to prevent reuse
• No chemical treatment should be done before incineration
Chlorinated plastics shall not be incinerated.

Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) – An

Overview
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) represents a contemporary and
systematic approach to solid waste management. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) defines ISWM as a complete waste reduction, collection,
composting, recycling, and disposal system. An efficient ISWM system considers
how to reduce, reuse, recycle, and manage waste to protect human health and the
natural environment. It involves evaluating local conditions and needs. Then
choosing, mixing and applying the most suitable solid waste management activities
according to the condition.

The Importance of ISWM as a Waste Management Approach

With rapid population expansion and constant economic development, waste
generation both in residential as well as commercial/industrial areas continues to
grow rapidly, putting pressure on society’s ability to process and dispose of this
material. Also, inappropriately managed solid waste streams can pose a significant
risk to health and environmental concerns. Improper waste handling in
conjunction with uncontrolled waste dumping can cause a broad range of
problems, including polluting water, attracting rodents and insects, as well as
increasing floods due to blockage in drains.

As well, it may bring about safety hazards from explosions and fires. Improper solid
waste management can also increase greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, thus
contributing to climate change.

Having a comprehensive waste management system for efficient waste collection,

transportation, and systematic waste disposal—together with activities to reduce
waste generation and increase waste recycling—can significantly reduce all these
problems. While nothing new, an ISWM approach provides the opportunity to
create a suitable combination of existing waste management practices to manage
waste most efficiently.

Functional Elements of Integrated Solid Waste Management

The four components or functional elements of ISWM include source reduction,
recycling and composting, waste transportation and landfilling. These waste
management activities can be undertaken either in interactively or hierarchically.
Following are brief discussion of each of these functional elements of ISWM:

Source Reduction, also known as waste prevention, aims at reducing unnecessary

waste generation. Source reduction strategies may include a variety of approaches,
such as:

 products that are designed for recycling, durable, sustainable goods and,

where possible, in concentrated form.
 reusable products, including reusable packaging, as reuse and increasingly
becomes an important component of the circular economy.
 refurbishing of goods to prolong product life, another important element of
the circular economy model.
 redesign of goods and utilize less or no packaging.
 reduction of food spoilage and waste through better attention to food
processing and storage
 avoidance of goods that don’t last long and can’t be reused or recycled, such
as Halloween decorations.
 Waste source reduction helps us to lessen waste handling, transportation,
and disposal costs and eventually reduces methane generation.

Recycling and Composting are crucial phases in the entire ISWM process.

Recycling includes the accumulation, sorting and recovering of recyclable and
reusable materials, as well as the reprocessing of recyclables to produce new
products. Composting, a component of organics recycling, involves the
accumulation of organic waste and converting it into soil additives. Both recycling
and composting wastes have a number of economic benefits such as they create
job opportunities in addition to diverting material from the waste stream to
generate cost-effective sources of material for further use.

Both recycling and composting also significantly contribute to the reduction of

greenhouse gas emissions.

Waste Transportation is another waste management activity that must be

integrated systematically with other waste management activities to ensure smooth
and efficient waste management. Typically this includes the collection of waste
from curbside and businesses, as well as from transfer stations where waste may
be concentrated and reloaded onto other vehicles for delivery to the landfill.

Waste Disposal, in particular through the use of landfills and combustion, are the
activities undertaken to manage waste materials that are not recycled. The most
common way of managing these wastes is through landfills, which must be
properly designed, well-constructed and systematically managed .