UNIT-III

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION TO AIR POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION

As a result of our awareness toward environment and the allied issues,

we are concerned about pollution problems. These concerns range from
odor problem to destruction of ozone layer in our atmosphere. The medium
for pollution may be air, water and land. Some of the questions which might
come to your mind while thinking about pollution are:

 Are we doing something about solving these problems?

 Do we know enough about the conditions under which a pollution episode
occurs?
 What are the regulations?
 How to control emissions?

This course is an attempt to answer such questions.

Air pollution worldwide is a growing threat to human health and the natural
environment.
Air pollution may be described as contamination of the atmosphere by
gaseous, liquid, or solid wastes or by-products that can endanger human
health and welfare of plants and animals, attack materials, reduce visibility,
(To read about how Haze caused by air pollution can affect visibility Click
Here) or produce undesirable odors. Although some pollutants are released
by natural sources like volcanoes, coniferous forests, and hot springs, the
effect of this pollution is very small when compared to that caused by
emissions from industrial sources, power and heat generation, waste
disposal, and the operation of internal combustion engines. Fuel
combustion is the largest contributor to air pollutant emissions, caused by
man, with stationary and mobile sources equally responsible. The air
pollution problem is encountered outdoor as well as indoor. To read more
about the Outdoor Air Pollution Click Here and to read more about the
Indoor Air Pollution Click Here.

The indoor air pollution came to our attention during 80's while outdoor air
pollution has been around for some time. The major pollutants which
contribute to indoor air pollution include radon, volatile organic

1
compounds, formaldehyde, biological contaminants, and

2
combustion by-products such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen dioxides, and particulate. The
characterization of the air emissions from indoor sources can be read from
this EPA page.

The major pollutants which contribute to outdoor air pollution are

sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, total
suspended particulate matter, lead, carbon dioxide, and toxic
pollutants.

There are several reasons to worry about air pollution. Some are:
 Air pollution affects every one of us.
 Air pollution can cause health problems and, may be, death.
 Air pollution reduces crop yields and affects animal life.
 Air pollution can soil and corrode materials.

The problems of air pollution in Los Angles, New York city and Chicago,
U.S.A. during the fifties drew attention of regulators in the United States.
Conventional pollutants due to auto emissions and smoke stacks were the
major thrusts of air pollution during the sixties and seventies. Invisible
emissions of toxic pollutants were recognized in the late seventies. The
following graph indicates the size distribution of California source
emissions, in 1986. These emissions increased manifolds since then,
making air pollution monitoring, prevention and control inevitable.

The attention also turned to acid rain as a trans-boundary problem following

the observations of dying forests in Germany and lake acidification in
Scandinavian countries. In early eighties scientists observed a slow down in
growth of red spruce in the mountain areas of north-eastern US during the
sixties as a result of acid rain. Other problems such as emissions from small
sources, area sources, fugitive emissions and carbon dioxide production
from combustion came to light as potential pollution problems.

Global warming is another international issue being debated by

scientists and politicians. The rise in global average temperatures is being
related to the increase in concentration of carbon dioxide and green house
gases in earth's atmosphere. This is due to burning of fossil fuels, the
production of chloro-fluro-carbons, deforestation and other forces.

The pollution problem in a country depends on business cycles. In the US,

business is moving from manufacturing base to service industry. This has
also created a need to look at the pollution due to recreational type
activities.
 Source : USEPA Document
http://www.epa.gov/nceawww1/pdfs/06
71ch05.pdf

AIR POLLUTION ACCIDENTS AND EPISODES

The public concern is also based on news stories on air pollution accidents
and episodes reported by the media. It is important for us to look at these
pollution episodes.

During a 3 day fog in 1930, 60 people died in Meuse Valley, Belgium, while
592 people died in Manchester, England in 1931 during a 9 day fog. The
1948 plant emissions and atmospheric conditions in Donora, Penn. USA
caused a 4 day fog and 7000 people were reported sick and 20 people died.
The 4 day fog of 1952 in London, England resulted in 4000 deaths and
concentration levels were several times higher than the current air quality
standards in the United States. To read the September, 1998, EPA
announcement of the final rule to protect Eastern US from Smog, Click
Here.
A four hour release of methyl isocynade at a chemical plant owned by Union
Carbide in 1984 killed 2800 people in Bhopal, India and opened the eyes of
government agencies and public around the world. This Bhopal gas tragedy
can be read in a nutshell in the following table:

Accident Bhopal Gas Tragedy

Location Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
Year 1984
Pollutant Methyl Isocyanate
Physical Methyl isocyanate is a colorless liquid that
Properties of has a sharp odor.
Methyl Isocynate The odor threshold for methyl isocyanate is
2.1 ppm. The chemical formula for methyl
isocyanate is C2H3NO, and the molecular
weight is 57.05 g/mol.
The vapor pressure for methyl isocyanate is
348 mm Hg at 20 C.
Pathway Inhalation
# of Deaths 2000
Cause of Death Primarily : Pulmonary edema
Secondary : Respiratory infections such as
bronchitis and bronchial pneumonia.
Adverse health
More than 170, 000 survivors
effects on
Leukorrhea, pelvic inflammatory disease,
Reproductive
excessive menstrual bleeding, and suppression
adverse effects
of lactation and also stillbirths and spontaneous
abortions

This table has been compiled with the data from this EPA web site.

As a result new regulations and preventive measures were introduced for air
toxins. Public appreciation of radio nuclide emissions increased after the
accidents at Three Mile Island,
U.S.A. and Chernobyl, U.S.S.R.. The accident at Chernobyl in 1986 caused
32 deaths and 135,000 people and their livestock had to be removed from
the region for several months. The radiation exposure could increase the
cancer death rates in USSR and Europe in coming years. The agricultural
activities near the plant have been halted.

In the press, air pollution releases from accidents, transportation sources,

plants, waste incineration facilities and natural sources receive coverage on
a regular basis. The cost of air pollution could easily add up for a nation as
well as for an industrial complex. If enough is
not done to prevent air pollution problems, it is possible that future
generations may see forests on postcards and calendars.

For additional information on air pollution episodes in general and some

particular episodes in UK during summer, winter and other times, can be
obtained from http://www.aeat.co.uk/netcen/airqual/welcome.html
A detailed list of major accidents involving hazardous substances is
available on the web site of the United Nations
Environmental Program; "http://www.unepie.org".

WHAT IS AN AIR POLLUTANT?

In our daily life we come across many airborne chemicals. Are all these
chemicals termed as air pollutants? This question leads one to define an air
pollutant.

A contaminant that affects human life, plant life, animal life and property or
a contaminant which interferes with the enjoyment of life and property could
be termed as an air pollutant. Different countries have different legal
definitions for an air pollutant. However, the above definition gives us an
idea. The Ohio EPA provides the definition of "Air pollutant" or "air
contaminant" as particulate matter, dust, fumes, gas, mist, smoke, vapor or
odorous substances, or any combination there of.

An air pollutant can be defined based on the concentration of chemical

present in environment. The composition of clean air (shown in the following
figure) is used as a bench mark. If the concentration of a chemical is above
the concentration of chemical present in air, it is then termed as an air
pollutant.

GASEOUS COMPOSTION OF CLEAN AIR IN THE ATMOSPHERE NEAR

THE EARTH SURFACE:
There are two basic physical forms of air pollutants. The first is gaseous
form. For example, sulfur dioxide, ozone and hydro-carbon vapors exist in
the form of a gas. The gases
lack definite volume and shape and the molecules are widely separated. The
second form of air pollution is particulate matter such as smoke, dust, fly
ash and mists.

The pollutants are also classified as primary pollutants and secondary

pollutants.

The primary pollutants remain in the same chemical form as they are
released from a source directly into the atmosphere. For example: sulfur
dioxide and hydrocarbons.

The secondary pollutants are a result of chemical reaction among two or

more pollutants. The production of PAN (Peroxyacetyl nitrate) during
photochemical reactions is an example of secondary pollutant.

SOURCES OF AIR POLLLUTANTS:

Toxic air pollutants may originate from natural sources such as volcanoes as
well as from
manmade sources such as stationary and mobile sources.

The stationary sources serve as major contributors to air pollution, since

they include factories, refineries, or power pollutants, which are constantly
emitting pollutants into the atmosphere.

POINT, AREA, MOBILE AND NATURAL SOURCES:

Point sources include stationary facilities that emit sufficient amounts of

pollutants to be worth listing.

Area sources are all other point sources that individually emit small
amount of pollutants. Dry cleaners in a city are an example of area sources.
They contribute significantly to pollution as a group.

Mobile sources include automobiles, trucks, air planes, ships, boats

and lawnmowers. Natural sources are soil, water, vegetables, volcanic

eruptions and lightning strikes. Sources may also be classified the

way they generate emissions:

 transportation,
 stationary combustion sources,
 industrial processes,
 solid waste disposal facilities and miscellaneous.

 Transportation sources: This category includes most emissions

produced from transportation sources during the combustion process.
The internal combustion engines fueled by gasoline and diesel are the
biggest sources in this category. The other sources include trains,
ships, lawnmowers, farm tractors, planes, and construction
machinery.
  Stationary combustion sources: In this category the sources only
produce energy and the emission is a result of fuel combustion. The
sources include power plants as well as home heating furnaces.

 Industrial Processes: The sources which emit pollutants during

manufacturing of products are included in this category.
Petrochemical plants, petrochemical refining, food and agriculture
industries, chemical processing, metallurgical and mineral product
factories and wood processing industries are the major sources of air
emissions. The smaller sources include dry- cleaning, painting and
degreasing operations.

 Solid Waste Disposal: This category includes facilities that dispose

off unwanted trash. Refuse incineration and open burning are
important sources.

 Miscellaneous: The sources which do not fit in the above four

categories are listed under this title. These sources include forest
fires, house fires, agriculture burning, asphalt road paving and coal
mining.

The pollutants typically released from the above sources are

given in the table. Table

SOURCE TYPICAL AIR POLLUTANTS RELEASED

Transportation sources carbon monoxide ( CO ), lead ( Pb ),
nitrogen oxides ( NOx ), ozone ( O3 )

Stationary sources carbon monoxide ( CO ), lead ( Pb ),

nitrogen oxides ( NOx), particulate
matter, sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Industrial processes carbon monoxide ( CO ), lead ( Pb ),

nitrogen oxides ( NOx), particulate
matter, sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Solid Waste Disposal carbon monoxide ( CO )

Miscellaneous ( forest fires, carbon monoxide ( CO ), nitrogen oxides

asphalt road paving, coal ( NOx), particulate matter, sulfur dioxide
mining etc. ) (SO2)
PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS FROM VARIOUS ACTIVITIES

The sources may be classified as primary or secondary, mobile or

stationary, combustion or non combustion, point or area and natural
(biogenic) sources.

The following table shows the constituents of atmospheric fine particles

(<2.5mm) and their major sources, classified as primary and secondary and
further as natural and anthropogenic.

Source USEPA document :

http://www.epa.gov:80/nceawww1/pdfs/0671ch05.pdf
COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS

Let us now turn our attention to common air pollutants. There are seven
criteria pollutants: i. sulfur oxides, ii. hydrocarbons, iii. carbon monoxide,
iv. nitrogen dioxide, v. ozone, vi. total suspended particulate matter, and vii.
lead. The other class of air pollutants which are of concern are hazardous
and toxic air pollutants. The later area is rapidly expanding because of
public pressure, concern over adverse health effects and accidental
environmental damage.

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Sulfur dioxide is considered a primary precursor of acidic precipitation.

The sources of SO2 are natural sources such as volcanoes and manmade
sources such as power plants and industrial sources that burn coal or fuel.
During the burning of fossil fuels 2 lb.. of SO2 is produced for each pound of
sulfur present in the fuel. It can harm human, and animal lungs, as well
as plants and trees. Sulfur dioxide is the main contributor to acid rain. It
reacts with the oxygen in the air to become sulfur trioxide, which then
reacts with water in the air to form sulfuric acid. Acid rain can slowly kill
both animal populations in lakes and rivers and trees and other plants by
damaging leaves and root systems. It can deteriorate metal and stone on
buildings and statues. The effects of acid rain are not only local, but they
can occur hundreds of miles from the sources of sulfur dioxide.

Hydrocarbons (HC)
Hydrocarbons are composed of only hydrogen and carbon. The volatile
organic compounds (VOC) are the compounds which take part in
atmospheric photochemical process. VOCs are composed of hydrogen and
carbon, and may also contain elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,
chlorine, and fluorine. VOC emissions are produced during combustion and
their rate of production is affected by time in combustion chamber, fuel and
air mix, temperature, turbulence, pressure and design of chamber. The
manmade sources of hydrocarbons include dry cleaning operations, auto
paint shop, chemical plants, auto emissions, service stations and waste
facilities. The VOCs are used in the manufacture of glue and paints as
solvents.

Ozone (O3)
Ozone is a gaseous, secondary pollutant and is formed during
photochemical smog in the atmosphere. The interaction of NO2 with VOCs
produces ozone in the presence of sunlight. If the air over the city does not
move, pollutants become trapped close to the earth's surface forming smog
and increasing ozone problems which can lead to breathing problems. High
ozone levels at the ground level harm plants, including trees and crop
plants, and causes the accelerated deterioration of materials such as rubber
and fabrics.
There is another type of ozone problem which came to attention in late
sixties. Concerns were expressed on the destruction of ozone layer due to
the use of supersonic transports. At present the destruction of ozone layer
in the stratosphere due to the use of certain chemical compounds ( choloro-
fluro-carbons- CFCs, methane etc. ) is an environmental issue.

Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSPM)

TSP is mostly a primary pollutant, but some of it is formed as secondary
pollutant. It consists of soot, dust, tiny objects of liquid, and other material.
An increase in the incidence of respiratory diseases and gastric cancer has
been linked with the increase in particulate level.
The natural sources include volcanoes, forest fires, and desert land. Some
manmade sources are steel industry, power plants, and flour mills.
Agricultural activities also contribute to TSP loading. Particulate gradually
settle back to earth and can cause people to cough, get sore throats, or
develop other more serious breathing problems. Particulate matter also
causes discoloration of buildings and other structures.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Nitrogen Oxides are formed naturally by bacteria in soil and play an
important role in plant growth. However, nitrogen oxides that enter the air
through exhaust from vehicles and some power plants can be harmful. They
can combine with water to make acid rain, react in the air to produce ozone
and other pollutants, or be harmful by themselves as a gas in the air.
Nitrogen dioxide is of greatest concern and is brown- red in color. Nitrogen
oxide is relatively less harmful as compared to other oxides of nitrogen.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

It is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas and affects the central nervous
system of humans. The gas is emitted when vehicles burn gasoline and
when kerosene and wood stoves are used to heat homes. The gas reduces
the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen to body tissue. The effects of
carbon monoxide include headaches, reduced mental alertness, heart
damage; it may even cause death, and it contributes to smog.

Lead (Pb)
Lead is fairly abundant and is derived from ore bearing minerals. The gray
metal can be easily molded, formed and worked. It can withstand
weathering and chemical erosion. Lead has been used in the manufacture of
pipes, paint house hold pottery, gasoline additives and storage batteries. In
the U.S. the major source of lead mining is the state of Missouri.
Automobiles and leaded gasoline are major sources of atmospheric lead.
Lead was more of a problem a few years ago when all vehicles used gasoline
with lead additives. When lead gasoline is burned, lead is released into the
air. When people or animals breathe lead over a period of time, it
accumulates in their bodies and can cause brain or kidney damage. Today
most cars use unleaded gasoline, but there is still much leaded gasoline
being sold, and lead continues to be a major pollutant, especially in cities.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide emissions have increased significantly during 19th century
because of the use of coal, oil and natural gas.

A summary of the above major air pollutants, sources and their

effects is given in the following table.

Table: MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS, SOURCES AND THEIR EFFECTS

POLLUTANT DESCRIPTION SOURCE (s) EFFECTS

Sulfur -burning
Dioxide compound power plants and
( SO2 ) made up of industries
sulfur and
oxygen and processes resulting in
-burning acidic
stoves precipitation
 nd
statues

Hydrocarbons
hydrogen operations.
and
carbon.

Ozon st
e ( O3 pollutant
)
Particula
te Matter particles of
soot, dust, or
other matter, mills
including tiny st statues
droplets of
liquids
Nitrogen
Oxides compounds
, made up of process forests, buildings, &
( NOx ) nitrogen and
oxygen statues pollutants
es residential
(smog)

heaters
-burning
stoves
Carbon
Monoxid odorless gas gasoline mental alertness, death
e, ( CO )
include kerosene-
or wood- burning
stoves

Lead
,( element leaded gasoline
Pb ) livestock

REMARKS

Air pollution is an important problem facing our society. The solutions

require a global approach. The international agencies (e.g. UN) are playing
an active role in developing treaties. The level of activity to control air
pollution varies from one nation to another. A part of the pollution problem
is caused by our desire to progress. The progress leads to movement of more
people to a developed area and increased consumption of resources. The
solution to the pollution problem involves politics, economics, science,
technology, sociology and life style changes.
Not understanding the consequences of pollution is also part of the
problem. For years, people thought that they could safely get rid of
garbage, sewage, exhaust, and other waste products by throwing them
away, flushing them down the drain, or releasing them into the air. Thus
basic awareness and appropriate education in conjunction with that
awareness is called for.

Are we prepared to change our lifestyle to reduce air pollution? This

question will come over again and again as we prepare ourselves for the
next century.

Particulate emission control by

mechanical separation & wet gas
scrubbing
 PARTICULATE EMISSION CONTROL BY
MECHANICAL SEPARATION
The basic mechanism of removing particulate matter from gas stream is
classified as: 1) gravitational settling 2) centrifugal impaction 3) inertial
impaction 4) direct interception 5) diffusion and 6) electrostatic precipitation.
Equipment presently available, which make use of one or more of the
above mechanisms, fall into the following five broad categories: 1) gravitational
settling chambers 2) cyclone separators 3) fabric filters 4) electrostatic
precipitator

[A] Gravitational Settling Chambers

Gravitational settling chambers are generally used to remove large,
abrasive particles (usually >50 µm) from gas stream. It provides enlarged areas
to minimize horizontal velocities and allow time for the vertical velocity to carry
the particle to the floor. The usual velocity through settling chambers is

between 0.5 to 2.5 m/s.

Figure 2.2.1: Gravitation settling chamber [1]

Advantage: Low pressure loss, simplicity of design and maintenance.
Disadvantage: Requires larger space and efficiency is low. Only larger
sized particles are separated out.

Design of a gravitational settling chamber

If we assume that Stokes law applies we can derive a formula for
calculating the minimum diameter of a particle collected at 100% theoretical
efficiency in a chamber of length L.
 vt
vh 
(2.2.1
H L
)
Where vt=terminal settling velocity, m/s
g
 

p p
vt  d2


a
(2.2.2)
9
a

Where, g=gravitational constant, m/s2; ρp=density of particle, kg/m3;

ρa=density air, kg/m3; dp=diameter of particle, m; µa=viscosity of air, kg/m s;
H=height of settling chamber, m; vh=horizontal flow-through velocity, m/s; and
L=length of settling chamber, m.
Solving for dp gives an equation that predicts the largest-size particle that
can be removed with 100% efficiency from a settling chamber of given
dimension.  
 18a Hvh 
 gL pa  
dp
(2.2.3)
All particles larger than dp will also be removed with 100% efficiency,
while the efficiency for smaller particles is the ratio of their settling velocities to
the settling velocity of the dp particle.

[B] Cyclone Separators

A cyclone separator consists of a cylindrical shell, conical base, dust
hopper and an inlet where the dust-laden gas enters tangentially. Under the
influence of the centrifugal force generated by the spinning gas, the solid
particles are thrown to the wall of the cyclone as the gas spirals upward at the
inside of the cone. The particles slide down the walls of the cone and into the
hopper. The operating efficiency of a cyclone depends on the magnitude of the
centrifugal force exerted on the particles. The greater the centrifugal force, the
greater the spreading efficiency. The magnitude of the centrifugal force
generated depends on particle mass, gas velocity within the cyclone, and
cyclone diameter.

v2
 F c  Mp i (2.2.4)
R
Where, Fc=centrifugal force, N; Mp=particulate
mass, Kg; vi equals particle velocity
and
R equals radius of the cyclone, m/s. From this equation, it can be seen that the
centrifugal force on the particles, and thus the collection efficiency of the
cyclone collector can be increased by decreasing R. Large-diameter cyclone
have good collection efficiencies for particles 40 to 50 µm in diameter.
Advantage: Relatively inexpensive, simple to design and maintain; requires
less floor area; low to moderate pressure loss.
Disadvantage: Requires much head room; collection efficiency is low for
smaller particles, quite sensitive to variable dust loading and flow rates.

[C] Fabric Filters

In a fabric filter system, the particulate-laden gas stream passes through
a woven or felted fabric that filters out the particulate matter and allows the
gas to pass through. Small particles are initially retained on the fabric by direct
interception, inertial impaction, diffusion, electrostatic attraction, and
gravitational settling. After a dust mat has formed on the fabric, more efficient
collection of submicron particle is accomplished by sieving.
Filter bags usually tubular or envelope-shaped, are capable of removing
most particles as small as 0.5µm and will remove substantial quantity of
particles as small as 0.1 µm. Filter bags ranging from 1.8 to 9 m long, can be
utilized in a bag house filter arrangement.
As particulates build up on the inside surface of the bags, the pressure
drop increases. Before the pressure drop becomes too severe, the bag must be
relieved of some of the particulate layer. Fabric filter can be cleaned
intermittently, periodically, or continuously [2].
Fabric and Fibre Characteristics: Fabric filter may be classified according to
filtering media: woven fabric or felt cloth. Woven fabrics have a definite long
range repeating pattern and have considerable porosity in the direction of
gas flow. These open spaces must be bridged by impaction of interception
to form a true filtering surface. Felted cloth consists of randomly oriented
fibres, compressed into a mat and needled to some loosely woven backing
material to improve mechanical strength. The choice of fabric fibre is based
primarily on operating temperature and the corrosiveness or abrasiveness of
the particle. Cotton is the least expensive fibre, and is preferably used in low
temperature dust collection service. Silicon coated glass fibre cloth is
commonly employed in high temperature applications. The glass fibre must be
lubricated to prevent abrasion. All fibre may be applied to the manufacture of
woven and felt type fabrics.
Fabric Filter System: Fabric filter systems typically consist of a tubular bag or
an envelope, suspended or mounted in such manner that the collected
particles fall into hopper when dislodged from fabric. The structure in which
the bags are hanged is known as a bag-house.
 Generally, particle laden gas enters the bag at the bottom and passes
through the fabric while the particles are deposited on the inside of the bag.
The cleaning is accomplished by shaking at fixed intervals of time [3].

Figure 2.2.2: Typical bag-house

Advantage: Fabric filters can give high efficiency, and can even remove very
small particles in dry state.
Disadvantage: High temperature gasses need to be cooled. The flue gasses
must be dry to avoid condensation and clogging. The fabric is liable to
chemical attacks.

[D] Electrostatic Precipitator

The electrostatic precipitator is one of the most widely used device for
controlling particulate emission at industrial installations ranging from power
plants, cement and paper mills to oil refineries. Electrostatic precipitator is a
physical process by which particles suspended in gas stream are charged
electrically and, under the influence of the electrical field, separated from the
gas stream.
 The precipitator system consists of a positively charged collecting surface
and a high- voltage discharge electrode wire suspended from an insulator at
the top and held in passion by weight t the bottom. At a very high DC voltage,
of the order of 50kV, a corona discharge occurs close to the negative electrode,
setting up an electric field between the emitted and the grounded surface [4].
The particle laden gas enters near the bottom and flows upward. The gas
close to the negative electrode is, thus, ionized upon passing through the
corona. As the negative ions and electrons migrate toward the grounded
surface, they in turn charge the passing particles. The electrostatic field then
draws the particles to the collector surface where they are deposited.
Periodically, the collected particles must be removed from the collecting
surface. This is done by rapping or vibrating the collector to dislodge the
particles. The dislodged particles drop below the electrical treatment zone and
are collected for ultimate disposal [5].

Advantage:
 Maintenance is nominal, useless corrosive and adhesive materials are
present in flue gases.
 They contain few moving parts.
 They can be operated at high temperature up to 300oC-450o C.

Disadvantage:
 Higher initial cost.
 Sensitive to variable dust loading and flow rates.
 They use high voltage, and hence may pose risk to personal safety of the
staff.
 Collection efficiency reduces with time.

PARTICULATE EMISSION CONTROL BY WET GAS

SCRUBBING
Wet scrubber removes particulate matter from gas streams by
incorporating the particles into liquid droplets directly on contact. The basic
function of wet scrubber is to provide contact between the scrubbing liquid,
usually water and, the particulate to be collected. This contact can be achieved
in a variety of ways as the particles are confronted with so-called impaction
target, which can be wetted surface as in packed scrubbers or individual
droplets as in spray scrubbers [3]. The basic collection mechanism is the same
as in filters: inertial impaction, interception and diffusion. Generally, impaction
and interception are the predominant mechanism for particles of
diameter above 3 µm, and for particle of diameter below 0.3 µm diffusion
begins to prevail. There are many scrubber designs presently available where
the contact between the scrubbing liquid and the particles is achieved in a
variety of ways. The major types are: plate scrubber, packed-bed scrubber,
spray scrubber, venturi scrubber, cyclone scrubber, baffle scrubber,
impingement-entrainment scrubber, fluidized-bed scrubber.

[A] Plate scrubber

It contains a vertical tower containing one or more horizontal plates
(trays). Gas enters the bottom of the tower and must pass through perforations
in each plate as it flows countercurrent to the descending water stream.
Collection efficiency increases as the diameter of the perforations decreases. A
cut diameter, that collected with 50% efficiency, of about µm aerodynamic
diameter can be achieved with 3.2-mm-diameter holes in a sieve plate.

[B] Packed –bed scrubber

Operates similarly to packed-bed gas absorber. Collection efficiency
increases as packing size decreases. A cut diameter of 1.5 µm aerodynamic
diameter can be attained in columns packed with 2.5 cm elements.
Figure : Packed–bed scrubber
[C] Spray scrubber
Particles are collected by liquid drops that have been atomized by spray
nozzles. Horizontal and vertical gas flows are used, as well as spray introduced
co-current, countercurrent, or cross-flow to the gas.
Collection efficiency depends on droplet size, gas velocity, liquid/gas
ratio, and droplet trajectories. For droplets falling at their terminal velocity, the
optimum droplet diameter for fine- particle collection lies in the range 100 to
500 µm.
Gravitational settling scrubbers can achieve cut diameters of about 2.0
µm. The liquid/gas ratio is in the range 0.001 to 0.01 m3/ m3 of gas treated.

[D] Venturi scrubber

A moving gas stream is used to atomize liquids into droplets. High gas
velocities (60 to 120 m/s) lead to high relative velocities between gas and
particles and promote collection.

[E] Cyclone scrubber

Drops can be introduced into the gas stream of a cyclone to collect
particles. The spray can be directed outward from a central manifold or inward
from the collector wall.

[F] Impingement-Entrainment Scrubber:

The gas is forced to impinge on a liquid surface to reach a gas exit. Some
of the liquid atomizes into drops that are entrained by the gas. The gas exit is
designed so as to minimize the loss of entrained droplets.

[G] Fluidized-bed scrubber

A zone of fluidized packing is provided where gas and liquid can mix
intimately. Gas passes upward through the packing, while liquid is sprayed up
from the bottom and/or flows down over the top of the fluidized layer of
packing [6].
 OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS / DISEASES
DUE TO EXPOSE IN DUSTY AND
POLLUTED AIR

There are certain diseases which are related to one’s occupation. These are
caused by constant use of certain substances that sneak into air and then
enter our body.

(i) Silicosis (Silico-tuberculosis) occurs due to inhalation of free silica, or SiO2 (Silicon
dioxide), while mining or working in industries related to pottery, ceramic, glass,
building and construction work. The workers get chronic cough and pain in the chest.
Silicosis treatment is extremely limited considering a lack of cure for the disease.
However, like all occupational respiratory ailments, it is 100% preventable if exposure
is minimized.

(ii) Asbestosis is caused by asbestos, which is used in making ceilings. It is also

considered as cancer causing agent. Pathogenesis of the disease is characterized as
progressive and irreversible, leading to subsequent respiratory disability. In severe
cases, asbestosis results in death from pulmonary hypertension and cardiac failure.

(iii) Byssinosis, also referred to as brown lung disease, is an occupational respiratory

disorder characterized by the narrowing of pulmonary airways. It is a disabling lung
disease, which is marked by chronic cough and chronic bronchitis due to inhalation of
cotton fibers over a long period of time.

(iv) Coal worker’s Pneumoconiosis occurs due to inhalation of coal dust from coal
mining industry. Also referred to as black lung disease. The workers suffer from lung
problems. Apart from asbestosis, black lung disease is the most frequently occurring
type of pneumoconiosis . In terms of disease pathogenesis, a time delay of nearly a
decade or more occurs between exposure and disease onset.
Preventive Measures – The most successful tool of prevention of
respiratory diseases from industrial dust is to minimize exposure. However,
this is not a practical approach from the perspective of industries such as
mining, construction/demolition, refining/manufacturing/processing, where
industrial dust is an unavoidable byproduct. In such cases, industries must
implement a stringent safety protocol that effectively curtails exposure to
potentially hazardous dust sources. National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) recommended precautionary measures to reduce exposure
to a variety of industrial dust types.
1. Recognize when industrial dust may be generated and plan ahead to eliminate or
control the dust at the source. Awareness and planning are keys to prevention of
silicosis.

2. Do not use silica sand or other substances containing more than 1% crystalline
silica as abrasive blasting materials. Substitute less hazardous materials.

3. Use engineering controls and containment methods such as blast-cleaning

machines and cabinets, wet drilling, or wet sawing of silica-containing materials to
control the hazard and protect adjacent workers from exposure.

4. Routinely maintain dust control systems to keep them in good working order.

5. Practice good personal hygiene to avoid unnecessary exposure to other worksite

contaminants such as lead.

6. Wear disposable or washable protective clothes at the worksite.

7. Shower (if possible) and change into clean clothes before leaving the worksite to
prevent contamination of cars, homes, and other work areas.

8. Conduct air monitoring to measure worker exposures and ensure that controls
are providing adequate protection for workers.

9. Use adequate respiratory protection when source controls cannot keep silica
exposures below the designated limit.

10. Provide periodic medical examinations for all workers who may be exposed to
respirable crystalline silica.
 11. Post warning signs to mark the boundaries of work areas contaminated with
respirable crystalline silica.

12 Provide workers with training that includes information about health

effects, work practices, and protective equipment for respirable crystalline
silica.

13. Report all cases of silicosis to Federal / State health departments.

8.0. Preventing damaging effects of air and dust pollution – The prevention of
air pollution is world wide concern. There have been many investigations into
what causes air pollution and the exact methods that work best in the
prevention of air pollution. Through the use of many different methods air
pollution is becoming easier to control. It is only through various measures,
though, that the prevention of air pollution is possible. The government plays a
very important role in prevention of air pollution. It is through government
regulations that industries are forced to reduce their air pollution and new
developments in technology are created to help everyone do their part in the
prevention of air pollution. The government also helps by continuously making
regulations stricter and enforcing new regulations that help to combat any new
found source of air pollution.

In many countries in the world, steps are being taken to stop the damage to our
environment from air pollution. Scientific groups study the damaging effects on
plant, animal and human life. Legislative bodies write laws to control emissions.
Educators in schools and universities teach students, beginning at very young
ages, about the effects of air pollution. The first step to solving air pollution is
assessment. Researchers have investigated outdoor air pollution and have
developed standards for measuring the type and amount of some serious air
pollutants.

Scientists must then determine how much exposure to pollutants is harmful.

Once exposure levels have been set, steps can be undertaken to reduce
exposure to air pollution. These can be accomplished by regulation of man-
made pollution through legislation. Many countries have set controls on
pollution emissions for transportation vehicles and industry. This is usually
done to through a variety of coordinating agencies which monitor the air and
the environment.
In the prevention of air pollution it is important to understand about indoor air
pollution. Indoor air pollution may seem like an individual concern, but it
actually is not just something to worry about in your own home. Indoor air
pollution contributes to outdoor air pollution. Prevention is another key to
controlling air pollution. The regulatory agencies mentioned above play an
essential role in reducing and preventing air pollution in the environment. In
addition, it is possible to prevent many types of air pollution that are not
regulated through personal, careful attention to our interactions with the
environment. One of the most dangerous indoor air pollutants is cigarette
smoke. Restricting smoking is an important key to a healthier environment.
Legislation to control smoking is in effect in some locations, but personal
exposure should be monitored and limited wherever possible.

9.0. Conclusion – Air pollution prevention efforts of companies have generally

focused on both source and waste reduction, and on reuse and recycling.
Preventing air pollution within a company’s manufacturing processes remains
the key approach. Cleaning and processing, switch to non-polluting
technologies and materials, reduced generation of waste water, converting
hazardous by-products to non-threatening forms, etc. have been attempted in
this regard. Indirect air pollution prevention measures by companies also cover
transportation. Examples of such measures include: providing company
transportation to employees; offering commuting information and selling public
transit passes; and encouraging employees to carpool and use public
transportation. Companies have also initiated successful programmes such as
the use of bicycles to commute to work, telecommuting, and work-at- home etc.
to reduce pollution due to commuting.

It should be noted that, only through the efforts of scientists, business leaders,
legislators, and individuals can we reduce the amount of air pollution on the
planet. This challenge must be met by all of us in order to assure that a healthy
environment exist for ourselves and our children.

MONITOTING OF AIR POLLUTION

• Monitoring is done to keep a track on quality of air with a view to collect
information & improve it.
• The best indicators are – SO2, smoke & suspended particles.
• These are monitored on a daily basis and the results are collected by a
central agency
Air quality index – It is an index (that is, a numerical value or ratio
derived from a series of observations) for reporting daily air quality.
• It tells us how clean or polluted our air is, and what associated health
effects might be a concern for us.
• AQI calculated for five major air pollutants regulated by the Clean Air
Act: ground-level ozone, particle pollution (also known as particulate
matter), carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, & nitrogen dioxide.
• National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP)
• The objectives of the N.A.M.P. are
• To determine status and trends of ambient air quality;
• To ascertain whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards are
violated,
• To Identify Non-attainment Cities
• To obtain the knowledge and understanding necessary for developing
preventive and corrective measures;
• To understand the natural cleansing process undergoing in the environment
through pollution dilution, dispersion, wind based movement, dry
deposition, precipitation and chemical transformation of pollutants
generated
Air pollution monitoring in India:
• The national air quality monitoring programme sponsored by the central
pollution control board since 1990 has generated database over last 14
years in 10 major Indian cities.
• Under N.A.M.P., three  air pollutants viz ., Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen
dioxides (NO2) and Reparable Particulate Matter (RSPM/PM10) have been
identified for regular monitoring at all the locations .
• The monitoring of pollutants is carried out for 24 hours (4-hourly sampling
for gaseous pollutants and 8-hourly sampling for particulate matter) with a
 frequency of twice a week, to have 104 observations in a year.
• There are 573 operating stations in 240 cities/towns in 26 states and 5
Union Territories of the country.
Monitoring agencies:
 The monitoring is being carried out by Central Pollution Control Board;
State Pollution Control Boards; Pollution Control Committees; National
Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI),Nagpur.
 CPCB co-ordinates with the other agencies to ensure the uniformity,
consistency of air quality data and provides technical and financial support
to them for operating the monitoring station.
 N.A.M.P. is being operated through various monitoring agencies, large
number of personnel and equipment are involved in the sampling, chemical
analyses, data reporting etc.