SEMANTICS, Fall 2021/2022 Dr.

Najib Ismail Jarad

Chapter 5: Lexical Relations

A lexeme is a minimal unit that can take part in referring or predicating. Lexical relation means
two or more lexemes are connected with the lexemes of language.

One part of knowing the meanings of lexemes in any language is:

 Two or more lexemes have the same semantic relations:

father and mother: (Co-hyponyms of the hypernym/ superordinate “parent”)
father and son: (Relational Antonyms)
father and paternal: (Synonyms)
employer and employee: (Relational Antonyms)
big and large: (Synonyms)
big and little: (Antonyms)
red, yellow and blue: (Co-hyponyms of the hypernym/ superordinate “color”)
single and married: (Non-gradable/absolute Antonyms)

Words or lexemes in any language are connected semantically. There is a semantic relationship
between them.

There are two approaches that are used to describe these lexical relations: semantic field
theory and truth conditions.

1. Semantic field: is an attempt to classify lexemes according to shared and differentiating

features.
For example: [Wasp, honest, bee: Insects that fly and sting].
[Moth and housefly: Insects that fly but do not sting].
[Ant and termite: Insects that neither fly nor sting].

2. Truth-conditional semantics studies lexical relations by comparing predications that can be

made about the same referring expression. The aim is to explain meaning relations between
different expressions in a language. These relations are entailment, paraphrase, and
contradiction.

P AND Q = 2 relations
 If my tie is entirely maroon, is it true that my tie is red = YES, Maroon is a co-hyponym of
red. [IF P is true Q must be true].
 Mary has a cat = Mary has an animal [p is true, q is true].
 Circles are squares. [Contradiction]
 Kings are female. [Contradiction]
 John is a bachelor, but he is married. [Contradiction]
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5.1 Lexical fields:

(Sets, themes) Theme-based vocabulary

Lexemes belongs to sets of lexical items; one lexeme could be a member of a large group of sets.

Sport: Tennis, football, basketball, golf.

Creative writings: Poem, short story, novel, biography, essay, etc...
Manual occupations: Carpenter, electrician, painter, plumber, welder, etc...
Weather: Rain, wind, fog, clouds, umbrella, sunshine, storm, etc...
Kinship: Father, mother, sister, brother, aunt, uncle, etc...
Weight below normal: Thin, bony, skinny, scrawny, underweight, slender, slim.
Some lexical sets involve part-whole relations: arm includes hand which includes fingers
Face: Eyes, mouth, cheeks, forehead, eyebrows, nose, chin, jaw, eyelashes, eyelid.
Water forms: Ice, stream, vapor, sleet, rain, snow, hail, etc...
Water in motion: Creek, river, waves, stream, etc...
Some sets are sequential: numbers, one, two, three…
Cyclical (cycle): January, February, etc.… Sunday, Monday…
Other sets form Paradigm:

Male Female

Adult Man Women

Child Boy Girl
[HUMAN]

Componential Analysis: definitions use binary features:

The advantage of componential analysis: is that it reflects the system through which lexemes
have their meanings. To tell what something is requires us to tell what it is not, what it contrasts
with, and what feature(s) make the contrast possible

One possible disadvantage of componential analysis: is that we may find ourselves unduly
concerned with the classification of phenomena represented in our language, forgetting that our
concern is language itself.

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LEXEME [HUMAN] [ADULT] [MALE] [CHILD]

Child + - * +
Boy + - + +
Girl + - - +
Women + + - -
Man + + + -

Adult + + * -

Adolescent + - * -

Stool, chair, bench, sofa

Sofa Bench Chair Stool

# of sitters [- sitter] [- sitter] [+ sitter] [+ sitter]

Upholstery [+ upholstery] [- upholstery] [* upholstery] [* upholstery]

Back Support [+ back] [+ back] [+ back] [* back]

[+HUMAN], [MALE], [MARRIED], [ADULT]

Spinster: [+HUMAN], [-MALE], [-MARRIED], [+ADULT].

Bachelor: [+HUMAN], [+MALE], [-MARRIED], [+ADULT].

Nurse: [+HUMAN], [*MALE], [*MARRIED], [+ADULT].

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Componential Analysis of the Field of “Killing”

Verb Semantic Features

Cause Done on Criminal Suggests Against Large Political Like A lawful

to die purpose act cruelty defenseless number reasons Animals punishment
people of victims

Kill + - - - - - - - -

Murder + + +

Assassinate + + + +

Massacre + + + + + +

Slaughter + + + + + + +

Butcher + + + + + + +

Execute + + +

Componential Analysis of the Field of “Looking”

Verb Semantic Features

Direct Intently as For a Momentarily Object With wide- With wide- Angrily Searching
the eyes in wonder, long or briefly is open mouth open eyes as or ly and
towards interest, time hardly as in in fiercely closely
delight, seen wonder, amazement
admiration shock, or
surprise
Look +

Gaze + + +

Stare + + + + +

Glance + +

Glimpse + + +

Peer + + +

Glare + +

Gape + + +

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Noun Common Count Concrete Animate

Plans + + - -
Flu + - - -
Group + + + +
Appetite + - - -
Budget + + - -
Seafood + - + -
Grandparents + + + +
Herd + + + +
Vacation + + - -
Scissors + - + -
Requirements + + - -

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5.3 Hyponyms:
Hyponymy refers to lexemes whose meanings are included in the meaning of a more general
lexeme:

Daisy, rose, tulip = flower

Desk, table, sofa = furniture
Sparrow, robin, crow = birds

For example:

Food = (Hypernym/Superordinate term), general word

Meat = (Hypernym/superordinate) Vegetable Fruit = (Co-hyponyms of ‘food’)

Beef Spinach Apple, orange, peach

Chicken Cabbage

Fish

= Co-hyponyms of ‘meat’

 I had chicken for lunch yesterday = entails that I had meat.

 I had meat for lunch yesterday * it doesn’t entail chicken.

Mammal = (Hypernym/Superordinate term), general word

(Co-hyponyms of ‘Mammal’) = Cat Horse Dog Elephant

Relations can be between verbs not just nouns:

a) I saw you sprint to the library yesterday = entails that I saw you run to the library.

b) I saw you run to the library yesterday = it doesn’t entail that you were sprinting.

Running = “Superordinate term/Hyponym”

Jog/sprint/brisk walking = kinds of “running”

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 SEMANTICS, Fall 2021/2022 Dr. Najib Ismail Jarad

RUN

Race: to run somewhere as quickly as you can, especially because you have to do sth urgently.

Dash: to run somewhere as quickly as you can.................

Sprint: to run as fast as you can for a short distance.

Tear: to run very quickly and without looking where are going, because you are in a hurry: He tore
down the street and around the corner.

Charge: to run quickly and with a lot of energy so that you might knock down anyone in your way.

Leg it: to run away

Lope: to run easily with long steps........

Lope “literary word”:

The definitions of these all include the word “RUN” (hypernym).

Hyponymy can be defined as: X is a kind of Y

Hyponymy is used in definitions & every-day language.

Meronymy: is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexemes.
Meronymy: X is a part of Y.

Examples of Meronym:

Co-meronyms of “Computer”.

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5.3 Hyponyms: (P. 63, 64)

Rover is a Collie AND Rover is a dog = Tautology
Rover is a Collie BUT Rover is a dog = Contradiction

Using “AND” & “BUT” with hyponyms produces tautology & contradictory sentences…

Hyponyms is always used to define something (for definitions), used in everyday language.

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5.4 Synonyms: (P.65)

Synonymy is the relation of sameness OR relatedness of meaning.

Total synonymy is very rare; The best test for synonyms is “substitution”:

Nouns: [Reply, answer, response]

 I called you last night but there was no______.

[Reply, answer, response] = All of them are possible in this context

 John got all the ______ correct in the exam.

[Reply, answer, response] = Only one synonym work in this context.

Synonyms are not interchangeable, the substitution test works in some cases, and does not work in
other.

 Will you help me ______ a new suit? [Select/ choose]

There are different types of Synonymy:

1. Stylistic Synonyms: (house, home, abode, domicile, residence), differ in style.

COLLOQUIAL NEUTRAL FORMAL/LITERARY

Kid child infant
Daddy father parent
Chap fellow associate
Go ahead continue proceed
Smashed/trolleyed drunk Inebriated/intoxicated

2. Dialectical Synonyms: (several varieties have different words for the same object)

Australian English British English

This arvo This afternoon
Footpath Pavement
Weekender Holiday cottage
Sheila Girl
Fed with Tired of
Postie Mailperson/postman
Weirdo Weird

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American English British English

Elevator Lift
Sidewalk Pavement
Faucet Tap
Attorney Lawyer

3. Connotative Synonyms: Two or three synonyms that differ in connotation whether they have
positive or negative meaning,

The words, (Produce, create, manufacture, fabricate); their denotative (dictionary) meaning, is to
produce or make sth.

Create: characterizes the process as inspired and noble (Positive connotation)

Produce: (Neutral connotation)
Manufacture: produce sth in a mechanical way without inspiration. (Slightly negative
connotation)
Fabricate: invent sth to deceive. (Negative connotation)

I'm sick and tired of listening to politicians (Negative) but give me a good statesman (Positive) any
day of the week and we'll get things done.

4. Euphemistic Synonyms:

Euphemism: a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh
or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing. (Avoid using harsh words,
usually not direct words).

Die: Pass away, snuff it, kick the bucket, croak, etc.....
Prisoner: Guest of Uncle Sam. guest of Her Majesty, inmate, internee, jailbird, lifer, etc..
Toilet: Bathroom, blue room, comfort room, facility, WC, etc...
Death: Promoted to glory, gone to heaven, laid to rest, bite the bullet, early departed, one-way trip,
wooden overcoat, worm food, knock Heaven’s door, etc….
Urination: Call of nature, ease your bladder, empty your bladder, go to bathroom, pay a visit, spend
a penny, etc….

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Source of Synonymy: “Borrowing”

Native English French Latin

Ask Question Interrogate
End Finish Complete
Rise Mount Ascend
Belly Stomach Abdomen
Begin/start Commence Commence

Synonyms can be adjectives, adverbs, nouns, verbs:

Adjectives: Big/large
Adverbs: Fast/rapidly
Verbs: Left/depart

Synonyms are examples of entailment:

The rock is large entails that the rock is big.

The train left promptly at 10 entails that the train departed promptly at 10.
The rock is large, AND it is big = Tautology
The rock is large, BUT it is not big = Contradiction

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5.5 Antonymy

Antonyms are opposite in meaning, [two or more lexemes that are opposite in meaning].

Two sentences that differ in polarity are mutually contradictory:

John is watching TV now.

John is not watching TV now.

Two sentences that have the same subject and have predicates that are antonyms are mutually
contradictory.
The two sentences have the same subject (The TV) but different predicate (on, off):
The TV is on now.
The TV is off now.

5.5 Binary and non-binary Antonymy

There are several types of Antonymy:

1. Non-binary (Gradable, scaler, contrary) antonyms: Lexemes that designate opposite

regions of a scale with some intermediate range of values between them:

Cold cool lukewarm/tepid warm hot

They are mostly adjectives: Broad-narrow, large-small, old-young

Why are they called Non-binary Antonyms?

 These antonyms can be graded: comparative and superlative forms, [ Colder; the coldest].
 These antonyms can be modified by intensifiers/adverbs, [very cold, quite cold, extremely
cold].

Examples when we talk about entailment:

o The water is hot entails the water is not cold.

o The water is cold entails the water is hot.
o The water is not hot does not entail that the water is cold.
o The water is not cold does not entail the water is hot.

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Examples of gradable Antonyms

Separate words Prefixing with un-/in-/im
Young/old Intelligent/unintelligent
Hot/cold Decent/indecent
Beautiful/ugly Attractive/unattractive
Tall/short Likeable/unlikeable
Fat/thin Comfortable/uncomfortable
Heavy/light Probable/improbable
High/low Forgettable/unforgettable
Wide/narrow Civilized/uncivilized
Happy/sad Happy/unhappy

2. Binary (aka complementary) antonyms: are antonyms that express a binary relation in
which it is perceived that there is no middle ground, Such as the antonyms:
Male/female;
Dead/alive;
Asleep/awake
Live/die;
True/False;
Pass/fail
Open/shut;
Hit/miss;
Odd/even
Present/absent;
Legal/illegal;
Pregnant/non-pregnant

For binary antonyms, there are entailments both from affirmative sentences to the
corresponding negative ones, and from negative sentences to affirmative ones:

The light is on entails the light is not off.

The light is off entails the light is not on.
The light is not on entails the light is on.
The light is not off entails the light is on.

Binary antonyms are not gradable because of the absence of hazy middle ground between the
members of a binary pair.

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3. Relational antonyms: are pairs of antonyms in which one describes a relationship between
two objects/persons and the other describes the same relationship when the two
objects/persons are reserved.

Parent/child; teacher/pupil
John is the parent of Sue = describes the same relationship = as Sue is the child of John
John is Mary’s teacher = describes the same relationship = as Mary is John’s Pupil.
Ends with suffix, (-er), (-ee): Employer/employee; examiner/examinee;
interview/interviewee.
Verbs: give/take; sell/buy; rent/let

4. Reversive antonyms: refers to antonyms in which a change of direction (motion) is

identified.

Most of the reversive antonyms are verbs (actions):

Verbs:
open/shut;
lock/unlock;
rise/fall;
come/go;
leave/return;
tie/untie;
freeze/melt;
buy/sell;
dress/undress;
wrap/unwrap;
pack/unpack;
borrow/lend.

 The prefix (-un), which comes with adjs = the meaning is (not), as in;
[happy/unhappy]

 The prefix (-un), which comes with verbs = the meaning it to (do the reverse), as in
[tie/untie]

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Exercises on Lexical Relations:

1. Provide a synonym and an antonym to each lexeme on the left-had side:

Word Antonymy Synonymy

fair hair Blonde/light brown Dark
a fair decision Just/lawful Unfair/biased
a fair person Impartial/unbiased Biased/prejudiced
fair weather Sunny/cloudless/pleasant Cloudy
fair hair Light-colored/pale Dark
fair maidens Beautiful Ugly/unattractive
a fair chance of winning Reasonable/pretty good Bad/unreasonable/slim
a fair copy of the essay Neat/clear/clean Draft

English- French synonym pairs:

Old English Norman French

King Sovereign
Folk People
Help Aid
Begin Commence
end Terminate
Hinder Prevent
feed Nourish

Please provide an antonym for each of the following collocations:

Fresh milk: spoiled/bad/sour

Fresh bread: stale

Fresh butter: rancid

Fresh fruit: rotten

Wild people: civilized

Wildflower: farmed/cultivated

Wild birds: farmed

Wild night: calm, still. bright, clear

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