Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1.Introduction
Energy from the sun is called solar energy. The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion
reaction that takes place deep in the sun. Hydrogen nucleus fuse into helium nucleus. The
energy from these reactions flow out from the sun and escape into space. Solar energy is
sometimes called radiant energy. These are different kinds of radiant energy emitted by sun.
The most important are light infrared rays. Ultra violet rays, and X- Rays.

The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases. It’s diameter is 1.39x106 KM. While that of the
earth is 1.27x104 KM. The mean distance between the two is 1.5x108 KM. The beam
radiation received from the sun on the earth is reflected in to space, another 15% is absorbed
by the earth atmosphere and the rest is absorbed by the earth’s surface. This absorbed
radiation consists of light and infrared radiation without which the earth would be barren.

All life on the earth depends on solar energy. Green plants make food by means of
photosynthesis. Light is essential from in this process to take place. This light usually comes
from sun. Animal get their food from plants or by eating other animals that feed on plants.
Plants and animals also need some heat to stay alive. Thus plants are store houses of solar
energy. The solar energy that falls on India in one minute is enough to supply the energy
needs of our country for one day. Man has made very little use of this enormous amount of
solar energy that reaches the earth.

1.2 Solar Constant

The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of
fusion reactions. Its diameter is 1.39x106 KM. While that of the earth is 1.27x104 KM. The
mean distance between the two is 1.50x108 KM. Although the sun is large, it subtends an
angle of only 32 minutes at the earth’s surface. This is because it is also a very large distance.
Thus the beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. The brightness
of the sun varies from its center to its edge. However for engineering calculations, it is
customary to assume that the brightness all over the solar disc in uniform. As viewed from
the earth, the radiation coming from the sun appears to be essentially equivalent to that
coming from a back surface at 5762o k. “The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of
the atmosphere is called solar constant Isc”. This is the amount of energy received in unit
time on a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean distance of the earth from
the sun. Because of the sun’s distance and activity vary through out the year, the rate of
arrival of solar constant is thus an average from which the actual values vary up to 3 percent
in either direction. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) standard
value the solar constant, expressed in three common units, is as follows: (i) 1.353 kilowatts

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per square meter (ii) 116.5 Langleys per hour (1 langely being equal to 1cal/cm2 of solar
radiation received in one day) (iii) 429.2 Btu per Sqr.ft. per hour.

The distance between the earth and the sun varies a little through the year. Because of this
variation, the extra – terrestrial flux also varies. The earth is closest to the sun in the summer
and farthest away in the winter.

1.3 Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface

The solar radiation that penetrates the earth’s atmosphere and reaches the surface differs in
both amount and character from the radiation at the top of the atmosphere. In the first place
Part of the radiation is reflected back in to the space, especially by clouds. Further more, the
radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules in the air. Oxygen and
Ozone (O3), formed from oxygen, absorb nearly all the Ultraviolet radiation, and water
vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some of the energy in the infrared range. In addition, part
of the solar radiation is scattered (i.e. its direction has been changed) by droplets in clouds by
atmosphere molecules, and by dust particles

Fig 1.1 Solar Radiation at the Earth’s surface

Solar Radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly from
the sun is called “Direct Radiation” or Beam Radiation. Diffuse radiation is that Solar
Radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by reflection and
scattering by the atmosphere. Because of the Solar Radiation is cattered in all directions in
the atmosphere, diffuses radiation comes to the earth from all parts of the sky. The sum of
the beam and diffuse radiation flux is referred to as total or global radiation.

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1.4 Instruments for measuring solar radiation and sun shine:
Solar Radiation flux is usually measured with the help of a pyranometer or a Pyrheliometer,
sunshine recorder is used for measuring sunshine.

1.4.1. Pyranometer

A pyranometer is an instrument which measures either global or diffuse Radiation over a

hemispherical field of view. A sketch of the Instrument as Installed for the measurement of
global radiation is shown in fig.2.1. Basically the pyranometer consists of a ‘black’ surface
which heats up when exposed to solar radiation. Its temperature increases until its rate of
heat gain by solar radiation equals its rate of heat loss by convection, conduction and
radiation. The hot Junctions of a thermopile are attached to the black surface. While the cold
Junctions are located in such a way that they do not receive the radiation. As a result, an
e.m.f. is generated. This emf which is usually in the range of 0 to 10MV can be read,
recorded or Integrated over a period of time and is a measure of the global radiation.

Fig 1.2. Pyranometer

The pyranometer shown in fig 2.2 is used commonly in India it has its hot Junctions arranged
in the form of a circular disc of diameter 25MM and is coated with a special black lacquer
having a very high absorptivity in the solar wave length region. Two concentric hemispheres,
30 and 50MM in diameter respectively made of optical glass having excellent transmission
characteristics are used to protect the disc surface from the weather. An accuracy of about ±2
percent can be obtained with the Instrument.

1.4.2 Sun Shine Recorder

The duration of bright sun shine in a day is measured by means of a sunshine recorder shown
in fig2.3 the sun’s Rays are focussed by a glass sphere to a point on a card strip held in a

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groove in a spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the sphere. Whenever there is bright
sunshine, the image formed is intense enough to burn a spot on the cord strip.

Fig 1.3 Sun Shine Recorder

Though the day as the sun moves across the sky, the image moves alone the strip. Thus, a
burnt trace whose length is proportional to the duration of sunshine is obtained on the strip.
A photograph of the instrument is shown in plate 3 (bottom).

1.5 Solar Energy Utilization –Basic ideas about the pre-historic way of
using solar energy
Energy is a common Man’s daily commodity: The world energy consumption in 1975 was
8002 million tons of coal equivalent and is expected to shoot up to 27,400 million tons of
coal equivalent in the year 2000. It is becoming scarce day by day even then its demand is on
the increase. The increased population has led to depletion of energy. The process of
mankind has influenced the subsequent exploitation of new sources of energy from time to
time. The utilization of coal, the development of hydro electricity, the discovery of oil and
gas and the advents of nuclear energy are significantly mile stones in human history. Each
new source brought about a preformed change in the life style of the people. Each new
source supplemented the other. The size of the balance of fossil fuels will be over within a
hundred years. Hence it is essential to tap the other sources of energy to supplement the
existing energy demands of all non-conventional energy source, solar energy holds the
greatest promise as it is abundant, renewable and pollution free. Its collection, storage on
conversion is also easy. Hence worldwide attention is now focused on various methods of
utilization of solar energy.

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All life on the earth depends on solar energy. Green plants make food by means of
photosynthesis. Light is essential from in this process to take place. This light usually comes
from sun. Animals get their food from plants are store houses of solar energy. The solar
energy that falls on India in one minute, is enough to supply the energy needs of our country
for one day. Man has made very little use of this enormous amount of solar energy. That
reaches the earth he has used solar energy indirectly, for many thousands of years. Wind
mills which are driven by wind that results from infrared solar energy.

1.6 Solar Energy applications

1. Heating and cooling of residential building.
2. Solar water heating.
3. Solar drying of agricultural and animal products.
4. Salt production by evaporation of seawater.
5. Solar cookers.
6. Solar engines for water pumping.
7. Solar Refrigeration.
8. Solar electric power generation.
9. Solar photo voltaic cells, which can be used for electricity.
10. Solar furnaces.

1.6.1 Solar Collectors

A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfer the energy to fluid
passing in contact with it. Utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors. These are
generally of two types.

(i) Non- concentrating (or) flat plate solar collector.

(ii) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector.

The solar energy collector, with its associated absorber, is the essential component of any
system for the conversion of solar radiation in to more usable form ( heat or electricity). In
the non-concentrating type, the collector area is the same as the absorber area. On the other
hand, in concentrating collectors, the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater. By
means or concentrating collectors, much higher temperatures can be obtained than with the
non-concentrating type. Concentrating collectors may be used to generate medium pressure
steam. They use many different arrangements of mirrors and lenses to concentrate the sun’s
rays on the boiler. This type shows better efficiency than the flat plate type. For best
efficiency, collectors should be mounted to face the sun as it moves through the sky.

(i) Flat plate collectors (non-concentrating)

Where temperatures below about 90oC are adequate as they are for space and service water
heating flat plate collectors, which are of the nonconcentrating type, are particularly
convenient. They are made in rectangular panels from about 1.7 to 2.9 sq.m, in area, and are
relatively simple to construct and erect. Flat plates can collect and absorb both direct and

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diffuse solar radiation, they are consequently partially effective even on cloudy days when
there is no direct radiation. Flat plate solar collectors may be divided into two main
classifications based on the type of heat transfer fluid used.

Fig. 1.4. Liquid heating flat plate collector

Liquid heating Flat Plate Collector

Liquid heating flat plate collectors are used for heating water and nonfreezing aqueous
solutions.

There are many flat-plate collector designs, but most are based on the principle shown in fig
2.4. It is the plate and tube type collector. It basically consists of a flat surface with high
absorptivity for solar radiation called the absorbing surface. Typically a metal plate, usually
of copper, steel or aluminum material with tubing of copper in thermal contact with the plates
are the most commonly used materials. The absorber plate is usually made from a metal
sheet 1 to 2 mm in thickness, while the tubes, which are also of metal, range in diameter from
1 to 1.5cm. They are soldesed, brazed or clamped to the bottom of the absorber plate with
the pitch ranging from 5 to 15 Cm, In some designs, the tubes are also in line and integral
with the absorber plate.

The primary function of the absorber is to absorb maximum radiation reaching it through the
glazing, to lose maximum heat upward to the atmosphere and down ward through the back of
the container and to transfer the retained heat to the working fluid. Black painted absorbers
are preferred because they are considerably cheaper and good absorbers of radiation. Heat is
transferred from the absorber plate to a point of use by circulation of fluid (usually water)
across the solar heated surface. Thermal insulation of 5 to 10cm. Thickness is usually placed
behind the absorber plate to prevent the heat losses from the rear surface. Insulation materials
is generally mineral wool or glass wool or fiber glass.

The front covers are generally glass that is transparent to incoming solar radiation and
opaque to the infra-red re-radiation from the absorber. The glass covers act as a convection
shield to reduce the losses from the absorber plate beneath. The glass thickness of 3 and mm
are commonly used. The usual practice is to have 2 covers with specific ranging from 1.5 to
3cm.

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(ii) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector

Focusing collector or concentrating type solar collector is a device to collect solar energy
with high intensity of solar radiation on the energy absorbing surface. Such collectors
generally use optical system in the form of reflectors or refractors. A focusing collector is a
special form of flat-plate collector modified by introducing a reflecting or refracting surface
between the Solar Radiation and the absorber. In these collectors radiation falling on a
relatively large area is focused on to a receiver or absorber of considerably smaller area. As a
result of the energy concentration, fluids can be heated to temperatures of 5000C or more.

Fig. 1.5 Parabolic concentrating collector

A Schematic diagram of a typical concentrating collector is shown in fig 1.5 the collector
consists of a concentrator and a receiver. The concentrator shown is a mirror reflector having
the shape of a cylindrical parabola. It focuses the sunlight on to its axis where it is absorbed
on the surface of the absorber tube and transferred to the fluid flow through it. A concentric
glass cover around the absorber tube helps in reducing the convective and radiative losses to
the surroundings. In order that the sun’s rays should always be focussed on to the absorber
tube, the concentrator has to be rotated. This movement is called tracking in the case of
cylindrical parabolic concentrators, rotation about a single axis is generally required. Fluid
temperatures up to around 300 C can be achieved in cylindrical parabolic focussing collector
system.

The generation of still higher working temperatures is possible by using parabolic reflectors
as shown in fig 1.6 which have a point focus. A paraboloidal dish collector brings solar
radiation to a focus at a point actually a small central volume. A dish 6.6m diameter has been
made from about 200 curved mirror segments forming a paraboloidal surface. The absorber,

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located at the focus, is a cavity made of zirconium-copper alloy with a black chrome selective
coating. The heat-transport fluid flows into and out of the absorber cavity through pipes
bonded to the interior. The dish can be turned automatically about two axes so that the sun is
always kept in a line with the focus and the base of the paraboloidal dish. Thus, the can be
fully tracked at essentially all times.

Fig 1.6 Dish Collector (Point Focus)

1.7 Electricity from Solar Energy

Electricity energy is the most convenient form of energy. It is easy to use, transport, control
and transform into other forms of energy. Modern society has an insatisfiable hunger for
energy. This need for energy will continue to increase as the newly developing countries
become more industrialized and the mature nations increase their scope of Mechanization.
To satisfy this need, vast quantities of coal and petroleum products are required. More
recently, the advent of nuclear energy has added vast quantities for future needs.

Although sun is the ultimate source of all the power which man has at his disposal, the
conversion of solar radiation directly into electrical power by some cheap and efficient means
has been sought for several decades. Many different methods have been tried for this
purpose, but none of these could complete with conventional fossil fuel or hydroelectric
power plants.

1.8 Solar Photo Voltaic

The direct conversion of solar energy in to electrical energy by means of the photo voltaic
effect, that is the conversion of light (or other electromagnetic radiation) in to electricity. The
photo voltaic effect is defined as the generation of the electromotive force as a result of the
absorption of ionizing radiation energy conversion devices which are used to convert sun
light to electricity by the use of the photo voltaic effects are called solar cells. A single
converter cell is called a solar cell or more generally, a photo voltaic cell, and combination of
such cells, designed to increase the electric power output is called a solar module or solar

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array. Photo voltaic cells are made of semiconductors that generate electricity when they
absorb light. As photons are received, free electrical changes are generated that can be
collected on contacts applied to the surface of the semiconductors. Because solar cells are
not heat engines, and therefore do not need to operate at high temperatures, they are adopted
to the weak energy flux of solar radiation, operating at tome temperature. These devices have
theoretical efficiencies of the order of 25 percent. Actual operating efficiencies are less than
this value, and decrease fairly rapidly with increasing temperature.

The best known applications of photo voltaic cells for electrical power generation has been is
spacecraft, for which the Silicon cell is the most highly developed type. The Silicon cell
consists of a single crystal of silicon into which a doping material is diffused to from a semi
conductor. Since the early day of solar cell development, many improvement have been
manufactured with areas 2x2Cm, efficiencies approaching 10 percent, and operating at 28oC.
The efficiency is the power developed per unit area of array divided by the solar energy flux
in the free space (1.353 KW/m2).

Fig 1.7 Solar Photo Voltaic Cell

For terrestrial applications, silicon solar cells have shown operating efficiencies of about 12
to 15 percent. Though Silicon is one of the earth’s most abundant materials, it is expensive to
extract (from sand, where it occurs mostly in the from SiO2) and refine to the purity required
for solar cells. The greater barrier to solar cell application lies in the costs of the cells
themselves. Reducing the cost of Silicon Cells is difficult because of the cost of making
single crystal. One very promising method is being developed to produce continuous thin
ribbons of single-crystal Silicon to reduce fabrication costs. Cells made from the ribbon have
so for shown efficiencies of around 8 percent. Several other kinds of photo cells are in the
laboratory stage of development. Cadmium Sulfide cells are other possibilities. So far,
efficiencies have been in the range of 3 to 8 percent and these cells have been less durable
than Silicon cells owing to degradation with exposure to Oxygen, water vapor and sunlight,
especially at elevated temperatures. The active part of the Cadmium Sulfide cds cell is a thin

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polycrystalline layer of cds, about 10µm. Thick on which a layer of Cu2S compound perhaps
0.1µm thick is grown. These cells can be made by deposition on long sheets of substrates, a
process that might be adaptable to expensive mass production.

Photo voltaic cells could be applicable to either small or large power plants, since they
function well on a small scale, and may be adaptable to local energy generation on building
roof tops. The cost of the energy storage and power conditioning equipment might, however,
make generation in large stations the most economical method; solar cells have also been
used to operate irrigation pumps, navigational signals high way emergency call system, rail
road crossing warnings, automatic meteorological stations, etc; in location where access to
utility power lines is difficult.

1.9 Solar lighting

Electricity for lighting during night is one of the most convenient and preferred form of
energy. However in our Country out of 6 Lacks villages, 1 lakh villages are still to be
electrified. Even in electrified villages, only a quarter of house-holds have proper
connection. Owing to power shortage in many stages, electricity supply situation in villages
is precarious and mostly it is not available even in electrified villages for lighting when it is
most needed. The bulk of rural house-holds in India, normally use kerosene lanterns lanterns
for meeting their lighting requirements. It is estimated that around 100 million kerosene
lanterns are used in India. These lanterns provided insufficient and poor quality of light.

For village lighting, three major system Configuration are available;

(1) Domestic lighting system or solar lantern.

(2) Pole mounted stand alone street lighting system.
(3) Non-grid interactive centralized lighting system.

1.10 Solar lantern

Solar photo-voltaic powered lights called lanterns are considered to be alternative solution to
village lighting needs. A typical solar lantern consists of small photovoltaic module,
alighting device, a high frequency investor, battery charge controller and appropriate
housing. During day time, module is placed under the sun and is connected to lantern
through cable for charging a typical lantern uses a 10 watt lamp. The expected life of the
lamp is 3 to 5 years.

Storage battery is one crucial component in lantern, Recombinant maintenance free absorbed
electrotype batteries are being used. The battery has a life of 3 to 5 years. Sealed nickel
Cadmium battery is a good option considering their deep discharge characteristics. It is
important to have reliable electronics to operate the lamp and provide suitable protection. A
high frequency investor is being used to excite compact fluorescent lamp and a charge
controller which protect battery from over charging.

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 Chapter 2

CONSTRUCTION & CONNECTION OF SOLAR PLATES

2.1 Solar Plates

Solar plates are those devices which are used to absorb the sun's rays and convert them into
electricity or heat. A solar plates is actually a collection of solar (or photovoltaic) cells, which
can be used to generate electricity through photovoltaic effect. This solar plates are also
known as Solar Panels. The cells are arranged in a grid-like pattern on the surface of solar
panels. Thus, it may also be described as a set of photovoltaic modules, mounted on a
structure supporting it. A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged and connected assembly of
6×10 solar cells. When it comes to wear-and-tear, these panels are very hardy. Solar panels
wear out extremely slow. In a year, their effectiveness decreases only about one to two per
cent (at times, even lesser). Most solar panels are made up using crystalline silicon solar
cells. Installation of solar panels in homes helps in combating the harmful emissions of
greenhouse gases and thus helps reduce global warming. Solar panels do not lead to any form
of pollution and are clean. They also decrease our reliance on fossil fuels (which are limited)
and traditional power sources. These days, solar panels are used in wide-ranging electronic
equipments like calculators, which work as long as sunlight is available. However, the only
major drawback of solar panels is that they are quite costly. Also, solar panels are installed
outdoors as they need sunlight to get charged.

Fig 2.1 Solar Plates

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2.2 Construction of Solar Plates
Solar panels are advancing rapidly with greater efficiency and lower prices resulting in a
huge increase in demand. However despite the massive investment in solar technology,
solar panel construction hasn’t changed much over the years. Most solar panels still use a
series of silicon crystalline cells sandwiched between a front glass plate and a rear polymer
plastic back-sheet supported within an aluminium frame.

Once installed on a rooftop, solar modules are subjected to severe conditions over the
course of the expected 25+ year life. Extreme variations in temperature, humidity, wind and
UV radiation can put enormous stress and strain on a solar module. Fortunately most panels
are well engineered to withstand the weather extremes but even though some panels can
still fail in several ways, including water ingress, cell micro-fractures and potential induced
degradation or PID, this is why it is vital solar panels are manufactured using only the
highest quality components.

2.3 The Main Components of a Solar Panel

1. Extruded Aluminium frame
2. Tempered Glass - 3 to 4mm thick
3. Silicon PV cells with busbars
4. Encapsulation - EVA film layers
5. Polymer rear backsheet
6. Junction box - diodes and connectors

Several panel manufacturers are ‘vertically integrated’ which means the one company
supplies and manufactures all the main components including the silicon ingots and wafers
used to make the solar PV cells. However many panel manufacturers assemble solar panels
using externally sourced parts including cells, polymer back sheet and encapsulation EVA
material. These manufacturers can be more selective about which components they chose
but they do not always have control over the quality of the products so they should be sure
they use the best suppliers available.

Fig 2.2 Construction of Solar Plates

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2.3.1 PV Cells

Silicon photovoltaic cells or PV cells convert sunlight directly into DC electrical energy.
The performance of the solar panel is determined by the cell type and characteristics of the
silicon used, with the two main types being mono crystalline and polycrystalline silicon.
Additionally the base of the cell can be built using different additives to create either a
positive p-type silicon or negative n-type silicon. However there are several different cell
configurations available which offer different levels of efficiency and performance. See
more information in the complete solar PV technology review. Most residential solar panels
contain 60 cells linked together via busbars in series to generate a voltage between 30-40
volts depending on the type of cell used. Larger solar panels used for commercial systems
contain up to 72 cells and in turn operate at a higher voltage. The busbars are electrical
contacts which interconnect the cells and allow the current to flow in a circuit.

Fig 2.3 A Monocrystalline solar cell

2.3.2 Glass

The front glass sheet protects the PV cells from the weather and impact from hail or
airborne debris. The glass is typically high strength tempered glass which is 3.0 to 4.0mm

Fig 2.4 Outer Glass

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thick and is designed resist mechanical loads and extreme temperature changes. The IEC
minimum standard impact test requires solar panels to withstand an impact of hail stones of
1 inch (25 mm) diameter traveling up to 60 mph (27 m/s). In the event of an accident or
severe impact tempered glass is also much safer than standard glass as it shatters into tiny
fragments rather than sharp jagged sections. To improve efficiency and performance high
transmissive glass is used by most manufacturers which has a very low iron content and an
anti-reflective coating on the rear side to reduce losses and improve light transmission.

2.3.3 Frame

The aluminium frame plays a critical role by both protecting the edge of the laminate
section housing the cells and providing a solid structure to mount the solar panel in
position. The extruded aluminium sections are designed to be extremely lightweight, stiff
and able to withstand extreme stress and loading from high wind and external forces. The
aluminium frame can be silver or anodised black and depending on the panel manufacturer
the corner sections can either be screwed, pressed or clamped together providing different
levels of strength and stiffness.

Fig 2.5 Frame

2.3.4 EVA Film

EVA stands for ‘ethylene vinyl acetate’ which is a specially designed polymer highly
transparent (plastic) layer used to encapsulate the cells and hold them in position during
manufacture. The EVA material is extremely durable and tolerant of extreme temperature
and humidity, so it plays an important part in the long term performance by preventing
moisture and dirt ingress. The lamination either side of the PV cells provides some shock
absorption and helps protect the cells and interconnecting wires from vibrations and sudden
impact from hail stones and other objects. A high quality EVA film with a high degree of
what is known as ‘cross-linking’ can be the difference between a long life or a panel failure
due to water ingress. During manufacture the cells are first encapsulated with the EVA
before being limited within the glass and back sheet.

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 Fig 2.6 EVA Film

2.3.5 Blacksheet

The backsheet is the rear most layer of common solar panels which as acts as a moisture
barrier and final external skin to provide both mechanical protection and electrical
insulation. The backsheet material is made of various polymers or plastics including PP,
PET and PVF which offer different levels of protection, thermal stability and long term UV
resistance. The backsheet layer is typically white in colour but is also available as clear or
black depending on the manufacturer and module. ‘Tedlar’ PVF material from Dupont is
known as one the leading high performance back sheets for PV module manufacturing.

2.3.6 Junction Box

The junction box is a small weather proof enclosure located near the top on the rear side of
the panel. It is needed to securely attach the cables required to interconnect the panels. The
junction box is important as it is the central point where all the cells sets interconnect and
must be protected from moisture and dirt.

Fig 2.7 Junction Box

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2.4 Bypass Diodes
The junction box also houses the bypass diodes which are needed to prevent back current
which occurs when some cells are shaded or dirty. Diodes only allow current to flow in one
direction and a typical 60 cell panel has 3 rows of 20 PV cells and in turn there are 3 bypass
diodes, one for preventing reverse current to each of the 3 sets of cells. Unfortunately
bypass diodes can fail over time and may need to be replaced, so the cover of the junction
box is usually able to be removed for servicing, although many modern solar panels now
use more advanced long lasting diodes and non-serviceable junction boxes.

Fig 2.8 Bypass Diode

2.5 Connection of Solar Plates

When connecting multiple solar panels in a 12-48 volt off-grid system, you have a few
options: parallel, series, or a combination of the two. In this article, we’ll give you the basics
on wiring solar panels in parallel and in series. Let’s start off with a quick comparison of
parallel circuits and series circuits.

Parallel circuits have multiple paths for the current to move along. If an item in the circuit is
broken, current will continue to move along the other paths, while ignoring the broken one.
This type of circuit is used for most household electrical wiring. For example: when you turn
off your TV, it doesn’t also turn off your lights.

Generally we are having two types of solar plates Connections, These are as follows:

• Series solar plates connection

• Parallel solar plates connection

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2.5.1 Series Solar Plates Connection

• Connection of the positive terminal of the first solar panel to the negative terminal of
the next one.
• 4 solar panels in a series and each was rated at 12 volts and 5 amps, the entire array
would be 48 volts at 5 amps.
• Solar panels have a negative terminal ( - ) and a positive terminal ( + ). Current flows
from the negative terminal through a load (current consumed by a piece of equipment)
to the positive terminal.

Fig 2.9 Series Solar Plates Connection

2.5.2 Parallel Solar Plates Connection

• Connection of all the positive terminals of all the solar panels together, and all the
negative terminals of all the panels together.
• 4 solar panels in parallel and each was rated at 12 volts and 5 amps, the entire array
would be 12 volts at 20 amps.
• Solar panels have a negative terminal ( - ) and a positive terminal ( + ). Current flows
from the negative terminal through a load (current consumed by a piece of equipment)
to the positive terminal.

Fig 2.10 Parallel Solar Plates Connection

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 Chapter 3

SOLAR CELL, MODULE ARRAY AND SOLAR POWER

PLANT

3.1 About Solar Cells

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is
a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to
light. Individual solar cell devices can be combined to form modules, otherwise known
as solar panels. In basic terms a single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum
open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. Solar cells are described as
being photovoltaic, irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or an artificial light. They
are used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or
other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:

• The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.

• The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

• The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of
either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat. A "photoelectrolytic
cell" (photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell
(like that developed by Edmond Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells), or to a
device that splits water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination

Fig 3.1 Solar Cell to PV System

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From a solar cell to a PV system. Diagram of the possible components of a photovoltaic
system.

3.2 Applications
Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules that generate electrical power
from sunlight, as distinguished from a "solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel". A
solar array generates solar power using solar energy.

3.2.1 Photovoltaic system

Multiple solar cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, constitute a solar
photovoltaic panel or module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the sun-
facing side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers. Solar cells are
usually connected in series and parallel circuits or series in modules, creating an additive
voltage. Connecting cells in parallel yields a higher current; however, problems such as
shadow effects can shut down the weaker (less illuminated) parallel string (a number of series
connected cells) causing substantial power loss and possible damage because of the reverse
bias applied to the shadowed cells by their illuminated partners. Strings of series cells are
usually handled independently and not connected in parallel, though as of 2014,
individual power boxes are often supplied for each module, and are connected in parallel.
Although modules can be interconnected to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage
and loading current capacity, using independent MPPTs (maximum power point trackers) is
preferable. Otherwise, shunt diodes can reduce shadowing power loss in arrays with
series/parallel connected cells.

Table for the PV system prices in India:

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3.3 Timeline of solar cells
The photovoltaic effect was experimentally demonstrated first by French physicist Edmond
Becquerel. In 1839, at age 19, he built the world's first photovoltaic cell in his father's
laboratory. Willoughby Smith first described the "Effect of Light on Selenium during the
passage of an Electric Current" in a 20 February 1873 issue of Nature. In 1883 Charles
Frittsbuilt the first solid state photovoltaic cell by coating the semiconductor selenium with a
thin layer of gold to form the junctions; the device was only around 1% efficient.

In 1888 Russian physicist Aleksandr Stoletov built the first cell based on the
outer photoelectric effect discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887.

In 1905 Albert Einstein proposed a new quantum theory of light and explained
the photoelectric effect in a landmark paper, for which he received the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1921.

Russell Ohl patented the modern junction semiconductor solar cell in 1946 while working on
the series of advances that would lead to the transistor.

The first practical photovoltaic cell was publicly demonstrated on 25 April 1954 at Bell
Laboratories. The inventors were Calvin Souther Fuller, Daryl Chapin and Gerald Pearson

Solar cells gained prominence with their incorporation onto the 1958 Vanguard I satellite.

3.3.1 Space applications

Solar cells were first used in a prominent application when they were proposed and flown on
the Vanguard satellite in 1958, as an alternative power source to the primary batterypower
source. By adding cells to the outside of the body, the mission time could be extended with
no major changes to the spacecraft or its power systems. In 1959 the United States
launched Explorer 6, featuring large wing-shaped solar arrays, which became a common
feature in satellites. These arrays consisted of 9600 Hoffman solar cells.

By the 1960s, solar cells were (and still are) the main power source for most Earth orbiting
satellites and a number of probes into the solar system, since they offered the best power-to-
weight ratio. However, this success was possible because in the space application, power
system costs could be high, because space users had few other power options, and were
willing to pay for the best possible cells. The space power market drove the development of
higher efficiencies in solar cells up until the National Science Foundation "Research Applied
to National Needs" program began to push development of solar cells for terrestrial
applications.

In the early 1990s the technology used for space solar cells diverged from the silicon
technology used for terrestrial panels, with the spacecraft application shifting to gallium

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arsenide-based III-V semiconductor materials, which then evolved into the modern III-
V multijunction photovoltaic cell used on spacecraft.

3.4 Price Reductions

Improvements were gradual over the 1960s. This was also the reason that costs remained
high, because space users were willing to pay for the best possible cells, leaving no reason to
invest in lower-cost, less-efficient solutions. The price was determined largely by the
semiconductor industry; their move to integrated circuits in the 1960s led to the availability
of larger boules at lower relative prices. As their price fell, the price of the resulting cells did
as well. These effects lowered 1971 cell costs to some $100 per watt.

In late 1969 Elliot Berman joined Exxon's task force which was looking for projects 30 years
in the future and in April 1973 he founded Solar Power Corporation, a wholly owned
subsidiary of Exxon at that time. The group had concluded that electrical power would be
much more expensive by 2000, and felt that this increase in price would make alternative
energy sources more attractive. He conducted a market study and concluded that a price per
watt of about $20/watt would create significant demand. The team eliminated the steps of
polishing the wafers and coating them with an anti-reflective layer, relying on the rough-sawn
wafer surface. The team also replaced the expensive materials and hand wiring used in space
applications with a printed circuit board on the back, acrylic plastic on the front,
and silicone glue between the two, "potting" the cells. Solar cells could be made using cast-
off material from the electronics market. By 1973 they announced a product, and SPC
convinced Tideland Signal to use its panels to power navigational buoys, initially for the U.S.
Coast Guard.

3.5 Research and industrial production

Research into solar power for terrestrial applications became prominent with the U.S.
National Science Foundation's Advanced Solar Energy Research and Development Division
within the "Research Applied to National Needs" program, which ran from 1969 to 1977, and
funded research on developing solar power for ground electrical power systems. A 1973
conference, the "Cherry Hill Conference", set forth the technology goals required to achieve
this goal and outlined an ambitious project for achieving them, kicking off an applied
research program that would be ongoing for several decades. The program was eventually
taken over by the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), which was
later merged into the U.S. Department of Energy.

Following the 1973 oil crisis, oil companies used their higher profits to start (or buy) solar
firms, and were for decades the largest producers. Exxon, ARCO, Shell, Amoco (later
purchased by BP) and Mobil all had major solar divisions during the 1970s and 1980s.
Technology companies also participated, including General Electric, Motorola, IBM, Tyco
and RCA.

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 Fig 3.2 Price per watt history for conventional (c-Si)

Fig 3.3 Swanson's law

Fig 3.4 Growth of photovoltaics

Adjusting for inflation, it cost $96 per watt for a solar module in the mid-1970s. Process
improvements and a very large boost in production have brought that figure down 99%, to
68¢ per watt in 2016, according to data from Bloomberg New Energy Finance.[20] Swanson's
law is an observation similar to Moore's Law that states that solar cell prices fall 20% for
every doubling of industry capacity. It was featured in an article in the British weekly
newspaper The Economist in late 2012.

Further improvements reduced production cost to under $1 per watt, with wholesale costs
well under $2. Balance of system costs were then higher than those of the panels. Large
commercial arrays could be built, as of 2010, at below $3.40 a watt, fully commissioned.

22
As the semiconductor industry moved to ever-larger boules, older equipment became
inexpensive. Cell sizes grew as equipment became available on the surplus
market; ARCO Solar's original panels used cells 2 to 4 inches (50 to 100 mm) in diameter.
Panels in the 1990s and early 2000s generally used 125 mm wafers; since 2008, almost all
new panels use 156 mm cells. The widespread introduction of flat screen televisions in the
late 1990s and early 2000s led to the wide availability of large, high-quality glass sheets to
cover the panels.

During the 1990s, polysilicon ("poly") cells became increasingly popular. These cells offer
less efficiency than their monosilicon ("mono") counterparts, but they are grown in large vats
that reduce cost. By the mid-2000s, poly was dominant in the low-cost panel market, but
more recently the mono returned to widespread use.

Manufacturers of wafer-based cells responded to high silicon prices in 2004–2008 with rapid
reductions in silicon consumption. In 2008, according to Jef Poortmans, director of IMEC's
organic and solar department, current cells use 8–9 grams (0.28–0.32 oz) of silicon per watt
of power generation, with wafer thicknesses in the neighborhood of 200 microns. Crystalline
silicon panels dominate worldwide markets and are mostly manufactured in China and
Taiwan. By late 2011, a drop in European demand dropped prices for crystalline solar
modules to about $1.09 per watt down sharply from 2010. Prices continued to fall in 2012,
reaching $0.62/watt by 4Q2012.

Solar PV is growing fastest in Asia, with China and Japan currently accounting for half
of worldwide deployment.[25] Global installed PV capacity reached at least 301 gigawatts in
2016, and grew to supply 1.3% of global power by 2016.

As of the end of 2016, it was reported that spot prices for assembled solar panels (not cells)
had fallen to a record-low of US$0.36/Wp. The second largest supplier, Canadian Solar Inc.,
had reported costs of US$0.37/Wp in the third quarter of 2016, having dropped $0.02 from
the previous quarter, and hence was probably still at least breaking even. Many producers
expected costs would drop to the vicinity of $0.30 by the end of 2017. It was also reported
that new solar installations were cheaper than coal-based thermal power plants in some
regions of the world, and this was expected to be the case in most of the world within a
decade.[37]

Fig 3.5 Schematic of charge collection by solar cells

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 Fig 3.6 Working mechanism of a solar cell

3.6 Theory of solar cells

The solar cell works in several steps:

• Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials,
such as silicon.

• Electrons are excited from their current molecular/atomic orbital. Once excited an
electron can either dissipate the energy as heat and return to its orbital or travel
through the cell until it reaches an electrode. Current flows through the material to
cancel the potential and this electricity is captured. The chemical bonds of the
material are vital for this process to work, and usually silicon is used in two layers,
one layer being doped with boron, the other phosphorus. These layers have different
chemical electric charges and subsequently both drive and direct the current of
electrons.[1]

• An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct
current (DC) electricity.

• An inverter can convert the power to alternating current (AC).

The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area p–n junction made from
silicon. Other possible solar cell types are organic solar cells, dye sensitized solar cells,
perovskite solar cells, quantum dot solar cells etc. The illuminated side of a solar cell
generally has a transparent conducting film for allowing light to enter into active material and
to collect the generated charge carriers.

Fig 3.7 Efficiency

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3.7 Solar cell efficiency
Solar cell efficiency may be broken down into reflectance efficiency, thermodynamic
efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency and conductive efficiency. The overall
efficiency is the product of these individual metrics.

The power conversion efficiency of a solar cell is a parameter which is defined by the
fraction of incident power converted into electricity. A solar cell has a voltage dependent
efficiency curve, temperature coefficients, and allowable shadow angles. Due to the difficulty
in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are substituted: thermodynamic
efficiency, quantum efficiency, integrated quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor.
Reflectance losses are a portion of quantum efficiency under "external quantum efficiency".
Recombination losses make up another portion of quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill
factor. Resistive losses are predominantly categorized under fill factor, but also make up
minor portions of quantum efficiency, VOC ratio.

In 2016, researchers at Fraunhofer ISE announced a GaInP/GaAs/Si triple-junction solar cell

with two terminals reaching 30.2% efficiency without concentration.

In 2017, a team of researchers at National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), EPFL and
CSEM (Switzerland) reported record one-sun efficiencies of 32.8% for dual-junction
GaInP/GaAs solar cell devices. In addition, the dual-junction device was mechanically
stacked with a Si solar cell, to achieve a record one-sun efficiency of 35.9% for triple-
junction solar cells.

Fig 3.8 Reported timeline of research solar cell energy conversion efficiencies

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 Fig 3.9 Global market-share in terms of annual production by PV technology

Solar cells are typically named after the semiconducting material they are made of.
These materials must have certain characteristics in order to absorb sunlight. Some cells are
designed to handle sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, while others are optimized
for use in space. Solar cells can be made of only one single layer of light-absorbing material
(single-junction) or use multiple physical configurations (multi-junctions) to take advantage
of various absorption and charge separation mechanisms.

Solar cells can be classified into first, second and third generation cells. The first generation
cells—also called conventional, traditional or wafer-based cells—are made of crystalline
silicon, the commercially predominant PV technology, that includes materials such
as polysilicon and monocrystalline silicon. Second generation cells are thin film solar cells,
that include amorphous silicon, CdTe and CIGS cells and are commercially significant in
utility-scale photovoltaic power stations, building integrated photovoltaics or in small stand-
alone power system. The third generation of solar cells includes a number of thin-film
technologies often described as emerging photovoltaics—most of them have not yet been
commercially applied and are still in the research or development phase. Many use organic
materials, often organometallic compounds as well as inorganic substances. Despite the fact
that their efficiencies had been low and the stability of the absorber material was often too
short for commercial applications, there is a lot of research invested into these technologies
as they promise to achieve the goal of producing low-cost, high-efficiency solar cells.

3.7.1 Crystalline silicon

By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (c-Si), also known
as "solar grade silicon". Bulk silicon is separated into multiple categories according to
crystallinity and crystal size in the resulting ingot, ribbon or wafer. These cells are entirely
based around the concept of a p-n junction. Solar cells made of c-Si are made
from wafers between 160 and 240 micrometers thick.

26
3.7.2 Monocrystalline silicon

Fig 3.10 The roof, bonnet and large parts of the outer shell of the silicon

Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) solar cells are more efficient and more expensive than
most other types of cells. The corners of the cells look clipped, like an octagon, because the
wafer material is cut from cylindrical ingots, that are typically grown by the Czochralski
process. Solar panels using mono-Si cells display a distinctive pattern of small white
diamonds.

3.8 Solar power plant

Fig 3.11 Solar energy absorbing panels

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A solar power plant is based on the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly
using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated
solar power systems use lenses, mirrors, and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight
into a small beam. Photovoltaics converts light into electric current using the photoelectric
effect. The largest photovoltaic power plant in the world was the 354 MW Solar Energy
Generating Systems (SEGS) CSP installation located in the Mojave Desert, California. Other
large CSP plants include the 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project in Arizona, the Solnova
Solar Power Station (150 MW, 250 MW when finished),[3] and the Andasol solar power
station (150 MW), both in Spain.

Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly
using photovoltaics (PV), indirectly using concentrated solar power, or a combination.
Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large
area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric
current using the photovoltaic effect.

Photovoltaics were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium-sized
applications, from the calculatorpowered by a single solar cell to remote homes powered by
an off-grid rooftop PV system. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first
developed in the 1980s. The 392 MW Ivanpah installation is the largest concentrating solar
power plant in the world, located in the Mojave Desert of California.

As the cost of solar electricity has fallen, the number of grid-connected solar PV
systems has grown into the millions and utility-scale solar power stations with hundreds of
megawatts are being built. Solar PV is rapidly becoming an inexpensive, low-carbon
technology to harness renewable energy from the Sun. The current largest photovoltaic power
station in the world is the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, in Qinghai, China.

The International Energy Agency projected in 2014 that under its "high renewables" scenario,
by 2050, solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power would contribute about 16 and 11
percent, respectively, of the worldwide electricity consumption, and solar would be the
world's largest source of electricity. Most solar installations would be in China and India. In
2017, solar power provided 1.7% of total worldwide electricity production, growing at 35%
per annum

Top 5 Largest Solar Power Plants in India

• Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park, Andhra Pradesh.

• Kamuthi Solar Power Project, Tamil Nadu.

• Bhadla Solar Park, Rajasthan.

• Charanka Solar Park, Gujarat.

• Sakri Solar Plant, Maharashtra.

• Welspun Solar MP Project, Madhya Pradesh.

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• Dhirubhai Ambani Solar Park, Rajasthan.

Fig 3.12 Model of Solar Power Plant

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 CHAPTER-4

ON GRID & OFF GRID SOLAR SYSTEM

4.1 On grid
On-Grid Systems are solar pv systems that only generate power when the utility power grid is
available. They must connect to the grid to function. They can send excess power generated
back to the grid when you are overproducing so you credit it for later use. 1. On-Grid System

On-grid or grid-tie solar systems are by far the most common and widely used by homes and
businesses. These systems are connected to the public electricity grid and do not require
battery storage. Any solar power that you generate from an on-grid system (which is not used
directly in your home) is exported onto the electricity grid and you usually get paid a feed-in-
tariff (FiT) for the energy you export.

Unlike hybrid systems, grid-tie solar systems are not able to function or generate electricity
during a blackout or power outage due to safety reasons; since blackouts usually occur when
the electricity grid is damaged. If the solar inverter was still feeding electricity into a
damaged grid it would risk the safety of the people repairing the fault/s in the network.
However most hybrid solar systems with battery storage are able to automatically isolate
from the grid (known as islanding) and continue to operate during a blackout.

Batteries are able to be added to an on-grid solar system at a later stage if required. The
popular Tesla Powerwall 2 is an AC battery which can be added to an existing solar system.
In an on-grid system, this is what happens after electricity reaches the switchboard:

• The meter. Excess solar energy runs through the meter, which calculates how much
power you are either exporting or importing (purchasing).

• Metering systems work differently in many states and countries around the world. In
this description I am assuming that the meter is only measuring the electricity being
exported to the grid, as is the case in most of Australia. In some states, meters
measure all solar electricity produced by your system, and therefore your electricity
will run through your meter before reaching the switchboard and not after it. In some
areas (currently in California), the meter measures both production and export, and
the consumer is charged (or credited) for net electricity used over a month or year
period. I will explain more about metering in a later blog.

• The electricity grid. Electricity that is sent to the grid from your solar system can
then be used by other consumers on the grid (your neighbours). When your solar
system is not operating, or you are using more electricity than your system is
producing, you will start importing or consuming electricity from the grid.

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 Fig 4.1 on grid system

On-grid solar systems generate power only when the utility power grid is available
and directly connected to the utility feed. On-grid systems send excess power
generated to the utility grid when you are overproducing. These are the most cost
effective and simplest systems to install. Such systems will pay for themselves by
offsetting the bills in 3-8 years. On-grid systems can either be put into place with or
without net metering. In the case of an on-grid system with net metering, while
calculating the monthly bill, the solar power fed to the grid is netted at the same tariff
at which the grid power is sold to the consumer. In the case of systems without net
metering, the rate at which solar power fed is credited can be different from the
normal utility tariff. The biggest downfall of an on-grid system is that it does not
provide power during a grid outage.

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4.2 Working of On Grid Solar System
This system works two-ways – the supply of electricity can flow from the grid to which it is
connected to the user’s home and from the user’s home to the grid. This feature makes the
on-grid solar system affordable and highly useful. The solar panels, installed on the user’s
home are ‘tied’ to the grid. These panels generate electricity when the sun is shining brightly
and this electricity is then ‘sent’ to the electrical distribution panel in the home for use. Any
surplus power is then, sent back to the grid and this instantly lowers the meter reading of your
home. The power charges are only as much as the home uses and in addition, the grid acts as
the ‘store’ for the excess power the on-grid solar power system generates.

Let us look at how this system works in a few easy steps:

Step-1: The solar panels convert sunlight into electric energy, which is Direct Current (DC).
This current is then sent to an inverter.

Step-2: The inverter converts this DC to Alternating Current (AC) since households are only
equipped to use AC. The grid tied inverter additionally regulates the amount and voltage of
electricity fed to the household since all the power generated is mostly much more than a
home needs or can handle.

Step-3: This ‘converted’ power supply is then used by homes through the main electricity
distribution panel. Your home now has access to clean and green electricity, which makes
you a contributor towards a cleaner and more sustainable environment.

There could be worries about how the home will receive power when the sun is not shining –
that is the benefit from having the system ‘tied’ to the grid – your home receives non-stop
power irrespective of the weather.

The other great benefit of this system is that when there is sunlight, your electricity meter
does not move at all! The solar panels generate the power and the inverter feeds the
electricity to the main supply and since this is the electricity your home is using, there is none
being taken from the grid and hence no charge.

Electricity is a finite resource and as the number of users rise, its cost will rise. The cost you
incur on installation of this system is usually recovered within a short span of about 3 years
since the savings on electricity are huge. We at Solar Start wish to transfer this control and
‘power’ to all by providing the best solar power systems, that are supported by excellence in
customer service and in-depth knowledge of our experts.

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4.3 Off Grid Solar System
An off-grid system is not connected to the electricity grid and therefore requires battery
storage. An off-grid solar system must be designed appropriately so that it will generate
enough power throughout the year and have enough battery capacity to meet the home’s
requirements, even in the depths of winter when there is less sunlight. The high cost of
batteries and inverters means off-grid systems are much more expensive than on-grid systems
and so are usually only needed in more remote areas that are far from any electricity grid.
However battery costs are reducing rapidly, so there is now a growing market for off-grid
solar battery systems even in cities and towns.

Fig 4.2 Off Grid System

There are different types of off-grid systems which we will go into more detail later, but for
now I will keep it simple. This description is for an AC coupled system, in a DC coupled
system power is first sent to the battery bank, then sent to your appliances. To understand
more about building and setting up an efficient off-grid home see our sister site go off-
grid/hybrid

• The battery bank. In an off-grid system there is no public electricity grid. Once solar
power is used by the appliances in your property, any excess power will be sent to
your battery bank. Once the battery bank is full it will stop receiving power from the
solar system. When your solar system is not working (night time or cloudy days),
your appliances will draw power from the batteries.

33
Backup Generator For times of the year when the batteries are low on charge and the
weather is very cloudy you will generally need a backup power source, such at as a backup
generator or gen-set. The size of the gen-set (measured in kVA) should to be adequate to
supply your house and charge the batteries the same system.

4.4 Working of Off Grid System

The off-grid solar system is not connected to the power grid but instead the energy produced
during the day from the sun’s rays, is stored in batteries. This system is efficient for those
homes that cannot have access to the electricity produced by the grid and is therefore
completely independent of it. The power stored in the batteries is used by homes at night and
at other times when the solar panels are unable to generate as much electricity as is required.

This kind of solar system is normally customized to suit the electricity requirements of the
home since there is no standard or typical off-grid system. Our experts will ensure that the
system will be completely tailored to the specific needs of your home and usage and in
addition, our off-grid systems are strong and robust and built to withstand the most inclement
weather conditions.

Let us explain how this system works in four easy steps:

Step-1: The power hub is where the solar rays are converted to electricity for use or as stored
electricity in the batteries. This hub therefore manages the flow of electricity.

Step-2: The batteries are an essential component of this system as they store any excess
electricity that is then used when the solar panels are not generating electricity for any reason

Step-3: You could also opt for the backup generator that will provide the power to recharge
the batteries in the event that bad weather or peak demand continues for a while.

Step-4: No changes are required to the present wiring or other appliances in your home as it
is possible for this system to combine with the existing system. All your home appliances will
operate with the electricity generated.

Fig 4.3 Conversion Process

34
 Chapter 5

TESTING OF SOLAR CELLS & SOLAR PLANT

5.1 Solar Cell Research

Solar Light offers all hardware required for cutting edge PV Cell Testing and Research
applications. Our state of the art single output Solar Simulators produce Class A Air Mass 1.5
Emission Spectrum to accurately replicate full spectrum sunlight, with 1 sun output intensity.
They can also be quickly and easily configured by the user to provide UVA only, UVB only,
UVA+B, or custom spectra optionally. Models are available from 150W / 1.2″ (3 cm) to
1000W / 6″ (15.25 cm.) These precision research-grade instruments are specifically designed
for testing photovoltaic cells in accordance with the latest ASTM, IEC, and ISO laboratory
standards. Our comprehensive PV Cell Testing Kits arrive with everything required to
immediately begin testing, including the Simulator, Power Supply, advanced Data Logging
Radiometer, PMA-Series Full Spectrum Class II Pyranometer, safety glasses, and more. A
Source Meter and Calibrated Reference Cell are also available optionally.

5.2 Solar Cell Testing

Solar Light’s comprehensive PV Cell Testing Kits arrive with everything required to immediately
begin testing, including the Simulator, Power Supply, advanced Data Logging Radiometer, PMA-
Series Full Spectrum Class II Pyranometer, safety glasses, and more. PV Cell Testing Solar
Simulators produce Class A Air Mass 1.5 Emission Spectrum to accurately replicate full
spectrum sunlight, with 1 sun output intensity. A Source Meter and Calibrated Reference Cell are
also available optionally. See our available Photovoltaic cell testing kits below.

Fig 5.1 6″ (15.25 cm) 1000W PV Cell Testing Solar Simulator Kit Model LS1000-6S-002

35
LS1000-6S-002 Solar Simulators produce a 6″ (15.25 cm) Class A Air Mass 1.5 Emission
Spectrum to accurately replicate full spectrum sunlight for PV Cell research, in accordance
with the latest ASTM, IEC, and ISO laboratory standards.
5.2.1 Working of Solar Cell Testing Simulator
Solar Light’s state of the art single output 1000W LS1000-6S-002 Solar Simulators produce a
6″ (15.25 cm) Class A Air Mass 1.5 Emission Spectrum to accurately replicate full spectrum
sunlight, with 1 sun output intensity. They can also be quickly and easily configured by the
user to provide UVA only, UVB only, UVA+B, or custom spectra optionally. These
precision research-grade instruments are specifically designed to comply with the latest
ASTM, IEC, and ISO laboratory standards. These comprehensive PV Cell Testing Kits arrive
with everything required to immediately begin testing, including the 1000W Simulator,
advanced data logging Radiometer, full spectrum Class II Pyranometer, Source Meter, and
Calibrated Reference Cell.
5.2.2 Radiation Measurement Unit

Fig 5.2 Radiation Measurement Unit

5.2.3 Carrier Lifetime Measurement Kit Construction

Fig 5.3 Carrier Lifetime Measurement Kit Construction

36
5.2.3 Spectral Response measurement kit

Fig 5.4 Spectral Response measurement kit

5.2.4 PV module characterization kit and its components

Fig 5.5 PV module characterization kit and its components

5.2.5 Setup for measuring the efficiency of standalone solar PV system

Fig 5.6 Setup for measuring the efficiency of standalone solar PV system

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5.3 Performance Testing of Plant
The performance of power plants and energy systems is a crucial factor in determining a
project’s financial success. Owners and operators need to ensure that the power plant reaches
guaranteed performance and meets quality requirements.
We offer independent execution and third-party supervision of performance testing for all
types of power plants and components such as gas and steam turbines, boilers, condensers,
cooling towers and gas compressors.

Fig 5.7 Performance Factors

5.4 Solar Plant Testing

Solar PV power plants must test each operational element of the inverters and solar modules
to be properly commissioned and connected to the grid. Testing quickly helps to meet
production deadlines and begin producing commercial power. However, successfully
finalizing the power plant commissioning can be difficult with connection delays or other
issues.
For example, deadlines involving contracts and tax incentives, as well as scheduling engineer
witness testing, can delay the process. When the utility grid test is involved, utililies often
schedule their engineers to conduct a witness test, which can cause additional delays to the
overall project schedule.

5.4.1 Advantages of Solar Plant Testing

Testing for solar PV power plants provides many advantages, including:

• Reduce the reliance on utility engineer availability and allowing your construction
and commissioning schedule to move forward within budget.
• Provide documentation that the required solar module tests were performed and the
system met the requirements outlined in the utility guides and IEEE 1547.1
Interconnection test procedures.

38
 • Simplify the pre-grid testing by making it an on-demand process. You gain greater
control over your load testing schedule and can test at any time.
• Accelerate the testing schedule for quicker time-to-revenue. If you must wait for the
grid to test your solar PV power plant, you will incur more time and costs.
• Adhere to contractual obligations and avoiding penalties from utilities. Witness
testing lets you supply power within the agreed upon timeframe.
• Ensure solar PV power plants are tested completely to operational specifications and
validating system performance.
• Meet qualifying deadlines for federal and state renewable energy production tax
credits.

Solar PV power plant commissioning requires consistency, flexibility, and reliability.

Rapid and accurate measurement of electrical power output and related characteristics of PV
cells, modules, and panels is critical to solar manufacturers to ensure that their products will
perform to promised levels during their outdoor life. Solar simulators are used to test the
cells, modules, and panels under a set of standardized conditions. The solar simulators mimic
the natural sunlight that the panels will see when installed. The solar simulators themselves
are tested to be sure they meet ASTM and IEC standards for three areas: spectral
match, spatial uniformity, and temporal stability.

5.5 Solar Testing Instruments

Whether you're a residential, commercial or utility scale PV operator, Seaward Solar has the
solar PV testing solution to suit your needs.

Perform I-V curve traces with our popular PV200 solar test kit, maintain electrical safety
with our PV150 and keep up with the latest in solar technology with our 1500V, 40A Solar
Utility Pro.

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5.5.1 Solar Power Plant I-V Curve Tester For Solar Energy System

Fig 5.8 Solar Power Plant I-V Curve Tester

5.5.2 Digital Measuring Instruments

Fig 5.9 Digital Measuring Instruments

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5.5.3 Portable Solar Energy EL Tester

Fig 5.10 Portable Solar Energy EL Tester

5.5.4 el-tester pv panle defection tester

Fig 5.11 el-tester pv panle defection tester

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5.6 INDIAN SOLAR SYSTEM
Solar power in India is a fast developing industry. The country's solar installed capacity
reached 26 GW as of 30 September 2018. India expanded its solar-generation capacity 8
times from 2,650 MW on 26 May 2014 to over 20 GW as on 31 January 2018. The 20 GW
capacities were initially targeted for 2022 but the government achieved the target four years
ahead of schedule. The country added 3 GW of solar capacity in 2015-2016, 5 GW in
20162017 and over 10 GW in 2017-2018, with the average current price of solar electricity
dropping to 18% below the average price of its coal-fired counterpart.

In January 2015 the Indian government expanded its solar plans, targeting US$100 billion in
investment and 100 GW of solar capacity (including 40 GW from rooftop solar) by 2022.
India's initiative of 100 GW of solar energy by 2022 is an ambitious target, since the world's
installed solar-power capacity in 2017 is expected to be 303 GW. The improvements in solar
thermal storage power technology in recent years has made this task achievable as the
cheaper solar power need not depend on costly and polluting coal/gas/nuclear based power
generation for ensuring stable grid operation. In addition to its large-scale grid-connected
solar PV initiative, India is developing off-grid solar power for local energy needs. Solar
products have increasingly helped to meet rural needs; by the end of 2015 just fewer than one
million solar lanterns were sold in the country, reducing the need for kerosene. That year,
118,700 solar home lighting systems were installed and 46,655 solar street lighting
installations were provided under a national program; just over 1.4 million solar cookers were
distributed in India.

Fig 5.12 Indian solar system scenario

5.7 SOLAR POWER STORAGE

Just a few years ago, the cost and challenge to integrate battery systems with a solar electric
array meant that unless there was a specific use case—remote location, critical 24/7 electric

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loads—we would often advise a customer against adding battery storage. Simply put, a
gridtied solar array (dependent on the grid with no on-site battery backup) was simpler, more
reliable, and a better overall investment.

But, technology changes quickly! Elon Musk‘s 2015 announcement of the Tesla Power
wall—and more recently, the Power wall 2—has invigorated consumer demand for solar +
storage products. Currently, there is a technology ‗arms‘ race going on, as many vendors
compete to develop the energy storage solutions of the future.

In addition to being able to survive the wear and tear of frequent use and deep cycles, a
renewable energy battery will also have a number of other important performance
characteristics that determine how well it works in a particular application. Among those are:

Energy Capacity: Maximum electric usable energy (kWh) stored in a battery.

Maximum Discharge and Charge rates: The peak power—usually given as maximum
current—the battery can either provide or accept without damage.

Depth of Discharge: What % of the battery‘s capacity may be used before it needs to be
recharged.

Cycle Life: How many recharge cycles a battery can undergo before it reaches end of life.

Calendar Life: How long, in time, a battery can be expected to last before it reaches end of
life.

Energy Density: How much energy is stored per unit of volume?

Specific Energy: How much energy stored per unit of mass. Energy density and specific
energy are related but distinct. For example, a battery with the same energy capacity may be
large and heavy (low energy density and low specific energy), large and light (low energy
density but high specific energy), small and heavy (high energy density and low specific
energy), or small and light (high energy density and high specific energy).

Fig 5.13 Solar Storage and Conversion

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 CONCLUSION
Photovoltaic power production is gaining more significance as a renewable energy source due
its many advantages. These advantages include ever lastic pollution free energy production
scheme, ease of maintenance, and direct sunbeam to electricity conversion. However the high
cost of PV installations still forms an obstacle for this technology. Moreover the PV panel
output power fluctuates as the weather conditions, such as the insolation level, and cell
temperature.

The described design of the Solar Lab system will produce the desired output of project.

The project described is valuable for the promising potentials it holds within, ranging from
the long run economic benefits to the important environmental advantages. This work will
mark one of the few attempts and contribution in the Arab world, in the field of renewable
energy, where such projects could be implemented extensively. With increasing
improvements in sola cell technologies & power electronics, such project would have more
value added & should receive more attention & support.

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