PH-107 (2021): Tutorial Sheet 1

* marked problems will be solved in the Wednesday tutorial class

Photoelectric Effect:
1. *In a photoelectric effect experiment, excited hydrogen atoms are used as light source.
The light emitted from this source is directed to a metal of work function Φ. In this
experiment, the following data on stopping potentials (Vs ), for various Balmer lines of
hydrogen, is obtained.

n = 4 → n = 2, transition line : VS = 0.43 V

n = 5 → n = 2, transition line : VS = 0.75 V
n = 6 → n = 2, transition line : VS = 0.94 V

a) What is the work function Φ of the metal in eV?

b) What is the stopping potential (in Volts) for Balmer line of the shortest wavelength?
c) What will be the photocurrent corresponding to Paschen series (ending in n = 3 )
transitions?

2. In an experiment on photoelectric effect of a metal, the stopping potentials were found to

be 4.62 V and 0.18 V for λ1 = 1850 Å and λ2 = 5460 Å, respectively. Find the value of
Planck’s constant, the threshold frequency and the work function of the metal.

3. A monochromatic light of intensity 1.0 µW/cm2 falls on a metal surface of area 1 cm2 and
work function 4.5 eV. Assume that only 3% of the incident light is absorbed by the metal
(rest is reflected back) and that the photoemission efficiency is 100 % (i.e. each absorbed
photon produces one photo-electron). The measured saturation current is 2.4 nA.

(a) Calculate the number of photons per second falling on the metal surface.
(b) What is the energy of the incident photon in eV ?
(c) What is the stopping potential ?

4. In a photoelectric experiment, a photocathode is illuminated separately by two light

sources of same intensity but different wavelengths, 480 nm and 613 nm. The result-
ing photocurrent is measured as a function of the potential difference (V ) between the
cathode and the anode. Observed photocurrent for three values of V is given below

V current (nA)
480 nm 613 nm
−0.1 76.3097 64.7039
−0.2 67.6194 44.4078
−0.3 58.9291 24.1118

(a) Using this data, obtain the work function of the photocathode and the cut off wave-
length.
(b) What is the maximum kinetic energy of the electron for λ = 480 nm? What should
be the wavelength of light to emit electrons half this kinetic energy?

1
 (c) When the photocathode material is changed, it is found that the cut off frequency is
1.2 times the cut off frequency of the old material. What is the work function of the
new material?

5. Light of wavelength 2000 Å falls on a metal surface. If the work function of the metal is
4.2 eV, find the kinetic energy of the fastest and the slowest emitted photoelectrons. Also
find the stopping potential and cutoff wavelength for the metal.

Black Body Radiation:

1. * According to Planck, the spectral energy density u(λ) of a blackbody maintained at
temperature T is given by
8πhc 1
u(λ, T ) = 5
 
λ exp hc
−1
λkB T

where λ denotes the wavelength of radiation emitted by the blackbody.

(a) Find an expression for λmax at which u(λ, T ) attains its maximum value (at a fixed
temperature T ). λmax should be in terms of T and fundamental constants h, c and
kB .
(b) Expressing λmax as Tα , obtain an expression for umax (T ) in terms of α, T and the
fundamental constants.

2. The earth rotates in a circular orbit about the sun. The radius of the orbit is 140×106
km. The radius of the earth is 6000 km and the radius of the sun is 700,000 km. The
surface temperature of the sun is 6000 K. Assuming that the sun and the earth are perfect
black bodies, calculate the equilibrium temperature of the earth.

3. (a) Given Planck’s formula for the energy density, obtain an expression for the Rayleigh
Jeans formula for U (ν, T ).
(b) For a black body at temperature T , U (ν, T ) was measured at ν = ν0 . This value is
found to be one tenth of the value estimated using Rayleigh Jeans formula. Obtain an
implicit equation in terms of hν/kB T
(c) Solve the above equation to obtain the value of hν/kB T , up to the first decimal place.

4. Using appropriate approximations, derive Weins’ displacement law from Planck’s formula
for energy density of black body radiation.

Compton Scattering:
1. A photon of energy hν is scattered through 90◦ by an electron initially at rest. The
scattered photon has a wavelength twice that of the incident photon. Find the frequency
of the incident photon and the recoil angle of the electron.

2. Find the energy of the incident x-ray if the maximum kinetic energy of the Compton
electron is m0 c2 /2.5.

2
3. Show that a free electron cannot absorb a photon so that a photoelectron requires bound
electron. However, the electron can be free in Compton Effect. Why?

4. Two Compton scattering experiments were performed using x-rays (incident energies E1
and E2 = E1 /2). In the first experiment, the increase in wavelength of the scattered
x-ray, when measured at an angle θ = 45◦ , is 7×10−14 m. In the second experiment, the
wavelength of the scattered x-ray, when measured at an angle θ = 60◦ , is 9.9×10−12 m.
(a) Calculate the Compton wavelength and the mass (m) of the scatterer.
(b) Find the wavelengths of the incident x-rays in the two experiments.

5. Find the smallest energy that a photon can have and still transfer 50% of its energy to an
electron initially at rest.

6. *γ-rays are scattered from electrons initially at rest. Assume the it is back-scattered and
its energy is much larger than the electron’s rest-mass energy, E ≫ me c2 .
(a) Calculate the wavelength shift
(b) Show that the energy of the scattered beam is half the rest mass energy of the electron,
regardless of the energy of the incident beam
(c) Calculate the electron’s recoil kinetic energy if the energy of the incident radiation is
150MeV

7. In Compton Scattering, show that the maximum energy of the scattered photon will be
2m0 c2 , irrespective of the energy of the incident photon. Find the value of θ0 , the angle
at which the maximum energy occurs.

8. * In a Compton scattering experiment (see figure), X-rays scattered off a free electron
initially at rest at an angle θ(> π/4)), gets re-scattered by another free electron, also
initially at rest.

(a) If λ3 − λ1 = 1.538 × 10−12 m, find the value of θ.

(b) If λ2 = 68 × 10−12 m , find the angle at which the first electron recoils due to the
collision.

3
 PH-107
Quantum Physics and Applications

Motivation and Introduction

Gopal Dixit
gdixit@phy.iitb.ac.in

Reference Book:

Modern Physics: R. A. Serway, C. J. Moses, C. A. Moyer,

Thomson Learning Inc. 2005 Third Edition

Why do I learn Quantum Physics?

✴ Not only teaches some newer concepts of Physics but

also teaches us to think beyond our existing knowledge.

✴ We have to stretch our imagination beyond our current

thinking.

Why do I learn Quantum Physics?

Why do I learn Quantum Physics?

Every student and practitioner of science and engineering need it.

You can not afford to ignore it.

If you understand it well, you can participate in the science and

technology endeavors of 21st century.
Why do I learn Quantum Physics?

Elec ical Elec ic

Elec ical Elec
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nnelling de ice
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Why do I learn Quantum Physics?

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Why do I learn Quantum Physics?

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this
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examine
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Why do I learn Quantum Physics?

Com e Science
Enginee ing

Q a m C m e
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P ce i g

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ef ige a ca c l a m d
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Why do I learn Quantum Physics?

Cal ech De a men f Mechanical and

Ci il Enginee ing

Q a m Mecha ic a he Mac c ic Scale

C a e g ai i g De i F c i al The

M l i cale
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Why do I learn Quantum Physics?
Why do I learn Quantum Physics?
E en he financial ma ke need kno ledge of
Q an m Ph ic
Quantum Physics in Daily Life:
✴Toasters
✴Fluorescent Lights
✴Computer and Mobile Phone
✴Biological Compass
✴Transistor
✴Laser
✴Microscopy
✴Global Positioning System (GPS)
✴Magnetic Resonance Imaging
✴Telecommunication

Three Ways Quantum Physics Affects Your Daily Life:

Chad Orzel in Forbes

Learning Objectives:

✴Gives a flavor of Quantum Physics and its application

to Solid State Physics.

✴To give some insight on how well established theories

in Physics gave way to newer (Modern) theories.

Why Quantum Physics was needed at first

place?

Theory which questions the “Wave ONLY” nature of light

(electromagnetic wave)

Birth of Quantum Physics (Quantum Mechanics)

 Christiaan Huygens
1629-1695 Sir Isaac Newton
What is Light?
light 1629-1695
consists of waves (1678)
light consists of waves (1678)
1643Sir- Isaac
1727 Newton
light1643 - 1727
consists of particles
light consists of particles

uygens’ principle gave

Huygens’ principle
Christiaan Huygens gave
(1629-1695)
light
Sir Isaacconsists of
Newton (1643-1727)
planations
explanations
of reflection
ofwaves
reflection light consists of
dand light consists of
refraction, being based material
light consistscorpuscles
of particles
material corpuscle
refraction,
Huygens’ principle gavebeing based
explanations of in in motion
lely on
solely the
reflectionon
so-called
andthe so-called
refraction,
of
being of
based motion
light consists of material corpuscles
condary
solely on thewave fronts.
so-called
secondary wave fronts. of secondary wave in motion
fronts.
 What is light?
Thomas Young’s double slit James Maxwell
Thomas Young James Maxwell (1831-1879)
experiment (1803 )
(1773-1829)

Light must be
waves!
Maxwell’s Equations (1860)

Maxwell’s Equations (1860)

Electromagnetic wave
𝟏
𝒗=𝒄=
𝝐𝟎 𝝁𝟎
What is Light?

EM waves can be reflected, refracted, and diffracted and they

obey the principle of superposition.

So, indeed electromagnetic wave is light and vice-versa.

Quantum Theory
Quantum Theory (1901)(1901)

By 1900, some
By 1900, somediscoveries
discoverieswere
were NOT
NOT explained
explained by the
by the
“ClassicalTheory”.
“Classical Theory” of Light

• Black-body radiation (1860-1901)

• Photoelectric Effect (1887-1905)
• Hydrogen Spectra (1888-1913)
 Black-body Radiation (1860-1901)
Black body
Blackfrom
Recap radiation:
bodyXI
radiation: Recapfrom
class Recap from
XIXI class
class

Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

Black body radiation: Recap from XI class

 rom Black-body
XI class Radiation (1860-1901)
kp body
from radiation:
XI class Recap from XI class
 Black-body Radiation (1860-1901)
Black body radiation (1860-1901)
a Quantum Theory
Rayleigh–Jeans
Rayleigh–Jeans (1900)(1900): “Sources of
Black body radiation (1860-1901)
sources
radiation of radiation
are atoms are
in a state of atoms in a
oscillation
state of oscillation (classical Quantum Theory
(classical oscillators)” Rayleigh–Jeans (1900)
oscillators)
sources of radiation are atoms in a
state of oscillation (classical
Max Plank (1901) oscillators)

the elementary oscillators could

Max Plank (1901)
Max-Planck
emit and absorb em radiation (1901): “The elementary
the elementary oscillators could
ONLY in discrete packets
oscillators could emitabsorb
emit and and absorb EM radiation
em radiation
ONLY in discrete packets
𝑬 = 𝒏𝒉𝒇 ONLY in discrete packets”
𝑬 = 𝒏𝒉𝒇
𝒉 ∼ 𝟔. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 SIE units
s = nh⌫ 𝒉 ∼ 𝟔. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 SI units

Birth of Quantum Mechanics

Birth of Quantum Mechanics
Birth of Quantum Physics !!
 Rayleigh–Jeans (1900)
Black-body Radiation
sources of radiation(1860-1901)
are atoms in a
state of oscillation (classical
oscillators)

Max Plank (1901)

Max-Planck (1901): “The elementary
the elementary oscillators could
oscillators could emitemit
andand
absorb EMem
absorb radiation
radiation
ONLY in discrete packets
ONLY in discrete packets”
𝑬 = 𝒏𝒉𝒇
E = nh⌫ 𝒉 ∼ 𝟔. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 SI units
Max-Planck
Birth of Quantum Mechanics
 Photoelectric Effect

Photoelectric Effect (1887-1905)

K•maxBlack-body radiation
does not depend (1860-1901)
on intensity
• Photoelectric Effect (1887-1905)
of V
(I)
• light
Atomic Spectroscopy (1888-1913) s

𝑲𝐦𝐚𝐱
Kmax increases with frequency Hertz (1887)
of light Kmax < 0 > 0

Existence of a threshold frequency

( 0) below which no photoelectrons
are detected. 0 Heinrich Hertz
Failure of Classical theory of light: Frequency, NOT
Intensity decides the threshold of photoelectron emission
Photoelectrons are detected instantaneously.
Failure of Classical theory of light: Frequency,
Einstein’s quantization of Photon energy (1905)
NOT Intensity decides the threshold of
𝑲𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝝓𝟎 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝒉𝒇photoelectron
𝟎 = 𝒆𝑽𝟎 emission.
The Nobel Prize in
𝑲𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝒉(𝝂 − 𝒇𝟎 ) Physics 1921

Einstein’s quantization of Photon energy (1905)

Kmax = h⌫ 0 = h⌫ h⌫0 = eV0
Kmax = h(⌫ ⌫0 )
 Photoelectric Effect (1887-1905)
T 84 CHAPTER 3 THE QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT
mission
Table 3.1 Work Functions Photon with
of Selected y y energy hf
Metals E

Work Function, !,
Metal (in eV)

Na 2.28 B
z c z x
e in
Al
Cu
4.08
4.70
x
c
Zn 4.31 (a) (b)
Ag 4.73
Pt 6.35 Figure 3.16 (a) A classical view of a traveling light wave. (b) Einstein’s photon
Pb 4.14 picture of “a traveling light wave.”
Albert
Fe
Einstein, 1921
4.50

of the electron. In short, he introduced only those ideas necessary to

Einstein’s theory of the
photoelectric effect
explain the photoelectric effect. He maintained that the energy of light
is not distributed evenly over the classical wavefront, but is concen-
trated in discrete regions (or in “bundles”), called quanta, each con-
taining energy, hf. A suggestive image, not to be taken too literally, is
shown in Figure 3.16b. Einstein’s picture was that a light quantum was so
localized that it gave all its energy, hf, directly to a single electron in the
metal. Therefore, according to Einstein, the maximum kinetic energy for
 0-1901)
7-1905) Atomic Spectra
Atomic Sp
Hydrogen
913)
1860-1901)
Spectra (1888-1913)
• Black-body radiation (1860-1901)
• Photoelectric Effect (1887-1905)
887-1905) • Hydrogen Spectra(1888-1913)
Atomic Spectra of Hydrogen
8-1913) Johannes Rydberg Lyman, BaJ
Johannes Rydberg
Atomic Spectra of Hydrogen etc series
gen
Lyman, Balmer, Paschen,
etc series
Johannes Rydberg 𝟏
, =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀𝐯𝐚𝐜
= 𝑹𝑯 𝟐 − 𝟐 (1888)
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝐯𝐚𝐜 𝝀
(Niels) Bohr model
of Hydrogen atom
1888)
) (1913)
The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1922 wa

wavelength Niels Bohr

Bohr model of Hydrogen atom
wavelength
(1913).
Recommended Readings
1. Black-body radiation, section 3.2 in page 68, and
(optional) section 3.3 in page 77.

2. Photoelectric e ect, section 3.4 in page 80.

3. The Bohr atom, section 4.3 in page 125.

ff
 PH-107
Quantum Physics and Applications

Compton Effect

Gopal Dixit
gdixit@phy.iitb.ac.in

Recommended Readings

The Compton e ect and X-rays, section 3.5 in page 86.

ff
Momentum of Photon
The concept of photons (“particle-like” nature of light) and
its discrete energy were established through black-body
radiation and photoelectric effect was discussed.

What about momentum of photons (light)?

The verification of photon momentum did not

happen until 1923 (P. Debye, A. H. Compton),
when scattering of X-ray photons from
electrons was explained.
Arthur Compton
 X-ray
source

Compton Effect FIGURE 3.19

length λ! of t
to different p

Compton
elike Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation 0° two peaks a
energies or
angle is vari
of the atom
scatter with
strongly wit
the Compto
Similar r
45° are higher-e
λ
Target decays. Co
gamma ray
λ′ = 0.0715 nm
θ
λ′ 74
X-ray
source 75
Detector 90°

λ′ (10−12 m)
73

λ λ′ λ′ = 0.0731 nm 72

FIGURE 3.19 Schematic diagram of Compton-scattering apparatus. The wave- 135° 71

length λ! of the scattered X rays is measured by the detector, which can be moved 70
0
to different positions θ. The wavelength difference λ! − λ varies with θ.
FIGURE 3.
wavelength
Compton’s original results are illustrated in Figure 3.20. At each angle, λ = 0.0709 nm λ′ = 0.0749 nm for differen
two peaks appear, corresponding to scattered X-ray photons with two different expected sl
FIGURE 3.20 Compton’s original re- agreement
energies or wavelengths. The wavelength of one peak does not change as the sults for X-ray scattering. of Compto
angle is varied; this peak corresponds to scattering that involves “inner” electrons
of the atom, which are more tightly bound to the atom so that the photon can
Compton Effect

✴ Compton illuminated graphite with X-rays (1923).

✴ He observed that the scattered radiation has a
longer wavelength than the incident radiation.
✴ On the grounds of the wave theory, it is impossible
to explain the change of wavelength!

Compton Effect

✴In graphite, there is an abundance of weakly bound

electrons – one can think of them as “free electrons”.
✴The photon passes some part of its energy to the
electron, and flies away with less energy.
✴The energy has to be conserved, so the remaining
part of the energy is the kinetic energy of the
scattered electron.

Momentum of Photon

What came out of from this study is the fact that

scattering of light by electrons can be treated like
collision between particles, further substantiating the
particle nature of light.

So, let us look at a collision between a X-ray photon, and

an electron (initially at rest).
 X-ray
source

Compton Effect
clelike Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation
FIGURE 3.19
length λ! of t
to different p

Compton
0° two peaks a
energies or
λ angle is vari
Target of the atom
scatter with
θ strongly wit
λ′ the Compto
X-ray Similar r
source 45° are higher-e
Detector decays. Co
gamma ray
λ′ = 0.0715 nm
λ λ′
74
FIGURE 3.19 Schematic diagram of Compton-scattering apparatus. The wave-
Energy conservation
75
90°
length λ! of the scattered X rays is measured by the detector, which can be moved

λ′ (10−12 m)
to different positions θ. The wavelength difference λ! − λ varies with θ. 73

h⌫ + Ee = h⌫ 0 + Ee0 λ′ = 0.0731 nm 72

Compton’s original results are illustrated in Figure 3.20. At each angle, 135° 71

two peaks appear, corresponding to scattered X-ray photons with two different
hc hc 0
energies or wavelengths. The wavelength of one peak does not change as the
70
0

+E = e this peak
angle is varied;
+E e to scattering that involves “inner” electrons
0 corresponds FIGURE 3.
of the atom, which are more tightly bound to the atom so that the photon can wavelength
scatter with no loss of energy. The wavelength of the other peak, however, varies λ = 0.0709 nm λ′ = 0.0749 nm for differen

Momentum conservation
strongly with angle; as can be seen from Figure 3.21, this variation is exactly as FIGURE 3.20 Compton’s original re-
expected sl
agreement
the Compton formula predicts. sults for X-ray scattering. of Compto
0
°
p=p +p Similar resultsecan be obtained for the scattering of gamma rays, which
are higher-energy (shorter wavelength) photons emitted in various radioactive
A Glimpse of Special Relativity

Modifying our notion of energy (E) and momentum (p)

An object has intrinsic (or rest ) mass m0

Such an object has rest mass energy E = m0 c2

m0
Mass m = p1 (v 2 /c2 )
= m0

Momentum p = mv = m0 v
 A Glimpse of Special Relativity
m0
Mass m = p1 (v 2 /c2 ) = m0
Relativistic Energy
Blackbody Radiation Contd…
Relativistic
Blackbody
Relativistic
Blackbody 𝟐
Energy
Radiation
Energy
Radiation 𝟐
Contd…
𝟐Contd… 𝒎
𝒗 𝒎 𝒗 𝟎
Relativistic
Blackbody
𝒎 𝟐 𝟏−
𝒗 𝟐= Energy
Radiation
𝒎 𝟐
𝟎 = 𝒎 𝟐−
Contd…
𝒎 𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝒎=
𝒗 𝟐 𝒎𝟎
Relativistic
𝒎 𝟐 𝟏 − 𝟐 Energy
Blackbody 𝒄 𝟐
𝒗 𝟐
Radiation
= 𝒎 𝟐
𝟎 𝟐 = 𝒎
𝒄
𝟐− Contd…
𝟐
𝒎 𝟐
𝒗 𝟐 𝒎
𝟏 − =
𝒄 𝟐
𝒎𝒎=𝒗 𝟐
𝒎𝟎
𝒎 𝟐both sides by c
multiply
𝟏 − 𝒄
𝒗 4
= 𝒎 𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐
𝒎𝒄 𝒗
𝒎 𝟐
𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 −𝟐𝒄
𝟐 𝟎 = 𝒎
𝟐
𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝒎𝟐𝟎 𝟐= 𝒎 −𝟐𝒎 −𝟐𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒎= 𝟏 −𝟎
𝒎 𝒄 𝟐 𝒗 𝟐
𝒎 𝒄
multiply
𝟎 𝟐 = 𝒎
both 𝒗
𝒄
sides
𝒄
𝟒
𝟐 −
by 𝒎
c 𝒗
4
𝟐𝒄 = 𝒎𝒄
𝟐
𝒗
𝟐 𝒄
𝒄 𝒎𝒗
− 𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒎=
𝟎 𝟐
𝒗 𝟏− 𝟐
𝒎 𝟏 − 𝟐 =4 𝒎𝟎 = 𝒎 − 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 −𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝒄
multiply𝟐𝟒both
𝟒 sides𝒄 𝟐by 𝟒c 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒄 𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒄
𝒎𝒎 𝟐
multiply 𝒄both=sides
𝟐
𝟎 𝒄𝟎 = 𝑬 − 𝒑 𝒄4
𝒎 by𝒄 c − 𝒎 𝒗 𝒄 𝒑 𝒄 + 𝒎𝟎 𝒄 = 𝑬
𝟐 4𝟐 =𝟐 𝟐𝒎𝒄 𝟒 𝒎𝒗 𝟐 𝟏 −
𝒄 𝟐
multiply
𝟐𝟐 𝟒both sides 𝟐by c
𝟒 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒎 𝒎
For𝒎 𝟎
a𝟎
𝒄
𝟐𝒄 𝟒=
𝟎
𝟒
=
𝒄𝟒 = 𝑬 𝒎𝒎 𝟐𝟐 𝒄
𝒄 𝟒
−mass,−
−𝟐 𝒎𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
𝒑 𝒄𝒎𝟐𝟎 =𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝒗 𝒗
𝟐
𝒄 𝟐𝒄 = =𝒎𝒄
For𝒑 𝟐𝒎𝒄
an𝒄
𝟐 −
𝟐e–𝟐+at
𝒎 𝟐−
𝒎𝒗𝒄
rest, 𝟒p=𝒎𝒗
𝟐
= 𝒄
𝑬
0,
𝟐𝟐 𝒄
𝟐photon, rest
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒎𝟎 𝒄 = 𝒎 𝒄 − 𝒎 𝒗 𝒄 = E 𝒎𝒄 = m c 2 − 𝒎𝒗
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒𝟒 𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝒑 𝟐 𝒄𝟐𝟐+𝟐𝒎𝟐– 𝒄𝟒 𝟐
0
= 𝑬𝟒 𝟐 𝟐
𝒎 𝒎
For
𝑬𝒎 𝟎 𝒄
𝟎
= 𝒉𝝂𝟐
𝒄
a ==
photon,
𝟒 ==𝒑𝒄
𝑬 𝟐
−
−
rest𝒑 𝒑𝟐
𝒄
𝒉𝝂
mass,𝒄
𝟐 𝒎 𝒉= 𝟎 𝟐 𝒑
For𝟐 𝒄an +
e𝟎 at
𝟐 𝒎𝟒 𝟎 𝒄
rest,𝟐 =
p =𝑬0,
𝒄 𝑬 − 𝒑 𝒄𝒄 = 𝒑 = 𝝀 only𝒑the 𝟎 𝒄E =magnitude!!!
+m𝒎 𝒄 = 𝑬
0c –
𝟎 2
𝟎
For a photon, rest mass, 𝒉𝝂 𝒎 = 𝟎 𝒉 ForFor an eanate–rest, at p = 0, p = 0,
rest,
For 𝑬 a
ℏ𝟐𝝅
= photon,
𝒉𝝂
For a photon, = 𝒑𝒄rest mass, 𝒎𝟎 = 𝟎 For
only
E = the an e – at rest, p = 0,
m0cmagnitude!!!
𝒑= ෝ = ℏ 𝒍Ԧ rest mass,
𝒏 𝒍Ԧ - “wave 𝒎= 𝟎
=
𝒑= 𝟎 (propagation
𝟎 vector
2 vector)”
𝝀 𝒄 𝝀 E =E =
m 0c 0
2m c 2
𝒉𝝂 𝒉
𝟐𝝅𝑬 =ℏ𝟐𝝅 𝒉𝝂 = 𝒑𝒄 ෝԦ 𝒉𝝂 only the of
𝒉𝝂= 𝒑 = 𝒉 𝒉direction magnitude!!!
𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 = 𝒑𝒄 wave number 𝒏 - propagation photon
A Glimpse of Special Relativity
Energy of an object with thisq
momentum is
E= p2 c2 + m20 c4 = m0 c2

Particles with zero rest mass

q
E= p2 c2 + m20 c4 =) E = pc

But for Photon, we know E = h⌫

h⌫ h
So, from both the relations pc = h⌫ =) p = =
c
A Glimpse of Special Relativity
h⌫ h
So, from both the relations pc = h⌫ =) p = =
c

h⌫ h 2⇡~
|p| = = = = ~|k|
c

2⇡
the corresponding wave vector k = k̂

Einstein concluded this relation based on his study of molecular

gas in thermal equilibrium with electromagnetic radiation in 1906.
momentum of photons with no mass
Momentum
energy
momentum ofphotons
of of
the Photon
electron atmass
with no rest
energy of the electron at rest
Both PHOTON and ELECTRO
Both PHOTON and ELECTRON were
considered as “relativistic”
considered as “relativistic” particles
 Compton Effect
NTUM THEORY OF LIGHT

Ee , pe

Recoiling electron
Incident
photon φ

E, p θ

Scattered photon

E ′ < E, p′

For Electron
Figure 3.24 Diagram representing Compton scattering of a photon by an
electron. The scattered photon has less energy (or longer wavelength) than the
For Photon
incident photon.
2 2 2 2 4 Eph = h⌫
Ee = pe c + m0 c
p! sin " # p e sin $ (3.30) h⌫
p
e
where p is the momentum of the incident photon, p! is the momentum of the p=
scattered photon, and p e is the recoil momentum of the electron. Equations
c
3.29 and 3.30 may be solved simultaneously to eliminate $, the electron scat-
2
 Compton Effect
NTUM THEORY OF LIGHT

For Electron
Ee , pe
2 2 2 2 4
Incident
Recoiling electron
Ee = pe c + m0 c
photon φ

E, p θ pe For Photon
Scattered photon
Eph = h⌫
E ′ < E, p′

h⌫
p=
Figure 3.24 Diagram representing Compton scattering of a photon by an
electron. The scattered photon has less energy (or longer wavelength) than the
c
x- and y-components of momentum
ncident photon.

0 p! sin " # p e sin $ (3.30)

Energy conservation
whereh⌫ h⌫ of the incident photon, p! is the momentum of the
p is the momentum
= and p is cos
cattered photon, e
✓ momentum
the recoil + pe cos of the electron. Equations
3.29 andc 3.30 may be c solved simultaneously to eliminate $, the electron scat-
2
ering angle, to give the following expression for p : h⌫ + m0 c2 = h⌫ 0 + Ee
e

p e2 # (p!)2 % p 2 & 2pp! cos " (3.31)

h⌫ 0
At this point it is necessary, paradoxically, to use the wave nature of
sin ✓ = p sin
ight to explain the particle-like behavior of photons. We have already
e
c
een that the energy of a photon and the frequency of the associated
ight wave are related by E # hf. If we assume that a photon obeys the
elativistic expression E 2 # p 2c 2 % m 2c 4 and that a photon has a mass of
zero, we have
Compton Effect
x- and y-components of momentum

h⌫ h⌫ 0 h⌫ 0
= cos ✓ + pe cos sin ✓ = pe sin
c c c

Let us eliminate
✓ 0
◆2 ✓ 0
◆2
2 h⌫ h⌫ h⌫
p2e (cos2 + sin )= p2e = cos ✓ + sin ✓
c c c

✓ ◆2 ✓ 0
◆2 ✓ ◆✓ 0
◆
h⌫ h⌫ h⌫ h⌫
p2e = + 2 cos ✓
c c c c
Compton Effect
Energy conservation
2 0
h⌫ + m0 c = h⌫ + Ee
0 2
Ee = h⌫ h⌫ + m0 c

2 2 2 2 2
But the relativistic energy Ee = pe c + (m0 c )

✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆
0 2
✓ ◆✓ 0
◆
2 h⌫ h⌫ h⌫ h⌫
and we know pe = + 2 cos ✓
c c c c

2 2 0 2 0 2 2
So Ee = (h⌫) + (h⌫ ) 2(h⌫)(h⌫ ) cos ✓ + (m0 c )
2 0 2 2
and Ee = (h⌫ h⌫ + m0 c )
 Compton Effect
So Ee2 = (h⌫)2 + (h⌫ 0 )2 2(h⌫)(h⌫ 0 ) cos ✓ + (m0 c2 )2

and Ee2 = (h⌫ h⌫ 0 + m0 c2 )2

(h⌫)2 + (h⌫ 0 )2 + (m0 c2 )2 2(h⌫)(h⌫ 0 ) 2(h⌫ 0 )(m0 c2 ) + 2(h⌫)(m0 c2 )

2 0 2 0 2 2
= (h⌫) + (h⌫ ) 2(h⌫)(h⌫ ) cos ✓ + (m0 c )

0 2 0
(h⌫ h⌫ )m0 c = (h⌫)(h⌫ )(1 cos ✓)
✓ ◆
hc hc 2 hc hc
0
m0 c = 0
(1 cos ✓)

0 h
= (1 cos ✓)
m0 c
Compton Effect
0 h
= (1 cos ✓)
m0 c
h 3
Compton wavelength c = = 2.43 ⇥ 10 nm
m0 c

Units and Conversion

h 6.63 10 34 J .s 12 is independent of
c 2.43 10 m
m0 c (9.11 10 31 kg )(3 108 m / s )
wavelength, but dependent
c
h hc
h 4.135 10 15
eV .s on the mass of the scatterer.
m0 c m0 c 2
m0 c 2 = Rest mass of electron 0.511 MeV

4.135 10 15 eV .s 3 108 m / s 12
c 2.43 10 m
0.511 106 eV
Compton Effect
0 h
= (1 cos ✓)
m0 c

The shift in wavelength

is zero for ✓ = 0

and 2 c for ✓ = 180

 c
m0 c
Compton Effect
= 2.43 x 10-3 nm
0 h
= (1 cos ✓)
m0 c
h Δλ=0
h
for θ=0 and
' (1 wavelength
Compton cos ) c = = 2.43 ⇥ 10 3
nm
m0 c Δλ
m0 c=2 λc for θ=180 .
o

Need high frequency photon to observe Compton Effect.

Max. change in wavelength: 2 c=4.86 x 10-12 m. This is

insignificant for visible light (10-7 m) but not for x-ray or -ray
(< 10-10 m)

The equation is valid even if we use particle other than electron

to scatter photon. One has to, however, use appropriate mass.
Take Home Lesson:

Photons, just like any other particles, carry

energy h⌫ and momentum h/
The success of “photon theory” in explaining
interaction of light and electrons contrasts the
classical (wave) theory of light.

It leaves us with the dilemma whether light is a

wave or a particle!
Light has both wave and particle properties
 PH-107
Quantum Physics and Applications

Wave-Particle Duality

Gopal Dixit
gdixit@phy.iitb.ac.in

Recommended Readings

Matter wave, sections 5.1 and 5.2 in page 152 and 154.
Recap

Photoelectric Effect
Particle nature of Light
Compton Effect

Interference
Wave nature of Light
Diffraction
Quantum theory gives light a more flexible nature by implying
that different experimental conditions evoke either the wave
properties or particle properties of light. In fact, both views are
necessary and complementary.

Recap

Photoelectric Effect
Particle nature of Light
Compton Effect

Interference
Wave nature of Light
Diffraction

Thus we are left with an uneasy compromise between wave and

particle concepts and must accept, at this point, that both are
necessary to explain the observed behavior of light.

In General
Does light consist of waves or particles?

Phenomenon Wave Nature Particle Nature

Re ection Yes Yes

Refraction Yes No

Interference Yes No

Diffraction Yes No

Polarisation Yes No

Photoelectric effect No Yes

Compton Effect No Yes

fl
Simple Idea

h⌫ h
For photon: p= =
c

h
=
p
More Complications

While people are struggling with this dual nature of

radiation (particles or waves), de-Broglie jumped in
and made the situation more complicated (or did he
make it simple?)

He said: If waves behave like particles, then why can’t particles

behave like waves?

Classically, we view massive objects (such as protons and

electrons) as particles and electromagnetic radiation as a wave.

In de-Broglie’s point of view, both of these should have both particle

and wave properties.
More Complications

This is surprising! Massive objects occupy well

defined positions in space at any given instant.
How can they have wave like properties?
Wave-Particle Duality
In 1923 Louis de Broglie gave hypothesis

If waves behave like particles, then why not

particles behave like waves?

Everything (matter and radiation) has both wave

and particle properties; which property you see
depends on the experiment you perform.

h⌫ h
For photon: p= =
c
h h
For a particle of momentum p, the wavelength is dB = =
p mv
Wave-Particle Duality
de Broglie hypothesis and Bohr’s Quantization condition

One of Bohr’s assumptions concerning hydrogen atom model

was that in a stationary state
L = me vr = n~
Wave-Particle Duality
de Broglie hypothesis and Bohr’s Quantization condition
Wave-Particle Duality
de Broglie hypothesis and Bohr’s Quantization condition
Wave-Particle Duality

Consider Jofra Archer

bowling at 145 km/hr.

Mass of the cricket

ball is 163 gm.

34
dB of the cricket ball is 10 m

Wave-Particle Duality
A ball of m = 150 g, v = 40 m/s
34
h 6.626 ⇥ 10 J-s 34
dB = = = 1.1 ⇥ 10 m
mv 0.15 kg ⇥ 40 m/s

An electron with v=5.9 x 106 m/s

6.626 ⇥ 10 34 J-s 10
dB = = 1.2 ⇥ 10 m
9.11 ⇥ 10 31 kg ⇥ 5.9 ⇥ 106 m/s

Atomic dimension:10-10 m; Nuclear dimension: 10-14 m

Wave-Particle Duality
de Broglie wavelength is negligibly small for macroscopic
objects

de Broglie wavelength is important for microscopic objects

like electron

Objects that are large in the absolute sense have the

property that the de Broglie wavelength associated with

them are completely negligible compared to their size.

Therefore, large particles only manifest particle nature.

 Young’s
Young’s double
double
slitslit experimen
experiment
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Path difference between two rays Path
Path difference
difference between
between
two
two rays:
rays:
= r2 r1 = d sin ✓
r2 r2 r1 r1 d sin
d sin

Constructive
Constructive interference
interference
Constructive Interference Destructive
Destructive interference
interference
Destructive Interference
✓d=sin
d sin
= d sin n mm ddsin
d=sin m((n
sin ✓ (= m1+/ 121/2)
/) 2)
Double Slit versus Multiple Slit
Replace two slit
Double slitsversus
with multiple
Multipleequi-spaced
slit slits
Replace two slits with multiple equi-spaced slits

? comparable
51 # : sin >
to @
X-ray Diffraction
 X-ray Diffraction (1912)
X-ray Diffraction A
p
c
a
d
in
Crystal plane 1
w
Bragg Equation
Crystal plane 2 B
2d sin ✓ = n
Path difference = AB+BC = n
n
Diffraction order n=
AB = BC = d sin
Wavelength ~ d-spacing
Wavelength
d-spacing ~ 0.2-0.3 ~
nmd-spacing
X-ray wavele

d-spacing ~ 0.2-0.3 nm X-ray wavelength, 0.01-10 nm

X-ray Diffraction
Crystal structure and Miller Indices

Planes with different

Miller indices in a cubic
crystal

Each plane will give

peak depending on d

and many more……

(Additional Information)
Wave-Nature of Electron
Davisson-Germer Experiment, 1927

Electrons were diffracted from a

Nickel crystal similar to x-rays. The
diffraction peaks satisfy the Bragg
condition.
p p
1 n p 2mE 2meV
= = = =
2d sin ✓ h h h

Electron wavelength
Acceleration
deBroglie through
Bragg law
relationship voltage V

Wave-Nature of Electron
h
de Broglie wavelength of electron dB =p
2meV
10
dB = 1.67 Å = 1.67 ⇥ 10 m for 54 eV electron

can be varied by varying accelerating voltage eV

Bragg law: 2d sin ✓ = n

should be of the same magnitude as d

Microscope Resolution ⇠ , shorter , better is resolution

=) Electron Microscope
Wavelength versus Size
With a visible light microscope,
Wavelength we areSize
versus limited to being able to
resolve
Withobjects
a visiblewhich are at least
light microscope, we about 0.5*10
are limited -6 m = 0.5 µm =
to being able to
resolve objects which are at least about 0.5*10-6 m = 0.5 μm =
500 nm in size.
500 nm in size.
This This is because
is because visible
visible light,
light, with
with a wavelengthofof~500
a wavelength ~500nm
nm cannot
cannot resolve objects whose size is smaller than its wavelength.
resolve objects whose size is smaller than its wavelength.

Bacteria, as viewed Bacteria, as viewed

using visible light using electrons!
Microscope Using Electrons
Ernest Ruska (and others) argued that if electrons behave like
waves then it should be possible to focus electron beams like
light.

They designed magnetic lenses which could focus the electron

waves and created TEM (Transmission Electron Microscope) in
1931.

Electron Microscope allows us to see things much smaller than

typical optical microscopes permit, because the wavelength of
the electron is much shorter than that of photons of visible light.

In principle, it can provide magnification factors of a million. Ruska

got a Nobel Prize in 1986.
Electron Microscope

The electron microscope is a device which uses the wave

behavior of electrons to make images which are otherwise too
small for visible light!

The best optical microscope using UV light have magnification of ~

2000 and resolution of ~ 100 nm, however, electron microscope
using 100 kV electrons has magnification of as much as 107 and
resolution of 0.2 nm.
Electron
Scanning Microscope
Electron Microscope (SEM)
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
3-d images by SEM. An electron beam
(20 KeV) is sharply focused on a
3-d images by SEM. An electron beam
specimen
(20 KeV)andisscanned.
sharply The low energy
focused on a
scattered
specimensecondary
and scanned.electrons are
The low energy
detected.
scattered secondary electrons are
detected.

SEM can resolve features as small as 5

nm.SEM
Thiscan resolve100
is about features
timesas smallthan
better as 5
cannm.beThisdone
is aboutwith
100 times better light
visible than
can be done with visible light
microscopes!
microscopes!

IMPORTANT
IMPORTANT POINT:
POINT:
HighHigh
energy particles
energy can
particles canbe
beused
usedto
to reveal thestructure
reveal the structureofof matter
matter ! !
Electron Microscope
YDSE with Electrons
C. Jönsson (Tübingen, Germany, 1961):

Double-slit interference effects for electrons by

constructing very narrow slits and using relatively
large distances between the slits and the
observation screen.

This experiment demonstrated that precisely the

same behaviour occurs for both light (waves) and
electrons (particles).
YDSE with
YDSE withElectrons
electrons: A historical perspective
Claus Joensson (1961) Interference pattern

With 2 slits

With 3 slits
YDSE with Electrons
electron double slit experiment
electron double slit experiment
Akira Tonomura and co-workers at Hitachi in 1989
Akira Tonomura and co-workers at Hitachi in 1989
just one electron in the apparatus at any one time
just one electron in the apparatus at any one time

they observed the build up of the

fringe pattern
they observed the build up of the
fringe pattern
The Tonomura Experiment
YDSE with Molecules
Wave Property of C60 molecule

Markus Arndt et al, Nature 401, 680 (1999)

YDSE with Molecules
 PH-107
Quantum Physics and Applications

Concept of Wave Packet

Gopal Dixit
gdixit@phy.iitb.ac.in
Recap

Everything (matter and radiation) has both wave

and particle properties; which property you see
depends on the experiment you perform.

h⌫ h
For photon: p= =
c

h h
For a particle of momentum p, the wavelength is dB = =
p mv
Particles

Particles are localized. They occupy a well defined region of

space, whatever their size.

In the idealized picture, we want the particles to have no

size at all, so that their position can be described by a single
real number.

This makes the mathematical analysis much easier.

Particles

We take this picture so seriously that we picture a

macroscopic object as being made of a large number of
infinitesimal objects, with tiny but non-zero masses.

Such visualization has been an enormous success. A very

large number of phenomena in mechanics and
electromagnetism have been explained by treating matter
as being made up a large number of "point masses".
Waves

Waves, on the other hand, are extended objects. In

classical wave theory, we do not put spatial restrictions on
waves.

Again, to keep the mathematics simple, we use an idealised

picture, where a wave extends in space from minus infinite
to plus infinite.
Waves

The explanation of interference and diffraction relies on the

fact that waves have spatial extent.

We get interference only if the wave goes through

(presents itself at) both slits simultaneously.

If physical objects have both particle and wave like

properties, how do we build a mathematical description,
which brings together these seemingly mutually exclusive
properties?
Waves
If several waves of different wavelengths and phases are
superimposed together, what we get is a localized
5.3
wave
WAVE GROUP
packet.
180° out
y Individual waves In phase
of phase

(a) t

(b) t

FigureBeat
5.18 formation in superposition
Beats are formed by the combination ofoftwo
two sinusoidal waves
waves of slightly different
frequency traveling in the same direction. (a) The individual waves. (b) The combined
Spatial beats by beats
Spatial superposition of sinusoidal
by superposition ofwaves of nearby
sinusoidal waves of
Spatial beats by superposition of sinusoidal waves of
Spatial beats by superposition
wavelengths nearby of sinusoidal waves of
wavelengths
✓ nearby wavelengths
◆
2⇡ nearby wavelengths
=A 2sin 2 x x A sin
Asin =Akxsin(kx)
A sin 2x A sin kx
A sin x A sin kx

[sin(5x)
[sin(5x) + + sin(6x)]/2
sin(6x)]/2 [sin(5x)
[sin(5x) + + sin(5.5x)
sin(5.5x) + + sin(6x)]/3
sin(6x)]/3
[sin(5x) + sin(6x)]/2 [sin(5x) + sin(5.5x) + sin(6x)]/3

[sin(5x)
[sin(5x)
[sin(5x) ++
+ sin sin (5.25x)
(5.25x)
sin + sin(5.5x)
+ sin(5.5x)
(5.25x) + sin
+ sin(5.5x) +(5.75x)
+ sinsin (5.75x) + sin(6x)]/5
+ +sin(6x)]/5
(5.75x) sin(6x)]/5
[sin(5x) + sin (5.125x) + sin (5.25x) + sin(5.375x) + sin(5.5x) + sin (5.625x)
+ sin (5.75x) + sin(5.875x) + sin(6x)]/9

[sin(5x) + sin(5.0625x) + sin (5.125x) + sin(5.1875x) + sin (5.25x) +

sin(5.3125x) + sin(5.375x) + sin(5.4375x) + sin(5.5x) + sin(5.5625x) + sin
(5.625x) + sin(5.6875x) + sin (5.75x) + sin(5.8125x) + sin(5.875x) +
sin(5.9375x) + sin(6x)]/17
[sin(5x) + sin (5.125x) + sin (5.25x) + sin(5.375x) + sin(5.5x) + sin (5.62
Wave
+ sin (5.75x)Packet
+ sin(5.875x) + sin(6x)]/9

[sin(5x) + sin(5.0625x) + sin (5.125x) + sin(5.1875x) + sin (5.25

A wave packet
sin(5.3125x) is a group
+ sin(5.375x) of waves+ with
+ sin(5.4375x) slightly
sin(5.5x) different +
+ sin(5.5625x)
(5.625x) + sin(5.6875x)
wavelengths + sin
interfering with(5.75x) + sin(5.8125x)
one another in a way +that
sin(5.875x
the
sin(5.9375x) + sin(6x)]/17
amplitude of the group (envelope) is non-zero in the
neighbourhood of the particle.

A wave packet is localized; it is a good representation of a particle

 arise is the phenomenon
A wave group consists of a superposition of of beats. Beats occur when two sound w
with the amplitude and phaseslightly
of eachdifferent
com- wavelength (and hence different frequency) a
bined. The resultant sound wave has a frequency equal to the averag
e waves interfere constructively over a small
Wave Packet two combining waves and an amplitude that fluctuates, or “beats,”
region the combination of waves produces a
zero rapidly as a result of destructive inter-
liar physical example in which wave groups m
v0
eats. Beats occur when two sound waves of (a) x
andA hence
realistic wave
different description
frequency) are com- of a “localized” particle is
e has a frequency equal to the average of the
provided
mplitude by a wave
that fluctuates, packet,
or “beats,” not an ideal sinusoidal wave.
at a rate
vg = vo

m
v0
x

(b)

vg = vo Figure 5.17 Representing a particle with matter waves: (a) particle of ma

speed v 0; (b) superposition of many matter waves with a spread of wavelen

A wave packet has a finite extent and within this there is a

tered on !0 " h/mv 0 correctly represents a particle.

wave of few cycles.

Wave Packet vg = vo

(b)

The "wave" in the wave packet does not look like the nice
Figure 5.17 Representing a particle with matter waves: (a) particle of mass m an
speed v 0; (b) superposition of many matter waves with a spread of wavelengths cen
tered on !0 " h/mv 0 correctly represents a particle.
and simple sinusoidal waves we use in doing wave
analysis.
Copyright 2005 Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The amplitude of the wave is significant only within the
extent of the packet.

The “wavelength” changes as a function of the spatial

coordinate within the packet.
 Phase Velocity
Phase Velocity and Group Velocity
Consider an ideal wave A sin( kx t)
ψ k =2A sin(kx
/ 2 2⇡
!t); k = and ! = 2⇡⌫
A k (wavenumber)
0

x
A
Take a point at t = 0 for which ψ = 0. Let time increase to Δt. What
Take
would a point
be Δx at t = 0ψfor
to maintain which ψ = 0. Let time increase to Δt. What
= 0.
would be Δx to maintain ψ = 0.x Phase
k xk x t! 0t = 0 vp
t xk ! Velocity
vp = =
t k
Phase velocity is the velocity of a point of constant phase on the wave.

Phase velocity is the velocity of a point of constant phase on the wave.

Group Velocity

1 = A sin[kx !t]; and 2 = A sin[(k + k)x (! + !)t]

Let us do superposition of two waves

= 1 + 2 = A sin[kx !t] + A sin[(k + k)x (! + !)t]

 ✓ ◆
(2k + k)x (2! + !)t kx !t
= 2A sin cos
2 2 2 2

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
k ! kx !t
= 2A sin k+ x !+ t cos
2 2 2 2
Group Velocity
5.3 WAVE GR

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
k 180°! out kx !t
= y2A sin k +waves
Individual x ! +of phase t cos In phase
2 2 2 2

We
(a)see that the first part is like a high frequency wave, modulated by the broad t
envelope of the second part. The resultant amplitude fluctuates, or “beats”.

(b) t

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
Figure 5.18 Beats are formed by the k combination of two waves of slightly different
kx
High Frequency
frequency travelingWave
sin k + x
in the same direction.
2 (a) The Broad
individualEnvelope
waves. (b)
2A cos
The combined
2
wave has an amplitude (broken line) that oscillates in time.
The envelope and the wave within the envelope move at different speeds
Group Velocity
 ✓ ◆
(2k + k)x (2! + !)t kx !t
= 2A sin cos
2 2 2 2
k and ! are infinitesimally small quantities
2k + k ⇡ 2k, 2! + ! ⇡ 2!
kx t ✓ ◆
2 A sin(kx t ) cos kx !t
= 2A sin(kx 2!t) cos
2
2 2
Slowly varying envelope of frequency
kx t and propagation constant k
cos
2 2
Group velocity is the velocity with
which theSlowly
envelope ofvarying envelope of frequency !
the wave
packet moves.
and propagation
In the limit constant k
d
vg k 0,
k dk 0
sin( kx t)
Group Velocity

Group velocity is the velocity Velocity of the wave within the

with which the envelope of the envelope (phase velocity)
wave packet moves.
!
! d! !+ 2 !
vg = = vp = k
⇡
k dk k+ 2
k
in the limit k ! 0; !!0
! = kvp
vg is the velocity with which the wave packet moves.
Wave Packet
We can think of adding waves with wavenumber ranging
continuously from k0 k/2 to k0 + k/2
and frequencies ranging from !(k0 k/2) to !(k0 + k/2)
k0 is the central wavelength
k is the range of the wavelength forming the wave packet
✓ ◆
d!
In this case, the group velocity will be given by vg =
dk k0
The connection between the group and phase velocities of
the composite wave is seen from
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
d! dvp
vg = = (vp )k0 + k
dk k0 dk k0 since ! = kvp
Example

A wave travelling on surface of water has phase velocity

proportional to the square root of wavelength. What is the group
velocity?
r
! p 2⇡ p
vp = = A =A =) ! = A 2⇡k
k k

d! ⇡A 1
vg = =p = vp
dk 2⇡k 2
 Dispersion Relations
Relation between and k is known as dispersion relation.
Plot of vs k is called the dispersion curve.
Light in vacuum
c 2 c 2
( 2 / )c
(k ) kc
A mechanical wave k
representing vibration in 1-d
chain of atoms