Gu, 2017

Clemson University
TigerPrints
All Dissertations Dissertations
8-2017
Strength and Serviceability Performances of

Southern Yellow Pine Cross-Laminated Timber
(CLT) and CLT-Glulam Composite Beam
Mengzhe Gu
Clemson University, mengzhg@g.clemson.edu
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Recommended Citation
Gu, Mengzhe, "Strength and Serviceability Performances of Southern Yellow Pine Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) and CLT-Glulam
Composite Beam" (2017). All Dissertations. 2014.
https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_dissertations/2014
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STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY PERFORMANCES
OF SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE CROSS-LAMINATED
TIMBER (CLT) AND CLT-GLULAM COMPOSITE BEAM
A Dissertation
Presented to
the Graduate School of
Clemson University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Civil Engineering
by
Mengzhe Gu
August 2017
Accepted by:
Dr. Weichiang Pang, Committee Chair
Dr. Thomas Cousins
Dr. Brandon Ross
Dr. Nadarajah Ravichandran
Abstract
Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) is a relatively new engineered mass timber construction
material in the North America. While CLT was invented roughly three decades ago in Europe, it
was not popular in the North America until recent years, in which there has been a surging demand
for mass timber construction in the North American market. The advantages from the material itself
and the level of pre-fabrication offers a flexible system suitable for large and tall wood buildings.
However, the design provisions for CLT have not been developed for the building codes of the United
States (US). Thus, the use of CLT is limited to custom projects.
There were two phases in this research. During the inception of this research, there was
no commercial production of structural grade CLT panels in the US using local wood species. The
first phase of the research investigated the manufacturing process of CLT panels in a pilot scale
using Southern Yellow Pine (SYP), a group of tree species native to the Southeast US. Tests were
conducted to evaluate the adhesive and structural performances of CLT panels in flexural and shear.
The test results showed that SYP can be used to produce CLT panels that meet and exceed the
product standard requirements for CLT in the North America.
The results generated from the pilot study were used in the second phase of the research to
design, fabricate and test a full-scale 5 ft. wide and 40 ft. long CLT-Glulam composite floor system
designed for long span applications. The proposed CLT-Glulam composite section is analogous to a
typical precast concrete box girder, which is designed to improve the material efficiency. The CLT
panels and Glulam beams in the composite floor system were fastened by self-tapping screws installed
at an incline angle. To investigate the feasibility of using the CLT-Glulam composite section for floor
system in residential/office construction, a non-destructive vibration (modal) test was conducted to
evaluate the serviceability behavior and destructive structural tests were performed to evaluate
the flexure and shear strengths. The modal test utilized an instrumented heel-drop excitation to
ii
simulate the impact from human footsteps and accelerometers to record the vibration responses.
The vibration test results revealed that the composite floor could produce vibration sensitive to
building occupants. The results of the destructive tests verified that the composite floor system
could safely carry the design load in terms of bending and shear strengths. Based on the findings
of the experimental study, it was found that the design of the CLT-Glulam composite system is
governed by serviceability and not ultimate strengths. It is recommended that, in addition to
designing for the ultimate strengths, the serviceability criteria be considered with equal important
as the strength design for improved occupant comfort.
iii
Dedication
TO THE WILDLY WONDERFUL WORLD THAT CREATED ME,
MY LOVING PARENTS,
GRANDPARENTS AND
MS. LUSI HONG.
iv
Acknowledgments
I would like to sincerely thank my advisor, Dr. Weichiang Pang, for introducing me to the
subject of engineered timber and leading me through my research endeavors. Thank you for your
offer letter (dated May 28, 2013) that resulted in once-in-a-lifetime opportunities and adventures in
PhD study. I came to Clemson to work with you, and I could not have made a better choice that
will forever guide my future.
I would also like to thank my committee members Dr. Cousins, Dr. Ross and Dr. Ravi for
providing suggestion and comments in experimental testing, those were invaluable to my research. I
enjoyed your jokes, or mockery or sometimes both. It was my pleasure to have you as my committee
members and I have learnt a tremendous amount in and out of the class. Special thank goes to
Dr. Layton for granting me access to the woodshop for pilot studies, her generous tool supply and
Rick’s smoke pork rib. In addition, I’d like to thanks Lt Col Anthony Barrett from the US Air Force
Academy for providing invaluable experience and knowledge in experimental modal testing.
Sincere thanks also go to the Civil Engineering lab technicians: Danny Mertz, Scott Black,
Sam Biemann, and Alex Pittman. No single test would be possible without the help from you guys.
Your working attitude has constantly inspired me of achieving higher quality of everything. I’m
grateful for all the friends that voluntarily helped me, who were wing-mans as we travelled through
the trial and tribulations of the PhD program: Nathan Schneider, Graham Montgomery, Michael
Stoner, Ross Philips, Will Granbery, Tylor Hood, Fanfu Fan, Yanshijie Wang, Weiyi Yu, Haotian
Li, Zexu Qian, Shang Yu, Mattson Wiksell, Lancelot Reres. You’re all amazing!
Special thanks for all the material suppliers: Columns Lumber for their generous supply of
2x Southern Pine lumbers for pilot scale study; Anthony Forest Products for their donation of the
glulam beams used in the full size composite beam; Structurlam for manufacturing the full-scale
Southern Pine CLT panels; MyTiCon for supplying the incline screws.. Thanks!
v
This research was partially supported by Forest Products Research Initiative Competitive
Grant No. 2012-34638-20236 from the USDA (National Institute of Food and Agriculture) and the
Clemson Wood Utilization and Design (WUD) Institute. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or
recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the USDA and WUD.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents, and my lovely fiancé Lusi Hong. Thanks for
supporting me during my studies and constantly urging me going forward.
To all of you, thanks for being there for the moment that we encountered.
vi
Table of Contents
Title Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Definition of CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Scope of Research and Potential Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Organization of the Dissertation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Literature Review and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.1 Status of the CLT Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Application of CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Joints and Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Fire performance of CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Wood Adhesive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 Commercial CLT Manufacturing, Clemson Pilot Production and Specimen

Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1 CLT production—European Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2 Clemson pilot CLT manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Specimens preparation for structural evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 Rolling Shear of Southern Pine CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Background and literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Adhesives and specimens prepared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.4 Test method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.5 Result and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.6 Characteristic rolling shear strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5 Bending Strength and Stiffness of Southern Pine CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.2 Background and literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
vii
5.3 Test method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4 Test result and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.5 Monte Carlo method for bending strength estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6 Bending and Shear Strengths of Composite CLT-Glulam Beam . . . . . . . . . .103

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2 Background and motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.3 Self Tapping Inclined Screw and Small Scale Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.4 Design and Assembly of CLT-Glulam Composite Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.5 Assembling of the Composite Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.6 Full Scale Destructive Tests of CLT-Glulam Composite Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.7 Conclusion and Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7 Vibration Properties of Composite CLT-Glulam Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.2 Motivation and Scope of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.3 Literature Review and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.4 Initial Vibration Assessment Using DG11 Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.5 Basic Structural Dynamics of Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.6 Modal Testing Theory and Equipment Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.7 Experimental Testing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.8 Presentation of Measured FRFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.9 System identification from measured FRF data set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.10 Finite Element Modeling of Composite Floor System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.11 Vibration Serviceability Assessment and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
8.1 Summary of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
8.2 Summary and Findings of Research Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.3 Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
A Pictures of Major Strength Direction Finger Joint and Lumber Knot Failures . . . . 253
B Screw Joint Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
C Composite Beam Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
D Frequency Domain Response of a Multi-Degree-of-Freedom System under Harmonic
Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
viii
List of Tables
3.1 Working properties of adhesives used in this study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.2 Number of specimens produced for major and minor axes rolling shear test . . . . . 57
3.3 Number of specimens produced for major and minor axes bending test . . . . . . . . 58
4.1 Density and moisture content (MC) of major and minor axis specimens . . . . . . . 63
4.2 Summary of rolling shear strengths for major and minor Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3 Glue bond strength estimation for major axis specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.4 Characteristic rolling shear strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1 Minimum required characteristic test value per PRG-320: CLT designation V31 . . . 79
5.2 Density and MC of tested bending specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3 PRG-320 suggested ratios of E and G based on E0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4 Section property of 3-ply SP CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.5 Mean values of MOE and MOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.6 Characteristic bending test values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.7 Lognormal distribution parameters for IGTP No.2 2x6 SP lumbers at 12% moisture
content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.8 Test statistics for in-house bending and IGTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.9 Test statistics for CLT MOR and Monte Carlo simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.1 Shear Test Results Montgomery (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

6.2 Inclined screw stiffness values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3 Section properties of the composite beam (assume full composite) . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.4 Bending and shear capacities of the composite beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.5 Live load and long term deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.6 Mid-span deflection and stiffness of the 1st bending test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.7 Deflection with fixed and pin boundary condition assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.8 Load increments used in 2nd bending test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.9 Shear Test Failure Estimations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.10 Load increments used in the shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.1 Estimation of fundamental natural frequencies based on DG11 guideline . . . . . . . 177

7.2 Digital signal process settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.3 Damping estimates for composite beam with fixed boundary condition . . . . . . . . 220
7.4 Damping estimates for composite beam with pinned boundary condition . . . . . . . 220
7.5 System poles identified for the composite beam during modal testing . . . . . . . . . 225
7.6 Vibration modes for composite CLT-Glulam beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.7 Benchmark results of the FE model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.8 Composite floor modeling parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.9 Comparison of experimental and computed natural frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
ix
List of Figures
1.1 A typical 3-ply CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Carbon storage of wood. Adapted from Kolb (2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 European CLT manufactures as of 2014. Source Grasser (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2 8-Story Wood Innovation Design Center (Archdaily) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 7-story mass timber office building T3 (Archdaily) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 10-story Forte apartment building (Lendlease) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 17-story Brock Commons student residence in UBC(Archdaily) . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Practice of platform construction at Redstone Project (Lendlease) . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 Types of gravity framings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.8 Post & beam framing: Carbon 12 in Portland OR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.9 Two-way slab roof: Chicago Pavilion in Chicago IL (Hedrich Blessing) . . . . . . . . 14
2.10 Honeycomb framing in Murray Grove apartment. Hackney, London (Waugh Thistle-
ton Architects) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.11 Lateral force resisting system of mass timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.12 Buckling restrained braces in Carbon 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.13 Steel moment frame in 120 SE Clay Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.14 Reinforced concrete columns in Roosevelt High School dining hall . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.15 Illustration of CLT connections (Gagnon et al. 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.16 Inclined self-tapping screw installed with washer guide (Rothoblaas) . . . . . . . . . 21
2.17 Exposed (left) and concealed (right) beam hanger (Rothoblaas) . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.18 Concealed hook connector connecting a glulam to a ledger beam (Rothoblaas) . . . . 22
2.19 Hold down and shear bracket(Rothoblaas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.20 Perforated plate installed at diaphragm joint in Carbon 12 project . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.21 Fire-resistant rating requirements for building elements. IBC 2015, Table 601. . . . . 26
2.22 CLT compartment fire test (left) and post-fire compartment (right). American Wood
Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.23 Microscopic pictures of hardwood (balsa) and softwood (pine)(Andersson et al. 2006) 30
3.1 Horizontal finger joint bit (Infinity Cutting Tools) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.2 Horizontal (left) and vertical (right) finger joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3 Vertical finger joint machined with glue applied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4 Two pieces of lumber ready to be mated in a crowder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.5 Swelling and shrinkage checks in CLT with edge bonded layers (left) and without edge
bonded layers (right)(Brandner et al. 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6 Line-wise adhesive application(Ledinek Engineering) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.7 Hydraulic CLT press(D.R.Johnson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.8 Pneumatic press (Ledinek Engineering) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.9 Hydraulic CLT press (Ledinek Engineering) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.10 CNC milling of CLT panels (Hans Hundegger AG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.11 CNC Machining Center (IHB International) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
x
3.12 No.2 & No.3 2x6 Southern Yellow Pine being conditioned at woodshop . . . . . . . . 49
3.13 DELMHORST moisture meter with hammer electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.14 Lumbers trimmed into 4ft. segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.15 Lumber planing in progress. Newman press standby on the right . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.16 Weighed resins and hardeners ready to be mixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.17 Adhesive application on a 16 f t2 area. Picture show malemin formaldehyde (MF)
adhesive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.18 Spread the adhesive with a spatula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.19 A 3-ply CLT being pressed with pressure shown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.20 Sizing a CLT panel with a circular saw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.21 Pilot panel staged press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1 The principal axes of wood with respect to grain direction and growth rings . . . . . 60
4.2 Three-point short-span bending test setup for rolling shear (left: major axis ; right:
minor axis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 Typical experimental setup for major axis rolling shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.4 Schematic view of 3-layer ‘V3’ cross section for calculating rolling shear . . . . . . . 65
4.5 Load displacement curves of major axis rolling shear specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.6 Typical rolling shear cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.7 Extension of diagonal shear crack into glue lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.8 Glue bond delamination (observed in EPI specimens) and bending failure . . . . . . 69
4.9 Load displacement curves of minor axis rolling shear tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.10 Failure of minor axis specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.11 CDF of major axis rolling shear strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.12 CDF of minor axis rolling shear strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.1 Schematic third-point bending test setup (top:major axis; bottom:minor axis) . . . . 80
5.2 Typical experimental setup for CLT bending test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.3 Bending test load-displacement history for major (left) and minor (right) strength
direction specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4 Typical failure of major strength direction Pilot CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.5 Wood fiber tension failure at lumber knot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.6 Finger joint failure in Structurlam major strength specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.7 Edgewise finger joint (left); flatwise finger joint (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.8 Structurlam lumber finger joint process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.9 Failure mechanism of minor axis specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.10 Normal distribution for bending strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.11 Beam modeling using shear analogy method (adapted from Gagnon et al. (2011)) . . 93
5.12 Flow chart of ASTM D1990 adjustment process. 1 M.C. was adjusted to 12% in the
in-house tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.13 In-house No. 2 2x6 Southern Pine bending test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.14 Lognormal distributions for IGTP and in-house bending test . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.15 Correlation of MOE and MOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.16 Lognormal distributions of IGTP UTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.17 Typical cross section of major (left) and minor (right) strength direction 3-ply CLT
specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.18 Results of simulation on bending strength of 3-ply CLT panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.1 Timber concrete composite with mesh steel plate (Equilibrium Consulting Inc.) . . . 107
6.2 Dowel type anchorage used in timber-concrete composite (Steinberg et al. 2003) . . . 107
6.3 Timber concrete composite system in Life Cycle Tower (Buildipedia) . . . . . . . . . 107
xi
6.4 Cross section of composite glulam-CLT beam with double sided nail nail plate and
screw connection (Jacquier and Girhammar 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.5 CLT-LVL composite beam test setup (Masoudnia et al. 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.6 Farfield bridge with FRP reinforced glulam girders (Advanced Structures & Compos-
ite Center) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.7 Proposed concept of hollow mass timber composite beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.8 Geometric parameters for different wood screws (Jockwer et al. 2014) . . . . . . . . 114
6.9 Force interaction in a inclined screw connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.10 Common timber connection joints. Left to right: shear tension, shear compression
and crossed joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.11 Forces and stresses for European Yield Mode 3 for a inclined screw connection (Bejtka
and Blass 2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.12 ASSY and SFS Intec screws studied in Montgomery (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.13 Specimen for inclined screw joint Test 3 (Montgomery 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.14 ASSY VG Cylindrical 3/8 in. screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.15 Specimen dimensions for the inclined screw joint shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.16 Drilling pilot holes using an angle guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.17 Inclined screw installation with hammer drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.18 Test setup for small scale shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.19 Results for two static shear tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.20 Screws sheared off in a inclined screw joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.21 Cross section for the CLT-Glulam composite beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.22 Maximum screw spacing envelop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.23 Exaggerated deflection shape for a non-composite beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.24 Shop drawing for inclined screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.25 CLT unloading from a flatbed trailer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.26 Placement of the material for bottom flange pilot drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.27 Temporary erection of glulam beams and lifeted away top assembly . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.28 CLT panel topping the temporary assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.29 Installation of inclined screw on the composite beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.30 Tools used in inclined screw installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.31 Support of the long span composite beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.32 Attachment of string potentiometers on the composite beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.33 USB-1208FS Data acquisition aystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.34 Third-point bending setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.35 Moment and shear diagrams for bending test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.36 Load displacement curve for the 1st bending test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.37 Deformed beam during a displacement controlled loading procedure . . . . . . . . . 144
6.38 Interface slippages during the displacement controlled loading–1st bending . . . . . . 145
6.39 Boundary conditions for a third-point bending setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.40 Stiffness reduction in bending test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.41 Three point flexural test setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.42 Moment and shear diagrams for bending test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.43 Load displacement curve for the 2nd bending test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.44 Rotation in the beam support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.45 Interface slippage during the displacement controlled loading–2rd bending . . . . . . 150
6.46 CLT tension side failures. Red circle: finger joint failure; Rectangle: lumber knot
failure; Green rhombus: survived finger joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.47 Tension CLT delamination and rolling shear failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.48 Glulam rolling shear and bending failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.49 Cutting the CLT-glulam beam for shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
xii
6.50 Shear test setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.51 Moment and shear diagrams of the shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.52 Load displacement curve for the shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.53 Interface slippage during the load controlled shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.54 Delamination failure at 79.6 kip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.55 Interface slippages after the shear test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.56 Opened gap at connection interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.1 Lenzen’s modified Reiher-Meister scale. (Lenzen 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

7.2 Recommended peak acceleration for human comfort for vibrations due to human
activities (Murray et al. 2003b; ISO 1989). The root mean square acceleration is the
square root of the area under the acceleration spectral density (ASD) curve in the
frequency domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.3 Estimated peak accelerations (% gravity) for the CLT-Glulam composite beam . . . 178
7.4 Theoretical and experimental routes of vibration analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.5 Handheld spectrum analyzer (TestWorld Inc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.6 Schematic view of the vibration test setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.7 Accelerometer attachment with hot glue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.8 In-house instrumented force plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.9 Calibration of force plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.10 Loadcell noise in decibels (dB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.11 Original and filtered loadcell signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7.12 Modal test signal acquiring system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.13 Heel-drop impact on a force plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.14 Time history of 7 heel-drop impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
7.15 A single time history of heel-drop impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.16 Grid lines used in the heel-drop modal testing (only half of the span shown) . . . . . 203
7.17 An array of accelerometers scanning the test piece surface at Column 25 . . . . . . . 204
7.18 Picture of the excitation placement on node 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.19 Schematic view of the excitation placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.20 Boundary conditions considered in the experimental modal analyses . . . . . . . . . 207
7.21 Schematic view of the excitation placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.22 Modal test flow chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.23 Driving point accelerance and coherence for the fixed boundary condition. Force plate
and accelerometer in node 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.24 Driving point accelerance and coherence for the pinned boundary condition. Force
plate and accelerometer in node 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.25 Accelerance and coherence plot for all measured 156 nodes for fixed boundary condition214
7.26 Accelerance and coherence plot for all measured 156 nodes for pinned boundary con-
dition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.27 Spectrogram of all FRF measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.28 Composite FRF magnitude created from the heel drop test. Natural frequencies are
identified as red dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.29 Illustration of half power bandwidth method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.30 Section of frequency range for LSCE method. Figure shows the range selected for the
dominant frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
7.31 Example curve fitting at DOF-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.32 2D mode shapes at identified natural frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.33 3D mode shapes at identified natural frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.34 Coherence function with 10th and 90th percentile values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.35 Modal assurance criteria values for obtain mode shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
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7.36 User defined layer shell element in SAP2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.37 Composite floor model. Red: shell elements; blue: frame elements; green: links and
restraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.38 Centroids of respective elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.39 Deflection of a composite beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
7.40 Computed transverse mode and axial mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.41 Floor model computed mode shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.42 Frequency gain in link element stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.43 2-parameter Weibull distribution fitting for GRM S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.44 Vibration serviceability assessment for CLT-Glulam composite beam floor system . . 244
1 Specimen1-2 FJ and 1 knot failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

3 Specimen3-1 FJ failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4 Specimen4-2 FJ failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6 Specimen6-2 knot failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
10 Specimen10-2 FJ failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
xiv
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Definition of CLT
According to the definition given by the American National Standards Institute, Cross-
Laminated Timber (CLT), also known as ‘X-lam’, is a “prefabricated solid engineered wood panel
made of as least three orthogonally bonded layers of solid-sawn lumber of a structural composite
lumber (SCL) that are laminated by gluing of the longitudinal and transverse layers with structural
adhesive to form a solid rectangular-shaped, straight and plane timber, intended for roof, floor or
wall applications” (ANSI 2012b).
Figure 1.1 shows a typical 5-ply CLT panel. Usually, a CLT panel consists of an odd number
of layers (3,5,7 or more) which are stacked orthogonally to each other and bonded with structural
adhesive or less commonly with dowels or nails. For many structural purposes, consecutive layers
may not be the same thickness. Because of the continuous bonding and consequently, quasi-rigid
composite action between the single layers, a very compact and versatile usable product arises.
Product dimensions allow its application as large-sized wall and floor elements as well as for other
load bearing system. In this way, modular dimensions which typically seen in a light frame wood
construction, can be neglected. This product has opened new dimensions in timber engineering
and allows architects and engineers to design and construct buildings that had been previously
restricted to reinforce concrete, steel or masonry based building materials. In this way, a new
building technique, the so-called solid timber or mass timber construction using CLT is developed,
making it possible to design and construct with engineered timber to previously unknown dimensions
1
and scales.
Figure 1.1: A typical 3-ply CLT
Although a relatively recent development, cross-laminated timber has its origin in the tradi-
tional furniture industry in central Europe. The evolution of the concept of a composite with rigidly
bonded crosswise layers from research through to a fully realized product took place in the 1990s.
Early engineering research occurred first in Switzerland and then in Austria. Meanwhile in Bavaria
(a state in Germany), the first three-story house was erected by the German timber company Merk,
where then the composite was known by the Germans as ‘Dickholz’ translated as ‘thick wood’. There
following a period of 5-6 years during which time the composite was experimented with by small
timber manufactures in the sub Alpine regions of Germany, Austria and Switzerland. In the early
2000s, manufacturing and construction techniques had matured enough for full scale production to
begin. As the popularity of the new timber technology spread, other European countries started
their own manufacturing capacity.
The advantages of CLT, as large sized and panel like solid timber construction elements
for the building sector, are in particularly obvious in its outstanding capability for pre-fabrication,
a dry and clean construction technique. This has allowed for a short erection times on site. The
high dimensional stability underlines accuracy, with the lowest tolerance well known for timber
construction in general. Further decisive criteria which argue for this product are the ability to
transfer the loads two dimensionally and the low mass, which reduce the foundation cost and make
it ideal for retrofit or upgrading of existing structures. Compared to light weight timber structures
(framing, post and beam system), CLT offers many advantages which include air permeability, the
distinctive specific storage capacity for humidity and temperature, the independence of modular
2
dimensions in arranging windows and door openings. The low mass, the stiffness and bearing
capacity against in-plane and out-of-plane stresses makes it ideal in multi-story residential and office
buildings, for schools, single family houses, and for wide-span structures such as bridges. In fact,
rib floors or box beams, as composites of CLT with other engineering timber such as duo, trio or
glue-laminated timber are really advantageous. Worldwide effort in research and development, as
well as processes for erection of small and medium buildings, are ongoing and observable.
Apart from CLT’s excellent applicability as building material, the increasing attention of
green building product in the architecture, engineering and construction communities has resulted in
important environmental advantages over other building materials – wood is the only major building
material derived from a resource that is both sustainable and renewable. The photosynthesis process
of trees removes carbon dioxide from atmosphere and store it in the wood in terms of sugar, and
generates oxygen as a byproduct. As a result, about half of the dry weight of wood is carbon, which
remains sequestered during the life-span of the product and helps offset carbon dioxide emissions–
a major contributor to global warming. One cubic meter of wood stores nearly a metric ton, about
1,900 pounds of CO2 , see Figure 1.2.
Compared to other mineral based construction materials (e.g. concrete, steel, aluminum),
wood requires less energy and water to produce. Life-cycle assessment studies consistently show wood
to be better for the environment in terms of embodies energy, air, water pollution, and greenhouse
gas emissions.
Figure 1.2: Carbon storage of wood. Adapted from Kolb (2008)
Replacing concrete and steel with wood can offset decades of carbon emission from heating,
cooling and powering the building. As advances in technology make it possible to build increasing
sufficient buildings, using wood could result in a negative carbon footprint over the life of the
structure.
3
1.2 Scope of Research and Potential Contributions
CLT has not been fully established in the North America. Compared to Europe markets,
CLT use in the US is small, limited to custom projects where panels are often imported from
Europe or Canada. To translate European successes to the US, CLT performance data is needed
for domestic wood species. Although there are several candidate species for manufacturing CLT
panels in the US, the most likely to be deployed are the softwoods that are now used as structural
building components. Southern Pine, the target species group for this study, is selected attributed
to its superior strength and stiffness, high density and excellent treatability. In addition, Southern
Pine is the most widely planted tree species group in the US and approximately 75% of all seedings
planted each year are Southern Pine (McKeand et al. 2003). Called ‘American’s wood basket’, the
Southern United States produce most of the world’s industrial wood output, providing about 15%
of the world’s industrial round wood and almost 60% of US’s harvest (Smith et al. 2009).
The specific objectives and research activities for Southern Pine CLT research presented in
this study are as follows:
1. to evaluate the CLT manufacturing process, adhesive performance, and structural
performance by pilot production and testing of Southern Pine CLT in Clemson University. The
structural performance study includes bending stiffness, bending strength, and rolling shear
strength in both major and minor strength directions;
2. to review the literature on timber-to-timber connections with inclined self-tapping
screws; estimate strength and stiffness of the timber joint and confirm with experimental study;
3. to investigate the feasibility of developing a long span hollow core composite CLT
beam that meets strength, stiffness and serviceability requirements for office occupancy and
commercial buildings. As a part of this task, a first-floor corridor CLT-Glulam composite
beam is designed, assembled and destructively tested to confirm the design philosophy;
4. to evaluate the vibration serviceability of long span CLT beam by performing
dynamic vibration tests. A series of referenced heel drop modal tests are performed to quantify
the vibration characteristics of the constructed beam. Upon completion of the vibration test,
human perception of floor vibration are discussed. In addition, finite element method (FEM)
models are developed and calibrated using the experimental data.
4
Upon completion of the listed tasks, this research (1) provides solid evidence that Southern
Yellow Pine (a group of softwood species) is viable for manufacturing of structural use CLT panels;
(2) deepens the understanding of layered composite wood material through experimental testing and
FEM composite material modeling; (3) presents a solution for a long span composite beam that is
fastened using the state-of-the-art inclined screws; (4) quantifies the vibration characteristics of the
composite floor via experimental data; and (5) presents a validated FEM model that gives researchers
and engineers a method of predicting the fundamental frequency needed for floor vibration design.
1.3 Organization of the Dissertation
A literature review is presented in Chapter 2. This chapter begins with the discussion of
the current status of CLT development in the US, types of construction and mass timber buildings
that are well-known. Then three major topics of CLT are reviewed and discussed– adhesive, fire
performance and connection. In Chapter 3, the manufacturing process of CLT is presented. In the
first part, the technology of commercial presses and CNC (computer numerical control) machines
are reviewed. The second part of Chapter 3 documents the process of a pilot manufacturing of
Southern Pine CLT conducted in the woodshop at Clemson University. The specimen dimensions
and test matrix are outlined for the preparation of experimental studies performed in Chapter 4
and 5. In Chapter 4, the rolling shear strength of 3-ply CLT is tested and confirmed with the CLT
Standard. Chapter 5 reports the experimental studies for bending characteristics of the 3-ply CLT
panels. Monte Carlo simulations are performed and validated against the experimental findings and
these results are presented in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 begins with the literature review and analysis
of timber-to-timber connection. Tension joint is selected among other loading configurations and
three small shear specimens with inclined screws are tested in static and fatigue loading scenarios.
With the information drawn from the shear specimens, a 40-foot-long composite CLT-Glulam beam
is designed, assembled and destructively tested. The experimental results for bending and shear
strengths of the composite beam are presented in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 addresses the vibration
serviceability of the long span composite beam. Chapter 7 also discusses the instrumented heel drop
tests carried out to determine the modal parameters (frequencies, dampings and mode shapes) of the
composite beam and to validate the finite element models. Finally, summary of research outcomes
and conclusions are provided in Chapter 8.
5
Chapter 2
Literature Review and Background
2.1 Status of the CLT Industry
Europe is by far the biggest producer of CLT with its capacity and production output
increased exponentially since year 2000 (Brandner et al. 2013). The main drive for the CLT devel-
opment and production are the green building movements, change in the building codes, consistent
marketing efforts and the development of distribution channels (Crespell and Gagnon 2010). Origi-
nated in central Europe, there are now a large number of CLT productions within Germany, Austria,
Czech Republic and Switzerland. Figure 2.1 provides an pie chart of CLT providers as well as their
production percentage breakdowns in the year of 2014, with a total volume of 472,200 m3 (that’s
almost the volume of 1300 standard swimming pool!). The companies manufacture CLT from all
kinds of domestic conifers specious. Most of them use Polyurethane (PUR) adhesives; however,
Pelamine-Urea Formaldehyde (MUF) is also used in some productions lines. Of the manufactures
listed, Stora Enso, Binderholz, KLH, Mayr-Melnhof are among the larger volume providers with
worldwide supply capabilities.
Interest in CLT as a new engineered wood product in North America is in its early stage
of development. While the classic timber frame construction with OSB or plywood sheathing still
being a sound options for small single/multi-family construction, CLT creates an opportunity for the
North America wood industry to upscale the size of residential and non-residential wood structures.
In the United States, the International Building Code (IBC) limits wood building up to 4 stories.
However, local jurisdictions retain the authority to approve projects on a case-by-case basis (Cain
6
Figure 2.1: European CLT manufactures as of 2014. Source Grasser (2015)
2014). In order to facilitate CLT application in the North America, the building material has to
be implemented into the regulatory system. This is done through a multi-level phases. First, a
CLT standard is needed guiding the production and quality control of the species dependent panels.
Followed by that, the material has to be incorporated in the design manual with the allowable values
obtained in phase one. As a final phase, the standard and design manual need to be adapted to the
building code. For the first phase, United States published a bi-country CLT standard known as
the Standard for Performance Rated Cross-Laminated Timber (ANSI 2012b). This document has
facilitate the CLT production by providing dimensions and tolerance, performance requirements, test
methods, quality assurance and trademarking. The second phase, the design manual development
in Canada was initiated by the Canadian Wood Council (CWC) to include CLT in the Canadian
Standard Association (CSA) O86 Engineered Design of Wood Standard. In the U.S., the America
Wood Council (AWC) took the same initiative to include CLT in the National Design Specification
for Wood Construction (NDS). The last step, the adoptation of CLT in the building code of Canada
(NBCC) and US (IBC) has already started. In fact, the petition for changes was submitted in 2012
and was approved in 2015, and the current NDS contains a chapter for designing CLT in the US.
7
In addition, a CLT handbook (Gagnon et al. 2011) has been published by FPInnovations to
assist the regulatory authorities with the code proposal and users with their design. These efforts
to foster the application of CLT in North America has resulted in many research and development,
including the recently opened Candlewood Suites (March 2016), a commercial CLT hotel project
in Huntsville, Alabama. Currently in North America, a total of four companies are APA certified
members capable of producing structural use CLT panels (several others are producing matting CLT
for temporary access roads and working platforms in oil & gas industry). They are Structurlam and
Nordic in Canada, and SmartLam and D R Johnson in the U.S. In 2015, SmartLam announced their
plan to massive expand CLT capacity to 110,000 m3 /year, which quadruples the current output and
would become the largest CLT mill in the world upon completion. Meanwhile, European CLT
companies view North America as a promising market. For example, KLH started a sales joint
venture with Idaho Forest Group (March 2014).
From a market prospective, North America might experience a different start of CLT. Since
the traditional light frame construction still remain popular for the majority of the single and multi-
family housing, the market needs a few showcase projects, especially for commercial or industrial
end uses, to demonstrate the advantage of using CLT as building material. As mentioned above,
pre-fabrication of CLT enables fast speed of construction, thus the erection time and ultimate the
cost (from labor, crane and tool rental, etc) are reduced. Over the past several years, a number
of tall wood projects have been completed around the world, demonstrating successful applications
of new wood and mass timber technologies. Among them, the 8-story Wood Innovation & Design
Center (Figure 2.2) in British Columbia Canada was built to LEED Gold status. Similarly, a 7-story
mass timber office building named T3 (timber, technology, transportation) in Minnesota is the first
modern tall wood buildings in the US (Figure 2.3). These pilot projects are crucial to gain further
awareness of CLT in architecture and design community as they are important decision makers in
building projects.
In addition to Europe and North America, there is also CLT development in Asian and
the ‘Pacific Rim’. In Asian the major manufacturer and development is taking place in Japan,
where currently there re three CLT producers in the country (Length Cooperative, Meiken Lamwood
and Yamasa Mokuzai ). CLT development is also underway in Australia and New Zealand. One
of the early CLT projects which still remains the tallest timber apartments during the draft of
the dissertation is the Forte (Figure 2.4) apartment building built in 2012 at Victoria Harbor in
8
Figure 2.2: 8-Story Wood Innovation Design Center (Archdaily)
Figure 2.3: 7-story mass timber office building T3 (Archdaily)
Melbourne, Australia. It currently holds the title as the worlds tallest timber building, but it may
not hold it for much longer. At end of summer 2017, the University of British Columbia will finish
Brock Commons student residence (Figure 2.5). At 53 meters tall with 17 stories, with housing for
404 students, it will soon be the tallest mass wood hybrid building in the world.
2.2 Application of CLT
Cross-laminated timber can be used for a wide variety of constructions. Small-scale projects
like single or multi-family residences, as well as large-scale multi-story buildings for residential,
commercial or public service purposes can be realized. Bridge, towers and other special monumental
structures are also feasible. The load-carrying CLT element can generally be used as wall, floor
or ceiling. In addition, CLT is commonly seen in hybrid buildings, where CLT panels are used
in combination with other wood products, for instance, glulam, nail laminated tumber, but also
9
Figure 2.4: 10-story Forte apartment building (Lendlease)
Figure 2.5: 17-story Brock Commons student residence in UBC(Archdaily)
mineral materials such as concrete and steel (Gagnon et al. 2011).
Due to its simplicity in design and erection, platform construction is most frequently used
as CLT building technique, see Figure 2.6. Platform construction usually involves erection of the
lower story walls and then installation of diaphragms (floor elements), providing a ‘platform’ for the
construction of next story. With the panels properly fastened, CLT elements are able to transfer
both lateral and gravity loads. The fast speed or erection, simple connection system and well-defined
10
load paths are among the advantages of platform construction using CLT. Other than platform
construction, CLT building can also be erected using balloon construction, though it is rarely seen.
In balloon construction system, walls are lifted up continuing several stories without a platform.
Intermediate floors are then attached to the walls, providing rigidity to the finished floor. Given
the size of large wall panels, heavy-duty temporary shorings are often of paramount importance
for construction site safety. In fact, the size of the panels is often controlled by the length of the
semi-tractor trailer: 53 ft (longer trailers will need special permitting). Due to the limitation of
panels size that can be delivered to the job site as well as the extra cost associate with shoring,
balloon systems are usually applied for low-rise, commercial or industrial shell-like buildings where
the absence of internal load or non-load bearing walls would enable a faster erection of the building.
Given the dimensional stability and fast erection speed, among other advantages, mass
timber structural system can be very versatile. The following section discusses the popular framing
plans and the options for lateral system design.
Figure 2.6: Practice of platform construction at Redstone Project (Lendlease)
2.2.1 Gravity framing styles
A buildings framing works in conjunction with its foundation to provide strength and sta-
bility for the structure; it is also a critical component of the load path. Properly designed and
constructed building framing is important in all locations. Framing must transfer all gravity, uplift,
and lateral loads to the foundation. As the section name indicates, the gravity framing is responsible
for sustain and ensure vertical load path of all gravity forces. For mass timber construction, the
11
following three framing plans are commonly seen in the practice: post & beam, two-way panel deck,
and ‘honeycomb’.
Figure 2.7: Types of gravity framings
Post & beam construction is a method of building with heavy timbers (posts and beams)
rather than dimensional lumber such as 2x4s. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating
structures using heavy squared-off and carefully fitted and joined timbers with joints secured by
large wooden pegs. It is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier. The
method comes from making things out of logs and tree trunks without modern high-tech saws to
cut lumber from the material stock, thus leaving a strong wood architectural finish to the building.
With the advanced cutting tools, post & beam framing has been modernized with the help of the
industrial tools, such as CNC machine. The horizontal deck has a versatile options that literally
could include all composite timber products, e.g. CLT, NLT, GLT, LVL, tongue and groove decking,
etc. The primary framing members (for posts and beams) can be selected from solid-sawn lumbers,
SCL, glulam or other non-wood materials.
Figure 2.8 shows the framing detail of the Carbon 12 –currently the tallest wood structure in
the US. Glue laminated timber columns and beams were used in this project for the gravity framing.
5-ply CLT was selected for their horizontal decking system.
Two-way panel deck, also known as the two-way slab, is designed to resist load in two
perpendicular directions. Contrary to one-way slab, the plate-like two-way slab has bending action
in both directions and the load is transferred to all supporting walls or beams. Due to the nature
of the crosswise layups in CLT, a two-way panel deck system is able to fully leverage this material
to its fullest potential. Two-way slab is common in concrete and steel decking system, however, it
12
Figure 2.8: Post & beam framing: Carbon 12 in Portland OR.
is rather unusual in mass timber construction. The open timber pavilion named Chicago Horizon
has a square, flat canopy roof, measuring 56 feet on each side–the maximum length of timber that
can be legally carried by a truck. This canopy is the first point-supported, two-way slab structure
built with timber, see Figure 2.9. The canopy consists of two piles of CLT panels laid crosswise
to each other. A total of 14 panels, each 8 feet wide and 4.125 inch thick, are topped by rubber
waterproofing membrane and gravel blast. The load of the roof slab is carried in perpendicular
directions and bears directly on 13 glulam columns distributed in a radial pattern, as opposed to
the typical post & beam grid. The canopy spans up to 30 feet between columns at isolated points.
It is also worth mentioning that the Brock Commons at UBC utilize a two-way deck design as well,
the decking system consists of 5-ply CLTs spanning on the 9 feet x 13 feet grid columns.
The concept of honeycomb framing has overlaps with platform constructions. A typical
honeycomb framing involves erecting the wall panels a setting floor decking panels on top, creating
individual, isolated spaces, just like honeycombs. The floor decking often spans in a two-way fashion
between the walls, however, it is only designed for the longer direction (as one-way slab). Therefore
honeycomb framing plan is suitable for accommodating shorter spans that are commonly seen in
hotel or apartment buildings. The Redstone Arsenal hotel in Huntsville Alabama (Figure 2.6) and
13
Figure 2.9: Two-way slab roof: Chicago Pavilion in Chicago IL (Hedrich Blessing)
Stadthaus Murray Grove apartment in London (Figure 2.10) are examples of honeycomb framing
where the entire structures are constructed entirely from pre-fabricated solid timber.
2.2.2 Lateral force system
CLT buildings are becoming increasingly popular with architecture and developers in areas
of high seismic hazard, for example Italy and Japan. This is mostly due to the advantages resulted
from the attractive weight-to-strength ratio of timber buildings. The reduced design inter-story
shear forces and the scale of the foundation will essentially drive down the cost and speed up the
erection process. Joint research activities in Italy and Japan showed that the CLT system can be
designed to provide seismic-resilience self-centering mechanism, thus providing a possibility for its
application in the seismic region (Ceccotti 2008). They tested shear wall components, a three-story
and a seven-story building (SOFIE project) in Japans E-Defense shake table facility and discovered
that connections and joints experienced large inelastic deformations and provided ductility to the
system. The CLT panels, on the contrary, perform rigidly and showed little deformation. In fact, the
tests concluded that the design and layout of the mechanical fasteners have a significant influence on
the performance of the CLT rocking wall system. A number of studies on CLT systems undertaken
in Europe and Canada: i.e. (Ceccotti and Follesa 2006; Dujic et al. 2008; Dujič and Žarnić 2006;
14
Figure 2.10: Honeycomb framing in Murray Grove apartment. Hackney, London (Waugh Thistleton
Architects)
Popovski et al. 2010) have demonstrated that a CLT system can be utilized effectively as a lateral
force resisting system. However, using CLT as lateral force resisting system in the US seismic design
can only be performed through ‘alternative methods’ since the material is not currently recognized
in seismic design codes. In 2009, the Applied Technology Council (ATC) proposed a methodology
published as Federal Emergency Management Agency report P695 (FEMA 2009) which provides a
rationale to evaluate seismic performance factors (SPFs) including the response modification factor
(R-factor), the system overstrength factor, and the deflection amplification factor for seismic design
in the U.S. The objective of the methodology is to provide an equivalent level of safety for all the
structures comprised of different seismic force resisting systems, i.e. approximately a 10% or lower
probability of collapse when subjected to an earthquake having the intensity of an earthquake with
a 2500 year return period (known in the U.S. at the Maximum Credible Earthquake). An overview
of this CLT seismic performance quantification using P695 can be found in Amini et al. (2014).
15
During the prepation of this manuscript, the CLT lateral system, including both vertical
(shear wall, moment resisting frame, etc) and horizontal (diaphragm) lateral systems, are addressed
in neither ASCE 7-10 nor NDS 2015. However, two approaches are available to design the vertical
lateral system as illustrated in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: Lateral force resisting system of mass timber
If code recognized lateral system is selected, typically a hybrid construction can be seen.
Those lateral systems are well understood and have been in practice for long enough where architec-
tures and engineers are familiar with. The R values published in the ASCE 7-10 are readily available
and therefore the lateral system is clearly defined. As a matter of fact, many of the mass timber
structures erected in the US use a hybrid system where CLT or other mass timber product is design
for gravity load only. The examples are Carbon 12 with buckling restrained braces (Figure 2.12),
120 SE Clay with steel moment frame (Figure 2.13) and Roosevelt High School with RC columns
(Figure 2.14).
If the lateral system is not recognized in building code, or as a result of a innovative research,
ASCE 7-10 provides a code compliance pathway to incorporate such system given that analysis or
16
Figure 2.12: Buckling restrained braces in Carbon 12
Figure 2.13: Steel moment frame in 120 SE Clay Street
17
Figure 2.14: Reinforced concrete columns in Roosevelt High School dining hall
combination of analysis and test provides a reliability no less than the expected component designed
per ASCE section 1.3.1.1. It’s up to user’s responsibility to prove the equivalency and reliability of
the proposed lateral system and will be screened by jurisdiction peer review panels for final decision.
In fact, the state of Oregon is one step ahead of the rest where building code advisory board issued
a statewide alternate method to incorporate CLT shear wall as a recognized system (with R=2).
This provision can be found in the Section 602.4 of the 2015 Oregon Structural Specialty Code.
Second part of the lateral system design is to address the diaphragm. Diaphragm works as a
horizontal deep beam, where the loads are usually assumed to be uniform distributed, and resisted by
the diaphragm in bending. The resulting forces in the chords and collectors are the diaphragm panels
as well as connectors need to be designed for. The European approached proposed by Follesa et al.
(2013) assumed a rigid diaphragm bahavior for CLT wall and floor system. Typically, non-yielding
connections specified in the diaphragm panels where the connectors are designed to overstrength
factor 1.3 to 1.6 of yielding connection strength. The US CLT handbook typically assumes a semi-
rigid diaphragm, where the chords are designed with non-yielding connections while other internal
panel joint connections are designed with yielding ones. These yielding connectors shall be governed
by NDS yield modes III and IV and strength of other (non-yielding) limit states to be designed to
nominal yielding connection capacity. A white paper design example published by Spickler et al.
18
(2015) should provide a good start on diaphragm design and selection of connections.
2.3 Joints and Connections
“Connections in heavy timber construction, including those built with CLT, play an essential
role in providing strength, stiffness, and ductility to the structure; consequently, they require careful
attention by designers”(Gagnon et al. 2011).The light weight of CLT combined with high level of
prefabrication, in addition to the need to provide wood based alternative products and systems to
steel and concrete, have significantly contributed to the development of CLT products and systems.
The structural efficiency of the floor system acting as a diaphragm and that of walls in resisting
lateral loads depends on the efficiency of the fastening systems and connection details used to
interconnect individual panels and assembly together. According to the classification given in the
CLT Handbook, there are basically five types of connection assemblies for CLT buildings, they are:
(A) Floor panels connections
(B) Wall-to-wall connections
(C) Wall-to-floor connections
(D) Wall to roof connections
(E) Wall-to-foundation connections
Preferably, large-sized panels are to be used since this minimize the number of connections
and joints. However, as mentioned above, given the dimension in transportation and production,
this is not always possible.
Currently practices mainly select two types of fasteners: dowel type fasteners like nails, self-
tapping screws, rivets, dowels and bolts; and bearing-type fasteners such as medal brackets, split ring
and shear plates. Structural adhesive can also be used in combination with the mechanical fasteners
to achieve if a more rigid connection is desired. Given the introduction of CLT as construction
material in the market of North America, it is expected that new and innovative connection details
will be developed over time.
The database of CLT connector catelog is too large to cover thoroughly, some of those are
made for special situations and are rarely seen in typical details. Therefore the rest of this section
19
Figure 2.15: Illustration of CLT connections (Gagnon et al. 2011)
will be focused on a selection of generic CLT connectors.
Self-tapping screw Self-tapping screws has been extensively researched and used in Eu-
rope for the assembly of CLT elements. In many cases they are installed in an inclined angle to take
advantage of the high combined lateral and withdraw capacity. It receives popularity among designer
and builders as it is easy to design and install. Self-tapping screws are available in diameter up to
0.55 inch and length up to 59 inches, while common lengths are up to 39.4 inches (1000 mm). They
do not require pilot holes in most cases, unlike lag screws or through bolt used in traditional wood
construction, the size of which depends on the density of the wood and the diameter of the screw. It
is recommended that the design capacity of screws in CLT to account for potential gaps in unglued
cross layers. 45 degree is a typical angle of installing such long self-tapping screw. To facilitate
the installation, special washers are available to assist the measurement of angle at job site. These
washers (Figure 2.16) guides the installation of self-tapping screws and are usually countersunk into
20
the steel plate underneath.
Figure 2.16: Inclined self-tapping screw installed with washer guide (Rothoblaas)
Beam hanger Beam hangers are commonly seen in post & beam type of framing where
beams need to either connect to a wall or to a post (column). The connecting object can be either
wood, steel or concrete. Based on prescribed aesthetic requirements, architects or building owner
may select between a hidden joint or a visible joint. A hidden joint may cost more initially, however,
the joint assembly has a potential to achieve better fire rating since the connection is adequately
protected and isolated by the surrounding timber. Unprotected joint, on the other hand, is directly
exposed to the fire and fasteners quickly loss their penetration depth during the char development.
Figure 2.17: Exposed (left) and concealed (right) beam hanger (Rothoblaas)
21
With the help of CNC capability, ends of the connecting pieces can be pre-routed and
attached with countersunk hook connectors. Wood screw are typically used as fasteners for the hook
and many products in the market are referred as ‘identical twins’, meaning there’s no distinguished
male and female part of the connection assembly. So installation error can be minimized. The
installation of beam hooks can be easily done at fabricator, thus enables a fast beam drop-in which
requires only crane and some adjustments (with plumb, carpenter square and level).
Figure 2.18: Concealed hook connector connecting a glulam to a ledger beam (Rothoblaas)
Angle bracket Angle brackets are connectors that are widely used for mass timber con-
struction. After punching, shearing and cold forming, plane galvanized sheet medal is transformed
into three dimension angles. Provided its dimensional force resistance capacity, the application of
angle brackets can be very versatile that include connections of right-angled walls, wall to floor, wall
to roof and wall to foundation. Generally speaking, timber rivet, nail or screws are used to fasten
the angle bracket for wood to wood application, while for concrete and steel, bolts are more likely
to be used. Angle brackets are often engineered and reinforced based on its intended application.
For example, if the angle is to be installed at the end of the wall where uplifting and over-turning
demand is high, a portion of the angle will be curled up to act as stiffeners (see Figure 2.19). For
shear applications, special ribs will be cold formed to achieve better resistance.
For CLT shear wall as lateral system, angle brackets play a important role as they provide
ductility and shear resistance to the building. However, due to the lack of generic design of geometry
22
Figure 2.19: Hold down and shear bracket(Rothoblaas)
and material, angle brackets from different manufacturers often comes with different resistant char-
acteristics. Therefore the design (location, number of brackets, etc) and selection of angle brackets
should proceed with great caution since CLT shear wall is not a recognized lateral system yet and
there are no available R value that could guide the lateral design. On this regard, research has been
conducted to examine the performance of CLT shear walls (Popovski and Karacabeyli 2012) and
preliminarily quantified the seismic performance factor using generic angle brackets (Amini et al.
2016; Pei et al. 2012).
Perforated plates Perforated plates are plates with pre-pierced holes, they are are in-
tended to transfer tensile forces between timber elements, such as beams, structural panels and
claddings. Perforated plates can be also used as bracing element. At locations where CLT panels
are jointed in together, multiple perforated plates are installed to control the construction joint and
provide integrity of the diaphragm, see Figure 2.20.
2.4 Fire performance of CLT
Timber structures have experienced a renaissance during the recent few decades due to their
environmental credentials, and societal goals striving for sustainable development with lower energy
demands and less pollution in all sectors including the construction sector that stands for a major
part of the overall community economy. However, the combustibility of timber is still the concern
of general public as using wood as a building material. It is restricted in building regulations in
most countries, especially for higher and larger buildings. In the United States, compliance with
23
Figure 2.20: Perforated plate installed at diaphragm joint in Carbon 12 project
the building code is generally accomplished by construction in accordance with the International
Building Code (IBC) or Building Construction and Safety Code (NFPA 5000). The intention of
these documents is to establish minimum requirements to the public safety through a list of targets,
for example, life safety, structural strength, property protection, fire-flighter’s safety, etc. As such,
the fire design may deal with situations such as providing adequate structural integrity in a fire
scene, limit fire spread through a building and to adjacent properties as well as limit personal and
property damage due to a fire impact.
2.4.1 Fire resistant requirements
The minimum fire resistance requirements set forth in the IBC and NFPA 5000 depend on
the structural element, type of construction, occupancy, distance from property line and other factors
such as other detailing requirements articulated in IBC Chapter 4. The type of construction and
occupancy classification directly dictates the height and area limitations for code compliance. Mass
timber construction with CLT is able to comply with the provision in Types of Construction III, IV
and V, since Type I and II requires that major building element to be built with non-combustible
materials. Based on the type of construction, locations where CLT can be used are summarized
below:
24
Type III construction Type III construction requires that the exterior walls to be non-
combustible while allowing combustible material being used as interior building elements. Type III is
further divided into sub-classifications A and B based on fire resistance requirements (e.g. sprinkler
system).
Type IV construction Type IV is commonly known as ‘Heavy Timber’ construction,
it requires the exterior walls of being noncombustible materials and the interior building elements
of solid or laminated wood without concealed spaces. The 2015 IBC prescriptively allows the use
of CLT in Heavy Timber construction, including exterior walls (section 602.4.2), floors (602.4.6),
roofs (602.4.7) and interior walls (602.4.8). For exterior wall assembly, CLT is permitted with a
fire rating 2 hours or less and surface of the CLT being protected from one of the following: fire-
retardant-treated wood sheathing not less than 15/32 inch thick; gypsum board not less than 1/2
inch thick or a noncombustible material. If CLT is used as floor deck, it shall be not less than 4 inches
in thickness and shall be continuous from support to support while mechanically fastened to one
another. CLT used in roof assembly has the identical requirements except the minimum thickness
decreases to 3 inches. Load bearing interior walls shall have a one hour fire rating, regardless the type
of wood product being used in the assembly. While if interior partitions are formed by laminated
construction, they shall not be less than 4 inches.
Type V construction Type V is defined as a type of construction in which the structural
elements, including exterior and interior walls, can be any material permitted by the IBC code. For
CLT, the 2015 IBC and NFPA 5000 both refers to the ANSI/APA PRG 320 standard for code
permitted commodity. As such, CLT complying the Standard would be permitted for use in Type
V construction.
Type I and II construction Types I and II are those types of construction in which
the building elements are of noncombustible materials. These building elements listed in Table 601
of the 2015 IBC include primary structural frame, bearing walls, non-bearing walls and partitions,
floor and roof assemblies. However, combustible wood products are still permitted in Type I and
II constructions, given they are fire-retardant-treated and used in the following situations: 1) non-
bearing partitions where the required fire resistance rating is 2 hours or less; 2) non-bearing exterior
walls where fire-resistance-rated construction is not required; 3) roof construction.
25
Fire ratings Once the occupancy classification and type of construction are determined
and approved (so as the floor area and number of stories), fire rating requirements are assigned to
the building sub-assemblies. IBC 2015 fire-resistant rating (hour) requirements for various building
elements are screen shot here as Figure 2.21. Based on the required fire rating hours, architects and
engineers work together to select material and perform calculations so that casualty and property
damage are minimized in case of a fire.
Figure 2.21: Fire-resistant rating requirements for building elements. IBC 2015, Table 601.
A fire-resistance rating is defined as the period of time of a building element, component or
assembly maintain the ability to perform its separating functions (i.e. confining fire by preventing
or retarding the passage of excessive heat, hot gases or flames), continued to perform a given load-
bearing functions, or sometimes both. Structural fire performance of buildings is often assessed by
conducting fire-resisting in accordance with ASTM E119 (ASTM 2016b), where the test assembly
is subjected to a standard furnace temperature time history.
In case of exploring the deterioration of load-bearing functions under fire, specific test
method outlined in the E119 requires specimens to be loaded while being subjected to prescribed
temperature profile. It also requires the superimposed load to be the maximum load condition
26
allowed under natinoally recognized structural design criteria. As such, a test performed under
maximum load ensures that the fire-resistant rating obtained is appropriate for use in any equal
or less loading conditions. Primarily, a standard fire-resistance test entails three failure/acceptance
criteria:
1. Load bearing function: the assembly must support the applied load for the dura-
tion of the test;
2. Separating function: the assembly must prevent the passage of flame or gases hot
enough to ignite a cotton pad;
3. Insulation function: the assembly must prevent the temperature rise on the unex-
posed surface from being greater than 325 ◦ F at any location, or an average 250 ◦ F measured
at a number of locations, above the initial temperature.
2.4.2 Experimental studies in CLT fire performance
Recent fire tests (Frangi et al. 2008, 2009; Hasburgh et al. 2016) confirmed that the CLT
has the potential to provide good fire resistance, often comparable to typical mass assemblies of
non-combustible construction. This is found to stem from the nature of the thick timber members
to slowly char at a predicted rate, allowing the building system to maintain significant structural
capacity for extended durations. The charred layer further serves as a protection layer and reduce
the char rate of the core. Hasburgh and Bourne (2016) fire tested a series of Southern Pine CLT with
various layer configurations, adhesives and gypsum protections and they pointed out the significant
effect of adhesive bonds. Delamination could occur at the glue line where the char layer falls off
before being completed charred, leaving the remaining system unprotected and further vulnerate
the integrity of the structural system. They recommended that formaldehyde based wood adhesive
to be selected for CLT since they perform well under fire.
CLT panels with different ply configuration with and without gypsum protection were tested
by FPInnovations at the National Research Council’s fire lab (Osborne et al. 2012). Char rates and
fire-resistant ratings were determined for the panels, generating a good data set for subsequent
studies.
Another experimental fire study at CLT compartment level was conducted by McGregor
at Carleton University considering different level of fire load and protection levels(McGregor 2013).
27
The tests involve typical furniture fire load and a propane fire scenario. Fire in a protected room
with only furniture fuel was shown to self-extinguish, with CLT remain unaffected. The unprotected
CLT panel can delaminate and add to fire load. With propane fire, even protected room can fail
and initiate second flashover after the gypsum board failed (due to extensive charring).
Frangi and his collaborators (2008) conducted a full size fire test where a residential dwelling
in a three-story CLT building was exposed to a fire load of 790 MJ/m2 for an hour. The building
was constructed with 85mm wall panels and 142 floor panels. In addition, the walls were protected
with fire rated gypsums boards and the ceiling with mineral-wood insulation and gypsum board.
Post fire analysis of the building showed a char rate of 5-10mm on the CLT elements. No window
failure or fire penetration in the upper story was observed during the one-hour fire experiment. The
authors concluded that it is possible to limit the fire spread to one room by protecting the CLT with
sufficient non-combustible gypsum material.
Protected compartment fire tests were conducted by American Wood Council in 2015 for
a 16 by 12 ft CLT room with typical fume and fire generated from furniture and contents (book
shelf, TV, sofa, table, etc). The compartment was build with 5-ply CLT all around and had a
door opening of 6.5 ft by 3.5 ft. Test results confirmed observations from earlier compartment fire
tests that gypsum protected CLT (2 layers of 5/8 Type X gypsum wallboard) can achieve nearly
damage free performance during a fire burn out event. A room with only one wall unprotected has
acceptable performance under fire, while the room with two walls unprotected can experience CLT
delamination.
Figure 2.22: CLT compartment fire test (left) and post-fire compartment (right). American Wood
Council
Currently, Chapter 16 of the 2015 NDS incorporates a design methodology to calculate fire
28
resistance of CLT using a linear char rate approach. The effective char rate (inch/hr) βef f adjusted
for exposure time (t) using nominal linear char rate based on a 1-hour exposure can be expressed
as:
1.2βn
βef f = (2.1)
t0.187
A nominal char rate (βn ) of 1.5 inches/hr is commonly assumed for solid-sawn, glulam and CLT.
The effective char depth assumes linearity with the char rate:
achar = βef f t = 1.2βn t0.187 (2.2)
Subtract the char thickness from original member size, the remaining section can be used to
approximate the member strength under fire conditions. On the conservative side of the calculation,
when the char depth falls within a cross ply, it is recommended to increase achar to the nearest inner
ply of the major strength direction. NDS limits the linear char model methodology to ratings not
exceeding 2 hours. For extended fire ratings, additional data is needed to validate this model.
2.5 Wood Adhesive
2.5.1 CLT wood species
There two main types of wood in construction use– softwoods and hardwoods. Botanically
speaking, softwoods are those woods from gymnosperms (mostly conifers) and hardwoods are from
angiosperms (flowering plants). In the temperate portion of the Northern Hemisphere, softwoods
are generally needle-leaved evergreen trees such as pine and spruce, where as hardwood are typically
broad-leaf, deciduous (shedding annually) trees such as maple and birch. It should be noted that the
terms softwoods and hardwoods refer to the botanical characteristics of the wood and are not related
to the material hardness. The single most important distinction between the two general kinds of
wood is that hardwoods have a characteristic type of cell called a vessel element (or pore), whereas
softwoods lack of these, see Figure 2.23. Wood has a well defined cellular structure. In softwoods
and ring-porous hardwoods, the cells produced in the early growing season, the early wood, are
larger than those produced later in the season, the latewood. In diffuse-porous hardwoods the cells
are more uniform in size. The differences in the cell structure are responsible for the variation in
29
density observed among wood of difference species and even in wood of the same species, depending
on local growth condition.
Majority of the European CLTs are made of softwood tree species. Examples are Nor-
way spruce (Picea abies) timber, white fir (Abies alba), scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and rarely
European larch (Larix decidua), douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and Swiss stone pine (Pinus
cembra) (Brandner et al. 2013). Industries and academics have begun to look into the use of
hardwood/softwood and hardwood only species for CLT product development (Mohamadzadeh and
Hindman 2015; Kramer et al. 2013). In the Southern United States forests (also known as the
Southern Forests), softwood species of Southern Pine would be an ideal candidate to replicate the
European success of CLT. Its group species (loblolly, longleaf, shortleaf and slash pines) make up
the largest proportion (17% in 2012) of the softwood resource in the Southern Forests (Oswalt et al.
2014). The development of softwood CLT in the US would surely boost the saw timber industry as
well as generate more employment opportunities around this commodity.
Figure 2.23: Microscopic pictures of hardwood (balsa) and softwood (pine)(Andersson et al. 2006)
30
2.5.2 Background on wood adhesive
The recorded history of bonded wood dates back at least 3,000 years to the Egyptians (Skeist
and Miron 1990) and adhesive bonding goes back to early mankind (River 2003). Although wood
and paper bonding are the largest application for adhesives, better understand of the critical aspects
of wood adhesion should lead to improved wood composites. Understanding how an adhesive work
is difficult since adhesive performance is not one science of its own but the combination of many
sciences. Ones needs to consider both the chemical and mechanical aspects of bond strength and the
interrelation between the two factors. The bonding mechanism is beyond the scope of this chapter,
however, extensive research has been performed on this subject. The interested readers are referred
to the textbooks including Marra (1992) and Dillard (2002).
There are generally three steps in the process of adhesive bonding. The first is usually the
preparation of the surface to provide the best interaction of the adhesive with the wood. Preparation
of the surface can involve either mechanical or chemical treatment or a combination of the two. The
second step is that the adhesive needs to form a molecular-level contact with the wood; thus, it
should be a liquid form so that it can develop a close contact with the object. The third step is
the setting, which involves the solidification or curing of the adhesives. The solidification change
the physical state of the adhesive during bonding process and solidification depends on the type
of adhesive. For polymer adhesives, polymers are dissolved in solvent, which can be simply water
(white glues) or an organic (rubber cement). The lost of solvent converts these liquids to solids.
The other type of adhesive is made up of small molecules that polymerize to form the adhesive,
for example super glue and two-part epoxies. Most wood adhesive involves both solvent loss and
polymerization processes. Once the bond is prepared, the strength of the bond will have to resist
both internal and external force seen during the life of the assembly: forces developed during the
curing of the adhesive, the differential expansion/contraction between adhesive and wood during
environmental changes, and any applied external forces.
2.5.3 Wood surface preparation and setting
On the larger scale, wood is porous, cellular and anistropic material. It is porous in that
water and low molecular weight compounds will be rapidly absorbed and move along the wood fiber.
As discussed in the earlier section, cell types and sizes are remarkably different between hardwood
31
and softwood. The individual species in each of these classes varies considerably in their ability
for liquid to penetrate, let along the difference between early wood and late wood, sapwood and
heartwood. The surface preparation has been shown to have a large effect on the quality of the bond
(River et al. 1991). The best method for preparing a wood surface for bonding is to use sharp planer
blades. Unsharpened blades can crush cells and cause a very irregular surface (River and Miniutti
1975). For wood laminates, ASTM D2559 prescribes that the wood surface be planned with sharp
blades and then be bonded within 24 hours to provide the most bondable surface (ASTM 2012b).
Once an adhesive is applied to the wood, the adhesive needs to set to form a product
with strength. Set is to convert an adhesive into a fixed or hardened state by chemical or physical
action, such as condensation, polymerization, oxidation, vulcanization, hydration, evaporation or
mechanical pressure. More often than not, a combination of settings are required for curing the
adhesive. Penetration of the adhesive in the wood is an important part of the bonding process.
Green wood is difficult to bond with most adhesives because there is little volume into which the
adhesive can penetrate. On the other extreme, overly dry wood can also be difficult for the adhesive
penetration because the wood surface is harder to wet (Christiansen 1994). Therefore, wood with a
4% to 12% moisture content range is typically good for optimum adhesive penetration and setting.
2.5.4 Common wood adhesives
The heat-cured adhesives are very commonly used in the wood furniture industry as it
provide sufficient time for component assembly before heated press, and soften the wood, allowing the
jointing wood surface to be brought into close contact. However, a room temperature cure is better
for thick laminated panels because the heating a bulk element is more difficult. For manufacturing
of CLT, low cost and rapid setting of adhesive are more important factors. Typical wood structural
adhesives include formaldehyde reactive adhesives, isocyanates adhesives, epoxy adhesives and bio-
based glues. The rest of the section will focus on several of the commonly used, low cost and
commercially available structural wood adhesives.
Formaldehyde adhesives The most common wood adhesives are based on reactions of
formaldehyde with phenol, resorcinal, urea, melamine, or mixtures of thereof. The formaldehyde
adhesives are usually water-borne resins so that the curing process is not only polymerization, but
also the loss of water solvent. Since the setting process involves water, too much water or too little
32
water retard the reaction. Therefore control of both open and closed assembly times are important
for both adhesive penetration and water content of the bondline (open assembly time refers the
period between the application of adhesive and the time when the pieces have to be bonded; closed
assembly time refers to the period after the bonding surfaces have been joined during which the
pieces can still be repositioned).
Phenol formaldehyde (PF) adhesive is the oldest class of synthetic polymers, having been
developed at the beginning of the 20th century. The resins are widely used in both laminations and
composites because of their outstanding durability, which derives from their good adhesion to wood,
the high strength of polymer and excellent stability of the adhesive. The PF adhesives could serve
in almost all wood bonding applications, except that the adhesive cures slowly at room temperature
that often requires heating for fast setting. The most common additive to PF is resorcinal to
provide room temperature curing ability. Phenol-Resorcinal Formaldehyde (PRF) is curable at
room temperature with sufficient time to mix the components, spread them on the wood and press
the wood pieces together prior to adhesive setting. Like the PF resins, PFR forms very durable
bonds for failure and degradation. The only drawback of the PRF has been the cost of resorcinal.
Like PF and PRF, Melamine Formaldehyde (MF) adhesives has acceptable water resistance,
but it is much lighter in color compare to others. As such, MF is typically used for exterior or
architectural component as light-colored resins are more aesthetic pleasant. The MF adhesive needs
to be activated to give good polymerization to the final product. The catalyst (activation agent)
usually involves acids that lowers the pH of the resin to accelerate the polymerization process.
Therefore, respiratory protection during adhesive mixing is key for manufacturing safety. Similar to
PRF adhesive, the limitation of MF lies in its cost of melamine.
Isocyanates wood adhesive Several classes of adhesive used in wood bonding involves
the use of isocyanates. Isocynates are most often used to produce polyurethane by reacting with
liquid diols. The high reactive of isocyanates is both an advantage and a disadvantage. The advan-
tage is that polymerization processes rapidly and usually to high conversion. The disadvantage is
that they can react rapidly with many compounds in the human bodies. These reactions are rapid
under physiological conditions and are not readily reversible which means the safety of handling
isocyanates is a concern. The most common type is an self-curing isocyanate, which reacts with
water in the wood to initiate the curing process.
33
The water activated, self-curing Polyurethane (PUR) adhesives are widely used in coating
and wood bonding. To obtain good wetting, a solvent is typically spread prior to the application of
adhesive to reduce the viscosity for good wetting. Polyurethane can be either one or two component
system, while European CLT manufactures often incline to the one-component moisture active
Polyurethane due to its simplicity in the adhesive spraying system.
Another common adhesive is the emulsion-polymer isocyanate (EPI), which is a two-component
adhesive. It has been used for bonding of plastic to wood surfaces, OSB web to the flanges to make
I-joints. The ability to bond plastics and other non-wood materials is an advantage of the EPI resins
over many other wood adhesives. EPI also forms fairly durable bonds depending on the formula,
however, numerous CLT fire tests has reported poor heat performance of isocyanates wood adhesives
(Kippel et al. 2014; Hasburgh et al. 2016).
34
Chapter 3
Commercial CLT Manufacturing,
Clemson Pilot Production and
Specimen Preparations
The first objective of the this chapter is to overview the current practice of commercial
manufacturing of CLT panels in the Europe and United States. The entire production process is
divided into seven steps, from the sawn timber selection to final product packaging. Key machineries
necessary for the production are introduced. Followed by the discussion of industrial standard
practice, the exploratory small scale production of CLT panels in Clemson University is presented.
The pilot production was performed in the Forestry Department’s wood shop, with a 4 feet by 4
feet hydraulic press. Due to the limited size of the press, the production process was evaluated for
the possibility of accommodating larger test specimens.
After evaluation of the production process, ‘V3’ designated 3-ply Southern Pine CLT was
produced in a laboratory setting for the purpose of investigating its adhesive as well as structural
performance. The second objective is to understand the performance requirements outlined in the
PRG-320 document and to experimentally test the laboratory produced CLT panels. As part of
the structural performance quantification, rolling shear and bending properties are mandatory to be
examined for the plant pre-qualification. Note the target here is not to certify a APA recognized CLT
product, but to explore the feasibility of CLT made of domestic softwood lumber species: Southern
35
Yellow Pine. The test methods, specimen preparation are discussed as the rest of this chapter.
3.1 CLT production—European Experience
In general, the production of CLT is quite similar to that of glulam (glued laminated timber).
Base on the knowledge accumulated in Europe, the production of CLT can be categorized into the
following major steps:
1. Raw lumber selection
2. De-stacking, M.C. measurements, E-rating (optional) and trimming
3. Finger joint of lumbers
4. Planning and cutting of finger-jointed continuous lumbers
5. CLT layer formation, adhesive application and assembly pressing
6. Finishing and CNC machining
7. Marking, packaging and shipping handling
In 2011, APA-the Engineered Wood Association in collaboration with American National
Standard Institution (NIST) published a harmonized bi-country North American CLT production
standard used by both United States and Canada: Standard for Performance Rated Cross-Laminated
Timber, also known as ANSI/APA PRG 320 (ANSI 2012b). This standard has provided dimensions,
manufacturing tolerance, minimum performance requirements, test and quality assurance methods
for manufacturing of CLT of different grade, wood species and layup configuration. The above
mentioned CLT production steps will be discussed in detail with discussion of PRG-320.
3.1.1 Raw lumber selection
CLT is manufactured with laminations of dimension lumber or SCL (structural composite
lumber) such as laminated veneer lumber (LVL), laminated strand lumber (LSL) or orientated
strand lumber (OSL). Although PRG-320 permits the use of SCL when qualified with ASTM D5456
(ASTM 2017), however, in reality, it is still years away before SCL could be used in CLT production
because of the apparent challenge in the face bonding of SCL to SCL or SCL to lumber (Yeh
36
et al. 2012). Therefore, the use of SCL in CLT is beyond the scope of this study. PRG-320 draws
the European experience in the manufacturing processes of CLT, and takes into the consideration
of the North American lumber resources, manufacturing preference and end-use. For example, the
standard permits the use of any softwood lumber species and species combinations recognized by the
American Lumber Standards Committee (ALSC) with a minimum specific gravity 0.35, as published
in the National Design Specification for Wood Construction (NDS). One advantage of using standard
grade lumber is that such lumber will be typically marked as ‘HT’ (heat treated), meaning that the
resulting CLT product will also meet national or international phytosanitary requirements when
the traceability requirements of the lumber laminations can be properly demonstrated and certified.
Consistent lumber properties and qualities are of great importance in plant process of raw material.
Usually, lumber arrives at production facility pre-graded and kiln-dried to meet specified demands in
strength, stiffness and moisture content. Lumber grades in the parallel layers of CLT are required to
be at least 1200f 1.2E-MSR or visually graded No.2 and visually graded No.2 for perpendicular layers.
The moisture content of the lumber at time production should be 12%±3%. It is worth mentioning
that sometimes moisture content of the lumbers is purposely adjusted for adhesive applications, since
many of the Polyurethane based adhesives are very sensitive to the bond surface moisture content.
The net lamination thickness of all CLT at time of adhesive application is required to be at least
5/8 in., but not thicker than 2 in. to facilitate bonding. In addition, the lamination thickness is not
permitted to vary within the same layer except when it is within the lamination tolerance: ±0.008
in. across the width of a lamination and ±0.012in. along the length of a lamination at time of face
bonding. The tolerance requirements are typically achieved through planning process which will be
discussed shortly.
3.1.2 Trimming and finger jointing of lamellas
Lumbers enter the production line at a feed-in station, where they are first de-stacked.
At this moment, the additional measurements of moisture content and visual/machine grading are
optional. However, a trimming process is often administered either fully automatically or manually
with a fluorescent pen which can be scanned and detected by a trimming machine. Lumbers with
excessive defects therefore can be expelled from the production line.
After the trimming saw, the lumbers are of random length. To form a continuous lumber
piece suitable for desired parallel and longitudinal layers, piece-wise lumbers are often jointed by
37
means of finger joint.
The joints are milled in a clear wood area where no defects such as wane or knots are located
using a finger joint bit (Figure 3.1 shows a cutting bit for horizontal joint). European CLT producers
utilize two geometries of finger joints: vertical finger joints and horizontal joints (Figure 3.2). On
an aesthetic prospective, horizontal finger joints are harder to identify on the lumber wider surface
and thus they are barely noticeable on the out layers of the finished CLT product. This added
visual quality thus can be used for architectural CLT product, for instance, exposed beams, arches,
columns. In addition, horizontal joints also can be advantageous for thermal insulation of the CLT
elements such as air tightness and heat transfer (Brandner et al. 2013).
Figure 3.1: Horizontal finger joint bit (Infinity Cutting Tools)
Figure 3.2: Horizontal (left) and vertical (right) finger joint
Once the lumber ends are machined, wood adhesive is applied for mating process, see Figure
3.3. In Europe, finger joints in CLT productions are mainly facilitated with the Melamine-Urea
38
formaldehyde (MUF) or one component Polyurethane (PUR) adhesive. Those adhesives establish
an almost colorless bond line. Furthermore, they are characterized by resistance to exposure of
sunlight, humidity and hydrolysis. After adhesive application, the joints have to be aligned by
means of bonding or mating pressure, see Figure 3.4 where one piece of the lumber is coated with
adhesive, waiting for the mating process. This is typically done by a ‘crowder’ : the stop-and-go
system or a mini-joint system. Regardless of which system is used, enough pressure force is required
to ensure a solid alignment of the lumbers (Jokerst 1981). PRG-320 requires that the quality and
strength shall be qualified in accordance with the ANSI/AITC A190.1 (ANSI 2012a), which is a glue
laminated timber product specification. Brandner et al. (2013) also indicated that if manufactured
correctly, finger joint could exceed strength properties of the lumber segments.
Figure 3.3: Vertical finger joint machined with glue applied
3.1.3 Planning and cutting of jointed continuous lumbers
After finger joint process, the lumbers need to be planned for thickness tolerance require-
ments and adhesive application. Commonly, this is done for all four sides of the lumber to ensure
specification in terms of width and thickness. The planning process conditions the lumber for CLT
lamella face bonding since it reduces oxidation and smooths the surface for better adhesive spray.
As a matter of fact, both adhesive suppliers and ASTM D2559 (ASTM 2012b) recommend that
planning or any surface treatment to be done within 24 hours of the adhesive application. After the
39
Figure 3.4: Two pieces of lumber ready to be mated in a crowder
planning procedure, the lumbers are cut to desired length based on their intended layer.
3.1.4 CLT layer formation, adhesive application and assembly pressing
Based on European experience, the CLT layer formation can be done in two ways. Some
of the procedures manufacture single layers by adhesive edge bonding to limit gaps to an absolute
minimum. Then these layers are further processed to form final CLT product. Others form CLT
panels directly from face bonding lamellas without the intermediate steps of edge bonding (Brandner
et al. 2013). Both manufacturing options are discussed in the following paragraph. Production of
single layers has several advantages. Since single layers are edge bonded under pressure, its physical
properties are more stable since it reduces gaps between lamellas in a single layer. In addition, pre-
manufactured layers are already smooth and with its thickness in tolerance. Therefore, the pressing
pressure for final CLT element can be reduced. Another advantage that comes with single layer is its
relatively light in weight that can be easily maneuvered by vacuum lifting devices. However, single
layer pre-manufacture is an intermediate production step which may introduce additional initial
equipment cost that is not absolute necessary in the CLT production. Meanwhile, the disadvantages
of edge glued layers comes from the checks and splits of lamella that are resulting from swelling
and shrinkage due to climate change, see Figure 3.5. This degrades the visual appearance of the
panels and also negatively impact the physical properties over time. Unbonded lamellas, on the
40
other hand, can be used for single layer formation and CLT assembly. Following this approach, the
lamella edges are sporadically connected during face bonding (due to the adhesive being squeezed
into edge surfaces during press). In this case, swelling and shrinkage takes place between the boards
and thus check and splits can be avoided to a certain extend.
Figure 3.5: Swelling and shrinkage checks in CLT with edge bonded layers (left) and without edge
bonded layers (right)(Brandner et al. 2013)
The CLT layer forming is realized in several ways and depends on the production line design
and capacity, different lifting machines are used. In low capacity plants, CLT layups may also be done
by human operators. The assembly process is comparable to plywood production where adjacent
layers are also assembled perpendicular to each other (Gagnon et al. 2011). Between each layer,
adhesive is spread mechanically on single lamellas in continuous through-feed nozzles. A line-wise
applicator will run through the bonding surface within the adhesive open assembly time, see Figure
3.6 for fully automatic adhesive application machine.
Figure 3.6: Line-wise adhesive application(Ledinek Engineering)
After the layup of the CLT element, a pressure device is need to bond the lumber lamellas
and set the adhesive to form a composite wood product. According to Brandner et al. (2013),
pressure is a parameter that depends on the following manufacture specifications: (1) adhesive
system; (2) timber species; (3) the geometry of the adherents in regard to roughness and flatness of
the surface and allowed tolerance in the thickness; (4) the adhesive application system and (5) the
41
applied quantity of adhesive. Those specifications are discussed in the following.
The pressing pressure and time have to meet the requirement of the adhesive related pa-
rameters. Above all, the recommendations of the adhesive representatives need to be respected.
Enough pressure is important to equally distribute the line-wise applied adhesive over the whole
layer surface to guarantee a consistent and defined bond line thickness. Furthermore, the adhesive
type and spread rate have to be factored into consideration. As Brandner et al. (2013) stated, types
of adhesives can be differentiated first into close contact and gap-filling adhesives and secondly into
swelling (e.g. Polyurethane) and shrinkage adhesives. These adhesive characteristics have a signif-
icant impact on the required clamping pressure. Formaldehyde based adhesive systems typically
requires a lager pressure of 200-300 psi, while Polyurethane bonding can theoretically be done with
2-15 psi (Sellers Jr 2001).
In addition to pressure considerations associated adhesives, lumber characteristics and
species also need to be accounted for. Though the lamellas are finger jointed and planned, the
natural variation in the lumber thickness still exists. Therefore, enough pressure is necessary to
smooth those characteristics. However, excessive pressure can also lead to damage of wood cell
structures, and thus to a reduced shear resistance and adhesive penetration.
In general, there are three types of mechanical press system available in the engineered
wood industry, each with an optimal operating pressure: hydraulic press (<300 psi), pneumatic
press (<150 psi) and vacuum press (<15 psi). It should be noted that hydraulic and pneumatic
press are usually used for medium to large scale CLT plate due the size of the panels they able to
produce. In addition to surface pressure, some of the presses are able to provide side pressure to
reduce gap within the panel. Depend on the adhesive application requirement, a hot press is also
available for accelerated curing.
Hydraulic and pneumatic presses (Figure 3.7 and Figure 3.8) are among the more popular
choice for larger CLT producers in Europe since it is relatively more automatic and more efficient
than a vacuum press. Some producers may prefer pneumatic presses since no hydraulic fluid is needed
for accumulate pressures thus provides a cleaner and environmentally friendlier plant environment.
However, in practice a pressure of around 120 psi is applied and both systems are equally capable
of.
Another mechanical device for bonding CLT elements is the vacuum press, see Figure 3.9.
Vacuum press is able to offer a pressure of less than 15 psi. Due to the lower pressure forces, the
42
Figure 3.7: Hydraulic CLT press(D.R.Johnson)
Figure 3.8: Pneumatic press (Ledinek Engineering)
requirements of timber surface quality, thickness tolerance and wood defects like wane and warp
needed to be strictly enforced. The limitation of the vacuum press is its capacity to press thick
elements. However, utilizing a vacuum press for CLT production allows great flexibility in the
shape of the finished product. For example, panels with large cutouts, curvature or complicated
3-dimensional shapes can be easily enclosed in the vacuum cover. Meanwhile, the initial investment
and yearly production capacity is less than those of hydraulic and pneumatic presses. Therefore, it
makes a good option for market entry strategies or product portfolio extension for small enterprises.
43
Figure 3.9: Hydraulic CLT press (Ledinek Engineering)
3.1.5 Finishing and CNC machining
Due to the external pressure in the assembly process, excessive adhesive resins are squeezed
onto the edge of the panels. Meanwhile, layers in panel are not always aligned perfectly. Therefore,
standard CLT panels usually get an initial edge trimming to eliminate adhesive residuals and to align
all four edges. Subsequently, standard panels may receive regional planning or sanding if needed.
Layers of fire-retardant layers (e.g. gypsum board) or acoustic boards may be attached at this time
depending on the end use of the panel.
Over the last decade, the excitement for CLT not only lies in its sustainable, beautiful
and carbon positive building material, but also fast speed of erection due to its high level of pre-
engineering. Shop drawings generated by architect and engineer of record are usually further pro-
cessed by CLT manufacturer for custom cutting and drilling, for examples, windows, connections,
wire and hardware routes, etc (Figure 3.10). Such process on the job site will be difficult, time
consuming and inaccurate. Given the excellent workability of wood, CLT panels are usually ma-
chined and milled as construction ready components using Computerized Numerical Control (CNC)
machine before packing and shipment, see Figure 3.11 . The use of CNC machine in addition to the
factory cutting machine, 2 by lumbers can be pre-fabricated and transformed into multi-story resi-
dential or commercial structures even high-rise buildings as allowed by code officials. The panels’
ability to be CNC-routed into complex geometries, as both structural and interior finish also has
great potential for new complex, architectural experiences to create highly evocative experiences of
space and light. At the job site, these CNCed panels are tilted or craned into position with the hope
that all components will ‘fit like a glove’.
44
Figure 3.10: CNC milling of CLT panels (Hans Hundegger AG)
Figure 3.11: CNC Machining Center (IHB International)
3.1.6 Marking, packaging and shipping handling
Similar to glulam or other engineered wood, marks on the product ensures the quality
and provide the traceability to the material and manufacturer. According to PRG-320, certified
producers should provide the marks containing the following information:
1. CLT grade qualified in accordance with PRG-320
2. The CLT thickness and identification number
3. The mill name or identification number
4. The approved agency name or logo
45
5. The symbol of ‘ASNI/APA PRG 320’ signifying conformance to this standard
6. Any manufacturers designations which shall be separated from the grade-marks or
trademarks of the approved agency by not less than 6 inches (152mm),and
7. ‘Top’ stamp on the top face of custom CLT panels used for roof or floor in manufac-
tured with an unbalanced layup.
Upon final cleaning and dust blowing, CLT panels are packaged in water retardant foil to
protect from harsh weather conditions. Orders are usually transported by truck or by container if
exported overseas.
3.2 Clemson pilot CLT manufacturing
While CLT has gained popularity in Europe, Canada and elsewhere over the last two
decades, it has yet to be become established in the US. During the preparation of this manuscript,
there are only a limited number of CLT buildings constructed in the US and the CLT panels used
in these buildings were imported from Europe and Canada. While there are US manufacturers that
produce non-structural CLT panels (e.g. for crane mats), currently, there is only two manufactur-
ers in the United States that are certified to produce structural grade CLT panels for construction
(SmartLam and D R Johnson).
The structural performance and behaviors of CLT made from European and other non-US
wood species have been extensively studied by others (see Chapter 4 and 5). However, only scant
body of knowledge is available for CLT made from domestic US wood species. With a strong desire
for using CLT as potential structural elements among building owners, architects and engineers,
there is an urgent need to research mechanical properties of CLT made of domestic fast growing
wood species. In the Southern U.S. forests , Southern Yellow Pine would be an ideal candidate
for such application. Its group species (loblolly, longleaf, shortleaf and slash pines) make up the
largest proportion (17% in 2012) of the softwood resource in the Southern Forests (Oswalt et al.
2014). An authoritative test method, along with comparison of experimental test results to the
characteristic values in PRG-320, can be an appropriate method to ensure performance of CLT made
of domestic US species. For structural use CLT, PRG-320 regulates its performance by mandating
the minimum required test values in bending stiffness (EI ), bending moment (fb S ) and interlaminar
46
shear capacity (Vs ). In this particular study, 3-ply Southern Pine CLT bending and rolling shear
test specimens were produced in a laboratory setting. Both major and minor direction capacity were
experimentally investigated. Finally, results were adjusted for shear deformation and compared to
the ‘V3’ designated CLT characteristic values in PRG-320. The rest of this chapter will discuss the
pilot CLT manufacture in Clemson, and preparation of test specimens. Chapter 4 and 5 will report
the test results in rolling shear and bending, respectively.
3.2.1 Adhesive selection
Four different adhesives were used to produce the test specimens: Melamine Formalde-
hyde (MF), Phenol-Resorcinol Formaldehyde (PRF), Emulsion Polymer Isocyanate (EPI), and
Polyurethane (PUR) adhesive. The former two belong to the formaldehyde adhesive family while
the latter two belong to the isocyanate family. Based on the poor fire performance and adhesive
delaminations observed in rolling shear tests (see Chapter 4), EPI was excluded for the bending test
specimens. MF is typically used for manufacturing glulam and has good water resistance. Com-
pared to other formaldehyde-based adhesives, MF also has a much lighter color (i.e. it does not
stain the wood). However, the limitations of MF are the relatively high cost of melamine compared
to phenolic resin and the so called ‘off-gassing’ behavior of formaldehyde. PRF has the advantages
of curable at room temperature, durable, and economical (i.e. Phenol-Resorcinol compounds are
generally more economical than melamine). PRF is also an off-gassing adhesive, as it contains
formaldehyde. However, the off-gas rate of PRF over the life of the product (i.e., beyond the pro-
duction phase) is much lower than other formaldehyde resins such as MF (Rowell 2012). In addition,
the cured PRF may show unpleasing dark stains in the glue lines. EPI is a two-part adhesive that
requires mixing prior to glue application. Due to the emulsifability of isocyanate, adequate mixing
is important. Despite EPI is not an off-gassing adhesive, the main disadvantages are high cost of
EPI compared to formaldehyde-based adhesives and low workability during mixing of the adhesive.
PUR is a moisture-activated adhesive that is commonly used in CLT panels produced in European
and Canada, because it does not contain formaldehyde and is a simply one part adhesive system.
However, the fire resistance of PUR is generally poorer than other adhesives such as MF. As dis-
cussed thereof, all four adhesives have its advantages and disadvantages and it is of interest to see
the adhesive performance in structural use of CLT. The application of adhesives in the Clemson
manufactured CLT (hereafter refer to as Clemson pilot panels) followed the instructions provided
47
by their respective suppliers. The mix ratio, spread rate and minimum pressing time for each of the
four adhesives can be found in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Working properties of adhesives used in this study
Mix Ratio Spread Rate Platen Pressure CAT* Required Press Time
Adhesive
Rasin:Hardener lb/1000f t2 psi min HR
MF 100:60 63 150 30 3
PRF 100:40 60 150 30 3
EPI 100:15 72 150 30 3
PUR NA 60 150 40 4
*Close Assembly Time (CAT) refers to the time interval from substrate assembly to the application of full
pressure.
In addition to cost and working properties, each adhesive type possesses other attributes
that might be important. For example, among the adhesives mentioned above, PRF is dark brown,
whereas EPI and PUR are light/transparent color. PUR has the advantage in the glue spray system
since it does not require mixing and is moisture activated. EPI is free of formaldehyde. Adhesive also
plays key roles in CLT fire performance. For fire design of CLT, heat performance understanding of
each adhesive may be a good area for future research.
3.2.2 Lumber preparation
Several bundles of donated No.2 & No.3 2x6 Southern Yellow Pine were received and stored
at the Clemson University’s woodshop. They were conditioned at a constant temperature 70◦ F and a
relative humidity 68% for 1 month, see Figure 3.12. PRG 320 recommended that the lumber having
a moisture content (M.C.) of 12%±3% be targeted to ensure proper bond quality of the product.
Note this standard M.C. specification for lumber may not be suitable for all CLT manufacturing
process. Some adhesives (e.g. moisture activated ones) are more sensitive to M.C. than others. It
is recommended that the adhesive supplier would provide such information regarding the optimal
M.C. at time of adhesive application. Another reason for limiting the M.C. variation is to minimize
the development of internal stress within the same layer and also in the depth of the panel. Internal
stress may result from differential swell & shrinkage, which is dependent on the M.C. profile, growth
48
ring orientation and species. The CLT Handbook (Gagnon et al. 2011) further recommended that
the maximum difference in the M.C. between adjacent piece that are to be joint not exceed 5 %. A
electrical-resistance type moisture meter (Figure 3.13) was used to check lumber M.C. in the pilot
panel manufacturing.
Prior to CLT panel manufacturing, M.C. and density were spot-checked to ensure compliance
with the code’s minimum requirement:12%±3% for M.C. and 0.35 for specific density.
Figure 3.12: No.2 & No.3 2x6 Southern Yellow Pine being conditioned at woodshop
A 8 in. daylight, cold Newman hydraulic press was used to assemble all pilot CLT panels.
The press was designed at maximum pressure of 325 psi, with the platen size 4ft. by 4ft. Due to
the structure of the press, width of the CLT panels was limited to 4ft, whereas the opening of the
press allowed producing of longer panels with staged press. Therefore, No.3 lumbers were were cut
into 4ft. segments to serve as crosswise boards (Figure 3.14 showing a industrial miter saw cutting
a 2x6 lumber).
Once lumbers were cut into desired length, a surface planning was performed on the two
wider surfaces to remove dirt, defects and roughness. This helps activate or refresh the wood surface
to reduce oxidation for improved gluing effectiveness (Julien 2010). In most cases, planing only face
and back (two wider surfaces) may be sufficient if the width tolerance is acceptable and lumber
49
Figure 3.13: DELMHORST moisture meter with hammer electrode
Figure 3.14: Lumbers trimmed into 4ft. segments
50
edges are not glued. However, if those are the cases, planing all four sides are required to ensure
dimension uniformity.
As far as the lamination thickness for each layer, PRG 320 imposes a limitation of minimum
5/8 in. up to 2 in. maximum for both parallel and crosswise directions. For 2 by material, it is
economic to plane off 1/16 in. on both wider surfaces, leaving individual lamination thickness being
1 3/8 in. The Northfield lumber planner installed at woodshop is a singer surfacer, meaning each
run it only plans one surface. The lumbers were then flipped and fed into the machine for the second
run. See Figure 3.15, the machine was planing the top surface of a 12 ft. long 2x6.
Figure 3.15: Lumber planing in progress. Newman press standby on the right
3.2.3 Adhesive application and assembly press
Before the adhesive application, bonding surface of planed lumbers must be cleaned and
free from any adhesive-repellent substances such as oils, greases or release agents, which would have
a detrimental effect on bonding quality.
In a typical industrial glue application system, the extruder head moves and apply parallel
lines/threads of adhesive in an air tight system with direct supply from a adhesive container. The
extruder travels through every inch of the target area before full pressure is generated for assembly
51
process.
There are two main factors that could possibly affect the quality of the glue bond: mix
ratio and close assembly time (CAT). Mix ratio defines the portion of resin and hardener in a mix
(usually by weight). Typically, a higher mix ratio will result in a slower cure rate but allows a
longer assembly time for larger panels. It is a also a function of room temperature and humidity:
conversation with the adhesive agent indicated that for warmer and more humid plant environment,
one should increase the mix ratio and spread rate since the evaporation of water could result in a
accelerated curing. The actual mix ratio and spread rate is usually tabled by the adhesive supplier
and can be easily read with the input of room temperature, relative humidity and close assembly
time (CAT). CAT refers the time interval from substrate assembly (adhesive mix) to the application
of full pressure. It is easily understood that a higher mix ratio allows a prolonged working time that
are needed for panel layup, additional adhesive application. To summarize, the adhesive application
is influenced by many factors and should be properly planned before execution. The adhesive mix
ratio can be determined by the room temperature, humidity and desired close assembly time.
In manufacturing of the pilot panels, 70◦ F lab temperature, relative humidity 68% and a 30
minute CAT (for a 4ft by 4ft 3-ply CLT) was used to determine the mix ratio and spread rate for the
adhesive application. Those data shown in Table 3.1 guided the adhesive preparation throughout
this specimen manufacturing.
For the adhesive preparation in a laboratory setting, weight of each component was cal-
culated based on the mix ratio, spread rate and the desired cover area. The respective adhesive
components were then weighted in party-cups (Figure 3.16) and mixed using a popsicle stick. The
components were adequately mixed until the mixture shows consistent color. For the lab safety
measurement, latex gloves, masks and eye protection were always wore during the adhesive prepa-
ration due to the corrosive and skin-irritative nature of hardeners. Once laminations were laid up
and cleaned, the adhesive mixture was poured onto the surface as evenly as possible (Figure 3.17).
In fact, it was very difficult to achieve a close, parallel spaced and thin glue line during a manual
pour, an additional spread process was executed. A flat blade plastic spatula was used to spread
the adhesive within the target area, ensuring full adhesive coverage (Figure 3.18). Note this process
is not necessary in the mass produce of CLT in a plant environment since the pressure generated by
the press will squeeze and even out the glue lines.
Pressing is a critical step of the CLT manufacture account for proper bond development
52
Figure 3.16: Weighed resins and hardeners ready to be mixed
Figure 3.17: Adhesive application on a 16 f t2 area. Picture show malemin formaldehyde (MF)
adhesive
and CLT quality. The pressure supress the potential warping of layers and overcome their surface
irregularities. Structural cold set adhesives (those mentioned thereof) are commonly selected to
avoid having to heat the bulk panels during pressing.
In general, the pressure and pressing time required are determined based on the combination
of adhesive type and wood species. A low pressure would decrease the adhesive penetration and
result in a poor bond quality whereas high pressure is detrimental to the cell structure of the wood,
53
Figure 3.18: Spread the adhesive with a spatula
particularly for those low density softwood species. Adhesive supplier often times provide suggestions
based on their experience. For this study, a uniform pressure of 150 psi in the hydraulic press was
used for manufacturing of pilot panels. The pressing time required generally varies within several
hours and are highly dependent on the adhesive curing rate. For example, PRF takes the longest
pressing time, followed by MF, PUR, and EPI. If a shortened adhesive curing time is desired, radio
frequency (RF) technology used in the glulam and finger joint curing process can be applied for CLT
for accelerated curing. Meanwhile, adhesive spread rate can be reduced if curing is accelerated. All
pilot panels were pressed for their minimum hours required (Table 3.1 last column) and can be as
long as 6 hours. Figure 3.19 demonstrates a 3-ply Southern Pine CLT being assembled in the press
with the pressure shown. Note that the gauge shown in Figure 3.19 indicates the pressure developed
in five cylinders and to convert this value to platen pressure, a simple total force calculation will be
suffice. For example, 1350 psi in all five cylinders (each with 8 in. diameter) will generate 150 psi
pressure on a 4 ft. by 4 ft. platen:
Pcylinder ×Acylinder
Pplaten = (3.1)
Aplaten
54
Figure 3.19: A 3-ply CLT being pressed with pressure shown
3.2.4 Panel sizing and additional comments for longer panels
After assembly pressing, the panels were taken out of the press and stored in the indoor
environment for an additional 24 hours to allow the adhesive to cure sufficiently before the subsequent
sizing and testing tasks. A 7 1/4 in. diameter circular saw was used to trim the panel into desired
sizes. A blue chalk mark along with a straight edge from a OSB board was used to guide the circular
saw for the cut (Figure 3.20). For a 4 1/8 in. thick 3-ply CLT, it usually requires two runs of the
saw blade (top and bottom) to cut through the thickness. In the light of the manual cutting and
trimming experience obtained here, it is not recommended to use a larger saw blade for thicker
CLT. First off, wood is not a homogeneous material: its density varies from spot to spot, especially
when defects are presented (knots, decay etc.). The saw blade tends to have a strong kickback
when density changes. Second, the cutting process generate a lot of heat on the blade and this
gets severe when the blade is buried deep. Therefore running a shallow blade with multiple runs is
recommended, it is a safer way of cutting and prolongs the life of the blade.
The platen size of the press (4 ft.) did impact the dimension of the test specimens that
the lab is able to produce. For bending property investigations, PRG 320 documents requires the
55
Figure 3.20: Sizing a CLT panel with a circular saw
test samples to bear a minimum span to depth ratio 30, which would translate to be more than
10 ft in clear span for a 3-ply CLT. Adhesive suppliers were called in for potential solutions. They
recommended that different mix ratios in conjunction with multiple presses would achieve a span
longer than 4 ft. The purpose of using different mix ratios is to delay the adhesive curing in later
presses. Take MF as an example, in order to produce a 8 ft. panel, adhesives with two mix ratios
are applied to each of the 4 ft. sections. The first section will be cured in 3 hours under pressure
and the other in 6 hours. Therfore, by reducing the hardener percentage, the slower curing rate
would allow extra presses beyond the first 3 hours. Theoretically it may sound applicable, however,
this practice didn’t generate satisfactory glue bond quality as delaminations were observed in later
presses. The adhesive dried off quickly within a few hours and were not able to bond the layers
together (perhaps the cause of a short open assembly time). Therefore this practice was discarded
in the concern of glue bond quality. The 4 by 12 ft. panels made in the woodshop were pressed three
times with fresh adhesive applied on each 4 ft. section at time of assembly press (see Figure 3.21) to
achieve the desired span-to-depth ratio. Within each press, the adhesive mix ratio and spread rate
were maintained the same as indicated in Table 3.1.
3.3 Specimens preparation for structural evaluations
The pilot CLT panels produced in the woodshop were made according to designation ‘V3’
specified in the PRG-320 standard, meaning the parallel layers are No.2 Southern Pines and No.3
for all the cross-wise layers. For the rolling shear test, a total of ten 4ft. by 4ft. 3-ply CLT panels
56
(a) First press (b) Second press (c) Final press
Figure 3.21: Pilot panel staged press
were made. Among them, for MF and PRF adhesives, two panels were made for each of the strength
directions (major and minor), while for EPI, only two panels for the major strength direction were
made. These ten 4ft. by 4ft. panels were trimmed into forty 2ft. by 1ft. short beams. An additional
twenty PUR specimens with the same dimensions were produced by Structurlam in Canada and
shipped to Clemson for testing. Likewise, the twenty specimens include ten for major strength
direction and ten for minor. The number of short beams with dimension 1ft. by 2ft. prepared for
the rolling shear test is shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Number of specimens produced for major and minor axes rolling shear test
Adhesive Major Axis Samples Minor Axis Samples
MF 8 8
PRF 8 8
EPI 8 NA
PUR* 10 10
*All PUR specimens were made by Structurlam
The test method, results and discussion of 3-ply rolling shear will be presented in Chapter
4, while Chapter 5 will focus on the experimental study of bending stiffness and bending strength.
MF and PUR adhesives were used to produce the bending test specimens. Four 12ft. by 4ft panels
were made in Clemson using MF adhesive and they were trimmed into sixteen 1ft. wide strips.
The twenty PUR specimens were provided by Structurlam and they arrived test-ready. The total
57
number of bending specimens are shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.3: Number of specimens produced for major and minor axes bending test
Adhesive Major Axis Samples Minor Axis Samples
MF 8 8
PUR* 10 10
*All PUR specimens were made by Structurlam
58
Chapter 4
Rolling Shear of Southern Pine
CLT
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a relatively new engineered wood product. While CLT has
gained acceptance and utilization in Europe, Australia and other countries, its applications in the
United States are limited. Limited information is available on CLT made from US wood species.
This chapter presents the rolling shear test results of CLT panels made using one of the US wood
species, Southern Pine (SP). Four types of adhesives, namely Melamine Formaldehyde (MF), Phenol-
Resorcinol Formaldehyde (PRF), Polyurethane (PUR) and Emulsion Polymer Isocyanate (EPI),
were used to make 3-ply Southern Pine CLT panels. The characteristic rolling shear strengths of the
test panels (5th percentile with 75% confidence tolerance limit) were determined for both the major
and minor axes and compared to the required characteristic values in PRG-320 for ‘V3’ layup. The
results showed that SP CLT panels made with PUR passed the PRG-320 rolling shear requirements
in both major and minor axes.
4.1 Introduction
Currently in North America, there has been a large research effort in exploring different
aspects of CLT, such as evaluation of rolling shear, manufacture parameters, two-way bending
performance and in-plane stiffness of CLT diaphragms. This section focuses on the experimental
59
investigation on the key structural performance: rolling shear capacity. It is required by PRG-320 as
plant pre-qualifications. Pre-qualified panels are certified with stamped grade and their performance
should exceed an established minimum in a statistical sense. The structural performance evaluations
conducted in the this study have a two-fold motivation. First, to evaluate the structural performance
properties of CLT made of domestic wood species, Southern Pine, in this case. Second, to deepen
the understanding of adhesives on both workability and their influences on the structural properties.
4.2 Background and literature review
Wood is an orthotropic material with different mechanical properties in the three mutually
orthogonal axes: Longitudinal (L), Tangential (T), and Radial (R), as illustrates in Figure 4.1.
Rolling shear is defined as the shear stresses due to shear strain in the RT plane, and can be
interpreted as the wood fibers parallel to the longitudinal direction rolling or sliding ‘over’ each
other, thus, wood producing a very low rolling shear strength value.
Figure 4.1: The principal axes of wood with respect to grain direction and growth rings
Currently, there are multiple test methods available to determine the rolling shear proper-
ties, and it has been found that the rolling shear properties are depend mainly on wood species,
growth ring orientation, lay-up, and span-to-depth ratio. A standard for performance-rated CLT
called ANSI/APA PRG-320 Standard for Performance-Rated Cross-Laminated Timber was recently
published (ANSI 2012b). This standard serves as an impetus towards acceptance of CLT made of US
60
wood species, as recently the International Code Council approved the inclusion of PRG-320 qualified
CLT panels as building materials in the 2015 International Building Code (ICC 2015). Kramer et al.
(2013) evaluated the rolling shear behavior of three-ply hybrid poplar CLT with Phenol-Resorcinol
Formaldehyde (PRF) adhesive in accordance to the PRG-320 standard. The adhesive was mixed
using a ratio of 2.5:1 (resin-hardener, by weight) and a spread rate of 60 lbs/1000 f t2 . The hybrid
poplar CLT was pressed at a pressure of 102 psi through tightening of a series of C channels. They
observed that shear through the section was the primary failure mechanism in the short-span shear
tests and reported the 5th percentile value of rolling shear strength of 76.9psi. Fellmoser and Blaß
(2004) evaluated the rolling shear modulus and the effect of span-to-depth ratio for spruce (Picea
abies.) CLT through a dynamic vibration test. Shear deformation depended significantly on the
thickness of the layers vulnerable to rolling shear failure (i.e. layers with lumber oriented perpendic-
ular to the span direction). The influence of shear on the overall bending behavior was found to be
significant for span-to-depth ratios smaller than 30:1 for bending parallel to the grain direction and
20:1 for perpendicular to the grain direction. Mestek et al. (2008) conducted a comparative analysis
using the shear analogy method and a finite element (FE) shell model. The increase of longitudinal
stress due to the effect of rolling shear deformation was a function of the span-to-depth ratio. Zhou
et al. (2014) evaluated the rolling shear properties of three-ply Black Spruce CLT by two-plate shear
test and three-point bending test described in ASTM D2718 (ASTM 2011) and ASTM D198 (ASTM
2015), respectively. Black Spruce CLT was edge glued with fast-curing epoxy and one-component
PRF, and then pressed under a pressure of 87 psi for 24 hours. The two-plate shear test was a
more appropriate test method for assessing the rolling shear modulus and the bending test is an
appropriate test method for determining the shear strength. The rolling shear strength was reported
as 310 psi, obtained via a three-point bending test using a span-to-depth ratio of 6:1. Zhou et al.
(2014) concluded that the shear analogy method can be used to accurately predict the deflection of
CLT specimens under bending when the span-to-depth ratio is relatively small. More recently, Li
et al. (2014) studied the rolling shear properties using torsional shear tests and bending tests for
Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF) three-ply and five-ply CLTs. Panels were glued with polyurethane (PUR)
adhesive and pressed at two different pressures (15 psi and 58 psi). Higher pressure produced higher
average rolling shear strength, with 293 psi and 319 psi for the abovementioned pressures, respec-
tively. Specimens with thinner cross layers also had higher average rolling shear strength than the
specimens with thicker cross layers. In summary, there is limited information regarding the rolling
61
shear performance of Southern Pine (SP) CLT tested at desired span to depth ratio.
4.3 Adhesives and specimens prepared
Two batches of CLT panels were manufactured using visually graded Southern Pine (SP)
lumbers, namely small pilot-scale panels in a laboratory setting and full-size panels in a plant
environment. The CLT panels for rolling shear evaluation were all 3-ply ones and were manufactured
using visually graded SP lumbers in accordance to the ‘V3’ layup in PRG-320: No. 2 SP lumber in
outer layers parallel to the panel length and No. 3 SP lumber in center layer perpendicular to the
panel length. Both the Clemson and Structurlam CLT panels were made from 2x6 SP lumbers. The
first batch of small pilot-scale 4ft. by 4ft. CLT panels were manufactured at Clemson University.
The second batch of full-scale CLT panels (10’x40’) were produced by Structurlam in Penticton,
Canada and shipped to Clemson University for testing.
The 4 ft. x 4 ft. panels were made using MF, PRF and EPI while the full-size 10 ft.x 40 ft.
panels (from Structuralam) were made using PUR adhesive. Two 4 ft.x 4 ft. panels were made each
using MF and PRF. Each of the 4 ft.x 4 ft. panels were cut into eight short-span rolling shear test
specimens for major and minor axis rolling shear tests. Only one 4 ft.x 4 ft. panel was made using
EPI for major axis rolling shear strength evaluation. EPI was not evaluated for minor axis shear
strength. This is because the major axis shear tests were first conducted and EPI was found to have
the lowest major axis shear strength (See Results and Discussion). Two 10 ft.x 40 ft. PUR panels
were manufactured by Structurlam. Ten major axis and minor axis rolling shear test specimens each
were produced from one of the two 10 ft.x 40 ft. panels. Except for PUR, all other adhesives are
two component adhesives, which require the mixing of resin and hardener. PUR is a one-component
adhesive. The resin-to-hardener mix ratio, spread rate and minimum pressing time for each of the
three adhesives used in the production of the pilot-scale panels can be found in Table 3.1 in Chapter
3.
All panels were pressed with a platen pressure of 150 psi for approximately 6 hours, which
exceeded the minimum 3 hours pressing time by the manufactures. In trimming the panel into
desired size of short beams, each of the 4 ft. x 4 ft. panels was cut into 8 pieces of short-span shear
test specimens (12 in. wide, 23 5/8 in. long and 4 1/8 in. thick specimens). 60 specimens were
produced for rolling shear tests, in which 40 specimens were made at Clemson using MF, PRF and
62
EPI and 20 specimens were made using PUR in an industrial setting by Structurlam (see Table 3.2
in Chapter 3). EPI was not tested for minor axis. This is because major axis shear tests were
first conducted and it was found that EPI had the lowest major axis shear strength; therefore, was
eliminated from further minor axis shear strength evaluation. Prior to the test, moisture content
(M.C.) and density were measured for each specimen. The average M.C. were all greater than 8%
(Table 4.1), which satisfied the PRG-320 minimum MC requirement for the evaluation of mechanical
properties.
Table 4.1: Density and moisture content (MC) of major and minor axis specimens
Major Axis Minor Axis
Adhesive Type Quantity Density MC Quantity Density MC
lbs/f t3 %(COV) lbs/f t3 %(COV)
MF 8 34.5(2.1%) 9.53%(7.3%) 8 34.7(3.3%) 9.74%(3.6%)
PRF 8 35.9(2.2%) 9.52%(4.9%) 8 33.7(2.1%) 9.59%(5.3%)
EPI 8 34.7(1.9%) 10.5%(3.7%) – – –
PUR 10 30.7(2.6%) 8.66%(4.7%) 10 30.2(2.5%) 8.79%(7.2%)
4.4 Test method
The rolling shear capacity of SP CLT panels were evaluated using the three-point short-span
bending test approach described in ASTM D4761 (ASTM 2013). Schematic views of the three-point
bending test setups for major and minor axes rolling shear tests are shown in Figure 4.2. All
specimens were 12 in. wide and 4 1/8 in. deep, with a clear span of 20 5/8 in. and a span-to-
depth ratio of 5, as recommended in ASTM 3737 (ASTM 2012a), to ensure shear failure mode.
The bearing length was 1.5 in. at each of the supports. All specimens were loaded using a 150-kip
capacity actuator with a loading rate of 0.05 in/min to ensure a minimum test-to-failure time of 4
minutes. The deflection was measured using a 12-in stroke draw-wire displacement sensor attached
to the bottom face of the specimen at mid-span. In each test, the complete load displacement curve,
peak load and failure mode were recorded. Figure 4.3 shows the typical test setup for one of the
major axis specimens.
63
Figure 4.2: Three-point short-span bending test setup for rolling shear (left: major axis ; right:
minor axis).
Figure 4.3: Typical experimental setup for major axis rolling shear test
The rolling shear strength (τrolling ) for each test was computed using Eq.(4.1) and (4.2).
Pmax /2
τrolling = (4.1)
(Ib/Q)ef f
(EI)ef f
(Ib/Q)ef f = (4.2)
n/2
P
Ei hi zi
i=1
where Pm ax is the peak force observed during the initiation of rolling shear failure; EIef f is
the effective bending stiffness; Ei is the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of layer i; hi is the thickness of
layer i, except the middle layer, which is taken as half of the middle layer thickness (Figure 4.4); zi
is the distance from the centroid of the layer to the neutral axis, except for the middle layer, where
it is measured from neural axis to the centroid of the top half of the middle layer.
The MOE parallel to the major strength direction (E0 ) for calculating effective bending
stiffness EIef f was obtained from the National Design Specifications for Wood Construction (AWC
2012). The MOE values perpendicular to major strength direction(E9 0) was taken as 1/30 of E0 as
suggested by the PRG-320.
64
Figure 4.4: Schematic view of 3-layer ‘V3’ cross section for calculating rolling shear
4.5 Result and discussion
Table 4.2 summarizes the major and minor axes rolling shear strength computed using
Eq.(4.1) and (4.2). It should be noted that the initiating failure of five out of eight of the major axis
EPI specimens was glue bond failure. These five specimens were excluded from the rolling shear
strength calculations. The major axis rolling shear strengths exhibited less variability than that of
the minor axis specimens. This is because the major axis test specimens failed mainly in a ‘pure’
rolling shear mode while the minor axis specimens showed a combined rolling shear and bending
failures. More details on the failure mechanisms of the minor and major axis tests are discussed in
the next section.
Failure mechanism of major axis specimens Figure 4.5 shows the load-displacement
curves of the major axis rolling shear tests categorized by adhesive type. Except for five of the
EPI specimens that exhibited glue bond failures, the first major drop in load in each of the curve
shown in Figure 4.5 marks the initiation of rolling shear failure. The typical rolling shear mechanism
observed during major axis tests followed a sequence of three failure stages:
Table 4.2: Summary of rolling shear strengths for major and minor Axes
65
Adhesive Type Number of Mean RS Strength Number of Mean RS Strength
Test psi(COV) Test psi(COV)
MF 8 289(9.9%) 8 254(18.3%)
PRF 8 353(5.4%) 8 279(22.0%)
EPI 8 246(12.2%) – –
PUR 10 259(7.8%) 10 286(16.4%)
1. initiation of diagonal rolling shear cracks in the middle layer near the supports
(Figure 4.6),
2. extension of diagonal cracks to the top and bottom layers and followed by delam-
ination failure at one or two of the horizontal glue lines (Figure 4.7), and
3. bending failure occurred due to compression (top) and/or tension failures of the
longitudinal fibers in the outer layers (Figure 4.8).
From Figure 4.5, it can be seen that the CLT panel retained portion of the load carrying
capacity beyond the first major failure event or drop in load. This phenomenal was attributed to
redistribution of shear force occurred after the initiation of the first major diagonal rolling shear
crack. This transverse shear redistribution behavior was also observed in the shear tests by Zhou
et al. (2014). The limiting failure mode for all MF, PRF and PUR specimens was rolling shear.
Pre-mature delamination along the glue lines were observed for five of the eight EPI specimens with
no sign of rolling shear failure (Figure 4.8). These delamination failures are reflected in the first
peaks of the EPI load-displacement curves shown in Figure 4.5. As stated, these five specimens
with glue bond failures were excluded from the rolling shear statistics shown in Table 4.2. The glue
bond strength for each test specimen was estimated by using the peak forces shown in Figure 4.5
to compute the shear stress in the glue layers. Since glue bond failure was not the initiating failure
mode for MF, PRF and EPI specimens, one can expect the glue bond strengths for these adhesives
to be greater than the glue layer shear stresses computed using the peak loads. For those EPI
specimens with glue bond failures, the peak loads can be used to estimate the glue bond strengths.
The glue bond strength estimated in Table 4.3 shows the MF, PRF and PUR glue bonds were at
least 64%, 100% and 48% stronger than that of the EPI specimens, respectively.
66
(a) MF (b) PRF
(c) EPI (d) PUR
Figure 4.5: Load displacement curves of major axis rolling shear specimens
67
Figure 4.6: Typical rolling shear cracks
Table 4.3: Glue bond strength estimation for major axis specimens
Adhesive Bond Strength Mean (psi) STDEV
MF ≥2881 26.6
PRF ≥351 17.6
PUR ≥259 20.2
PUR 1752 19.1
1
Glue bond strength for MF, PRF and PUR are estimated as the shear stress at glueline when rolling shear
failure occured.
2
Glue bond strength for EPI is calculated as the shear stress at glueline when delamination occured.
Failure mechanism of minor axis specimens The load-displacement curves of minor
axis rolling shear tests are shown in Figure 4.9. The failure mechanism of minor axis rolling shear
specimens was different compared to the major axis. When load applied to a minor axis test
specimen was gradually increased, the minor axis shear test panel exhibited the following typical
failure sequence (Figure 4.10):
1. opening of vertical gap closest to the mid-span in the tension side (bottom layer)
of the panel. Note that the panels were not edge glued,
2. rolling shear failure and crack initiation in the top layer in compression, and
68
Figure 4.7: Extension of diagonal shear crack into glue lines
Figure 4.8: Glue bond delamination (observed in EPI specimens) and bending failure
3. bending failure in the middle layer longitudinal boards. This ultimate bending
failure typically accompanied with a very loud noise associated with rupture of wood fiber in
tension.
4.6 Characteristic rolling shear strength
In order to qualified for structural CLT application, the 5th percentile rolling shear strength
from tests with 75% confidence tolerance limit for SP CLT must meet the published minimum
values, known as characteristic test values, in Table 1 of PRG-320. To evaluate the characteristic
69
(a) MF (b) PRF
(c) PUR
Figure 4.9: Load displacement curves of minor axis rolling shear tests
70
Figure 4.10: Failure of minor axis specimen
test values, the major and minor rolling shear strengths for each of the adhesive type were fitted to
Normal, Lognormal, Gumbel, Frechet, Weibull and Unbounded Johnson distributions. For fitting
the major axis rolling shear strength, it was determined that the Unbound Johnson Distribution
(SU) is the most suitable distribution for capturing the extreme values at low percentile region. The
fitted Johnson SU distributions for major axis specimens are shown in Figure 4.11. Note that for
the EPI major axis specimens, only the three tests with rolling shear failures are fitted to Johnson
SU distribution (five other tests failed due to delamination of glue lines). For minor axis specimens,
normal distribution was determined to be the best-fit distribution (Figure 4.12).
The required characteristic test values listed in Table 1 of PRG-320 is the minimum required
one-sided tolerance limit (T L) associated with 5th percentile and 75% confidence level. To be more
specific, it is a one-sided lower TL as defined in ASTM D2915 (ASTM 2010).Eq.(4.3) was used to
determine the characteristic test values (YL ). For all test test data fitted, a tolerance factor k is
determined such that the T L intervals cover at least a proportion p of the population with confidence
γ:
YL = Ȳ − kS (4.3)
where Ȳ is the sample mean and S is the sample standard deviation. In this study, p and γ are set
to 5% and 75%, respectively, by the definition of tolerance limit. Dixon and Massey (1969) provided
71
Figure 4.11: CDF of major axis rolling shear strength
Figure 4.12: CDF of minor axis rolling shear strength
methods to estimate the tolerance factor k: in this study, k is estimated from the inverse cumulative
72
distribution function of the non-central t distribution:
tr,N −1,δ
k= √ (4.4)
N
√
δ = Zp N (4.5)
where δ is the non-centrality parameter used in the non-central t distribution, N is the sample
size, Zp is the Z value for a proportion of p (i.e. 5%) in the standard normal space. For major
axis specimens fitted in the Unbonded Johnson distribution, Z values are obtained by applying the
transformation function. In fact, the whole Johnson family distributions are based on standard
normal, each with a distinct transfer function to describe different data characteristics (Johnson
1949).
The final computed characteristic rolling shear strengths for are summarized in Table 4.4.
According to Table 1 of PRG-320, the minimum characteristic value for rolling shear of Southern
Pine CLT with ‘V3’ layup configuration is 180 psi for both major and minor axes. The PUR
specimens met and exceeded the 180 psi requirement for both the major and minor axes, while only
the major axis rolling shear strengths of the MF and PRF specimens passed the PRG-320 criteria.
Table 4.4: Characteristic rolling shear strengths
Adhesive Type δ Z Characteristic δ t k Characteristic
Strength (psi) Strength (psi)
MF 2.19 -2.19 201.1 4.65 6.19 2.19 146.4
PRF 2.19 -2.19 243.8 4.65 6.19 2.19 144.2
EPI 2.10 -2.10 190.4 – – – –
PUR 1.91 -1.91 198.7 5.20 6.65 2.10 182.7
4.7 Conclusion
Based on the above results and discussion, the following conclusions can be made:
1. All four adhesives (MF, PRF, EPI and PUR) can be used to manufacture Southern
Pine CLT panels that meet the minimum characteristic rolling shears trengths (lower 5th
73
percentile value with a 75% confidence interval) in the major axis direction for the ‘V3’ layout
in PRG-320;
2. Among the four adhesives, the EPI exhibited the lowest major axis rolling shear
strength. Several CLT specimens made with EPI adhesive showed premature delamination at
the glue lines between layers. This failure mechanism significantly decreased the rolling shear
strength. To use EPI for manufacturing SP CLT, further investigation such as varying the
EPI spread rate or pressing cycle should be carried;
3. In the minor axis direction, only the panels made with PUR adhesive passed
the PRG-320 requirement. While the MF and PRF specimens did not pass the PRG-320
minor axis rolling shear requirement, it is anticipated that modifying other parameters in the
manufacturing process of SP CLT such as varying the adhesive spread rate, lumber grade,
annual ring orientation, platen pressure, and/or layer thickness may resolve the minor axis
rolling shear requirement for these three adhesives.
74
Chapter 5
Bending Strength and Stiffness of
Southern Pine CLT
CLT panels are composite engineered wood products with cross-wised layups that provide
dimensional stability. It has been a promising building material to potentially replace concrete and
structural steel due to its economy, sustainability, carbon sequestration, speed and ease of erection,
and acceptable seismic performance. CLTs high strength-to-weight ratio makes it applicable to
timber building as slabs for horizontal structural members. Due to the limited knowledge of CLT
panels made of domestic US wood species, the bending stiffness and bending strength were tested
for the 3-ply Southern Pine CLT in both major and minor strength directions. This chapter presents
the test setup, results and discussion of the ‘V3’ Southern Pine CLT bending test. In addition to
reporting the test results, an interaction equation defining the failure criterion was used to estimate
the bending strength based on a Monte Carlo simulation. The strength parameters needed for
the Monte Carlo simulation was obtained from a mini in-house testing program on 2x6 lumbers.
The simulation shown a good match to the experimental data, indicating an appropriately defined
bending failure criterion.
75
5.1 Introduction
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is an engineered wood product that is manufactured by face
gluing the cross-wise layers of dimension lumbers by means of either vacuum or mechanical press
to form large-sized solid composite panels. The finished panels are typically 2 to 10ft. wide, up to
60ft. long and up to 20 in. thick depending on the pressing capacity of the manufacturer. Such
systems were first developed in Switzerland in the 1970s in the furniture industry. In the mid-1990s,
an industry-academia joint research effort in Austria led to the commercialization of structural-
use CLT panels (Mohammad et al. 2012). These solid panels have versatile applications as to be
used as floor, wall, roof components in residential/commercial building constructions and have the
potential to replacement mineral building materials. In addition to the building sector, with research
development in timber/concrete composite material, CLT has become a promising alternative to be
used as hybrid bridge decks, as the high strength to mass ratio makes CLT an ideal candidate for long
span bending element. Economy, sustainability, carbon sequestration, speed and ease of erection,
acceptable seismic performance, and lower embodied energy are among advantages of CLT material
(Robertson 2011).
Although CLT has been a consistent presence in European markets for over 20 years, the
implementation of CLT product and systems have just began in United States and Canada (Brand-
ner et al. 2013). Only a handful of CLT structures have been erected over the past decade, with CLT
panels sourced from outside the USA and Canada. During the preparation of this manuscript, there
were only two APA/ANSI certified CLT manufacturer in the US, producing structural CLT panels
up to size of 10ft. by 24ft. with thickness up to 7 layers. The scant body of knowledge regarding
CLT performance manufactured from domestic US wood species has slowed the application of CLT
in buildings. It is therefore of paramount importance to gain access to certified material, modern-
ized building code and advanced technical capacity. This paper presents the experimental bending
stiffness (MOE) and bending strength (MOR) results of CLT panel manufactured of Southern Pine
(SP). Two batches of CLT were examined in the experiments: SP CLT manufactured in a laboratory
setting with Melamine Formaldehyde (MF) adhesive and commercially manufactured SP CLT with
polyurethane (PUR) adhesive. Both strong and weak axis bending properties were examined.
76
5.2 Background and literature review
In 2011, APA-the Engineered Wood Association in collaboration with American National
Standard Institute (ANSI) published a harmonized North American CLT product standard used by
both US and Canada, Standard for Performance Rated CLT, also known as ANSI/APA PRG320.
For various structural performance properties (bending, shear, bearing, etc.), required characteristic
test values along with allowable design values are tabulated for CLT manufactured of different wood
species, lumber grades and lay-up configurations. Corresponding test methods are also suggested in
this version of the standard as a part of the plant pre-qualification requirements. ANSI/APA then
released a newer version in 2012 (ANSI 2012b), addressing custom CLT grades for hardwood species.
This standard serves as an impetus towards the acceptance of CLT made of US wood species. As
recently the International Code Council approved the inclusion of PRG-320 qualified CLT panels as
building materials in the 2015 International Building Code (ICC 2015). The code allows CLT to be
used in Type IV and VB construction, with possibility of Type VA, IIIA and IIIB, depending on
the type of structural elements (wall, floor, roof etc.) and how the exterior and interior elements
are fire protected. Compared to the older versions of IBC code (2009 and before) where CLT are
normally permitted under ‘Alternate Materials and Methods’, the current 2015 IBC code creates
more potential opportunities for this engineered wood product.
Currently in North America, there has been a large research effort in exploring different
aspects of CLT, such as evaluation of rolling shear, manufacture parameters, two-way bending
performance and in-plane stiffness of CLT diaphragms. However, experimental research in full
size CLT bending is limited, mostly due to the cost and difficulties in manufacturing long beams
that satisfying PRG-320 bending test method in a laboratory setting. Mohamadzadeh and Hindman
(2015) evaluated the three layered yellow-poplar (Liriodendron Tulipifera) hardwood CLT in terms of
bending, shear by compression and delamination properties. The goal of their study was to measure
the abovementioned properties and to identify the viability of yellow-poplar in CLT manufacture
as an alternative to standard softwood species CLT. Yellow-poplar satisfies the specific gravity
requirement but, currently no tabulated values can be found in PRG-320. Twelve bending tests
include five-point and four-point bending were conducted on 72 in. long, 11.8 in wide, 4.2 in.
thick specimens, resulting a span-to-depth ratio 16. All No. 2 yellow poplar lumbers were edge
glued and cold pressed with Phenol Formaldehyde (PF) adhesive to form the CLT test specimens.
77
Non-destructive five-point bending tests were performed to evaluate bending stiffness (EI) and
interlaminar shear capacity (Vs ). Destructive four-point bending tests in accordance with ASTM
D198 (ASTM 2015) were performed to obtain the ultimate bending strength (Fb S). Reported
bending stiffness (EI: 5940 lb · ft/ft, 4470lb · ft/ft) and bending strength (Fb S:1.53x108 lb · in2 /ft,
1.37x108 lb · in2 /ft) values for low and high quality specimens satisfied the requirements for V1
designated (Douglas fir-Larch) CLT per PRG-320.
Kramer et al. (2013) tested the bending properties for three layered hybrid poplar (Populus
Deltoids) hardwood CLT specimens. Layers were surface glued using phenol-resorcinol formaldehyde
(PRF) adhesive and pressed using their in-house clamping fixture. Specimen dimensions were 15.7
in. wide, 3.9 in. thick and on-center span 100 in., resulting a span-to-depth ratio 26. All specimens
were loaded to failure using a third-point bending as suggested by PRG-320 and ASTM D198 (ASTM
2015). The obtained 5th percentile values for MOR and MOE were 2640psi and 1020ksi, respectively,
indicating a potential for hybrid poplar to meet the strength requirement for E3 designated CLT.
However, the tested MOE percentile value could not satisfy the requirement. The author attributed
the lower MOE value to the relatively low density of hybrid poplar and indicated that the design
using low density CLT would governed by deflection. Vibration characteristics of low density CLT
could also be a concern.
A study by Okabe et al. (2014) investigated experimental as well as numerical Monte Carlo
(M.C.) simulations of Sugi (Japanese cedar) CLT bending properties. MC method takes inputs in
the form of MOE, MOR, and tensile strength of sawn lumbers. Their specimens (1m in width, 3m in
length) with various thicknesses (90mm, 120mm and 150mm) and layup configurations had a signifi-
cant lower span-to-depth ratio than PRG320 recommended strip-shaped ones. Water-based polymer
isocyanate (EPI) adhesive was used for lumber lamination and finger jointing. The specimens were
tested using third-point bending according to Japan Industrial Standard JIS A 1414-2 (JIS 2010)
which is similar to the bending test method outlined in ASTM D198. Though bending test results
were not specifically tabulated in the table, comparison study showed that results obtained from
MC method was concordant with the experimental bending properties. Authors suggested that the
cross layers were able to transmit bending and shear stresses to increase moment carry capacity.
Their bending strength prediction equation takes a form of an interaction equation with sawn lum-
ber bending and tension strength. It provided a reliable estimate alternative to what is given in
the CLT Handbook (Gagnon et al. 2011) which is purely based on geometry and lumber bending
78
strength.
Hindman and Bouldin (2014) tested the bending and shear properties of five ply CLT
produced with No. 2 Southern Pine lumbers. Due to the limitation of test facilities, the bending
specimens were lap-jointed with vertical and inclined screws in several locations to reach span-to-
depth ratio of 30. The MOE and MOR test results indicated satisfaction for 5-ply V3 designated
CLT and low variability was observed for all specimens with lap joints and screws.
With a strong desire for using CLT as potential structural elements among building owners,
architects and engineers, there is an urgent need to research mechanical properties of CLT made
of domestic fast growing wood species. In the Southern U.S. forests (‘Southern Forests’), Southern
Pine would be an ideal candidate for such application. Its group species (loblolly, longleaf, shortleaf
and slash pines) make up the largest proportion (17% in 2012) of the softwood resource in the
Southern Forests (Oswalt et al. 2014). An authoritative test method, along with comparison of
experimental test results to the characteristic values in PRG-320 (Table 5.1), can be an appropriate
method to ensure performance of CLT made of domestic US species. In this particular study, 3-ply
Southern Pine CLT bending properties (MOE and MOR) were investigated in both major and minor
strength directions, results were adjusted for shear deformation and compared to the V3 designated
CLT characteristic values in PRG-320. In addition, a bending failure criterion along with set of MC
simulations were performed to verify the bending strength of 3-ply CLT. With successful validation of
MC simulation, bending strength can be estimated for CLT with given thickness, layup configuration
and wood species material properties. Therefore, it relieves researchers from conducting expensive
yet labor intensive, repetitive experiments.
Table 5.1: Minimum required characteristic test value per PRG-320: CLT designation V31
Strength Direction fb S (psi) E (106 psi)
Major 2045 1.6
Minor 1205 1.4
1
V3: No.2 Southern pine lumber in all parallel layers and No.3 Southern Pine in all perpendicular layers
5.3 Test method
Details of the test method used to evaluate bending stiffness (EI) and bending strength
(Fb S) of 3-ply SP CLT as well as essential data analysis procedure are presented in this section.
79
Figure 5.1: Schematic third-point bending test setup (top:major axis; bottom:minor axis)
The bending properties of SP CLT panels were evaluated using the flatwise third-point loading test
approach described in ASTM D4761 (ASTM 2013) as recommended by PRG-320. Both standards
require a minimum span-to-depth ratio 30 to reduce shear deformation. The specimen on-center
span was designed to be 123.75 in. between supports with a span-to-depth ratio of exactly 30 (the
3-ply CLT has a thickness of 4.125 in.). Schematic views and photos of third-point bending test
setups for major and minor axes are shown in Figure 5.1 and 5.2.
With the setup shown, the geometry of all test strips complied with PRG-320 dimension
requirements. Prior to test, moisture content (M.C.) and density were measured for each specimen.
The average M.C. was greater than 8% (Table 5.2), which satisfied the PRG-320 minimum M.C.
requirement at the time of mechanical property evaluation.
The specimens were carefully transported to the test frame before symmetry of the system
was measured and verified with respect to support and loading points. An MTS hydraulic testing
machine with an integrated load cell of 150,000 lbs capacity was used to apply load on the specimen.
Testing speed was set constant with a rate of 0.1 in/min to ensure the time to reach specimen
80
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 5.2: Typical experimental setup for CLT bending test
81
failure to be within 10s to 10min (most of the specimens failed at around 7 minute). The deflection
was measured using a 12-in stroke draw-wire displacement sensor (sensitivity 0.5%) attached to the
bottom face of the specimen at mid-span. In each test, the complete load displacement history, peak
load, and failure mode were recorded. The relationship between load obtained from MTS load cell
and deflection recorded by displacement sensor was used for bending stiffness (EI) calculations.
Table 5.2: Density and MC of tested bending specimens

Manufacturer Number of Specimens Adhesive Density, lb/ft3 (COV) M.C.,% (COV)
Clemson 16 MF 36.44(5.6%) 8.66 (16.4%)
Structurlam 20 PUR 33.13(4.8%) 9.31(4.7%)
The equation for apparent modulus of elasticity (Ef ) of third point loading can be found in
many design manuals, including that of Steel Construction Manual (McCormac 2008):
23P L3
Ef = (5.1)
1296I∆
To adjust for shear deformation, a shear stiffness term was introduced to Eq. (5.1) : Eq.
(5.2) can be found in the appendix of ASTM D198 (ASTM 2015):
23P L3
E= PL
(5.2)
1296I∆(1 − 5GA∆ )
where P and ∆ are the load displacement history when the beam behaved in an elastic manner; L is
the clear span between supports; I is the moment of inertia of the section; GA is the shear stiffness
of the section.
A variety of methods have been adopted for the determination of basic mechanical prop-
erties of CLT in the Europe. ‘Mechanically Jointed Beams Theory’ was available to Eurocode 5
(Eurocode 2004). According to this theory, an efficient coefficient (γi ) was used to account for the
shear deformation of the perpendicular layer, with γ=1 representing rigidly glued member and γ=0
representing no connection at all. However, without experimental investigation, it is difficult to
physically quantify the rigidity of the adhesive between longitudinal and crosswise layers. Blass
and Fellmoser (2004) developed a ‘Composite Theory’ where a list of composition factors ki were
pre-calculated for various loading conditions. These composition factors provide the ratio between
strength and stiffness. However, ‘Composite Theory’ does not account for shear deformations. In
82
the mid 90s, a ‘Shear Analogy’ method was proposed by Kreuzinger (1995) and applied to solid
panels with cross layers. This method accounts for shear deformation of the cross layers and seems
to be the most accurate for CLT panels and therefore was adopted by CLT Handbook (Gagnon et al.
2011) and the CLT standard PRG-320. The shear stiffness based on ‘Shear Analogy’ method can
be obtained using Eq. (5.3):
a2
GA = Pn−1 (5.3)
[( 2Gh11b1 ) +( h1
i=1 2Gi bi ) + ( 2Ghnnbn )]
where a is the distance between the centroid of first layer to the centroid of the last layer; hi , bi and
Gi are the thickness, width and modulus of rigidity for layer i, respectively.
In the above equation, PRG-320 nomenclature provides the values for G as a ratio of E0
(MOE parallel to grain). It recommends G0 = E0 /16 to be used for modulus of rigidity for the lon-
gitudinal laminations, while for cross laminations, G90 = G0 /10. All PRG-320 suggested lamination
properties are tabulated in Table 5.3 as ratios of E0 .
Table 5.3: PRG-320 suggested ratios of E and G based on E0

Property E0 E90 G0 G90
Ratio based on E0 1 1/30 1/16 1/160
‘Shear Analogy’ method also recommended the way to calculate moment of inertia ICLT for
multi-layered cross sections. Parallel axis theorem is applied in this method with an adjustment for
effective width to account for the contribution of cross layers:
Ei
bi = b (5.4)
E0
Therefore based on Table 5, the width of cross layer is adjusted to 1/30 of that of longitudinal
layers. CLT moment of inertia ICLT with contribution of cross layers can be computed using Eq.(5.4):
X bi h 3
ICLT = ( i + Ai zi2 ) (5.5)
12
where Ai is the area of layer i and zi is the distance between the centroid of layer i to the neutral
axis. It is noted that for minor strength specimens, parallel axis theorem does not apply to the
tension layer since CLT is face glued only. Under bending load, the seams in bottom layer will open
up without generation of any composite action (see Test Result and Discussion section).
83
Effective section modulus SCLT is found by dividing the moment of inertia by distance from
centroid to top or bottom edge of the equivalent section:
ICLT
SCLT = (5.6)
y
Modulus of rupture (MOR) fb then can be determined from Eq. (5.7)
Mmax
fb = (5.7)
SCLT
where Mmax is the maximum moment produced based on peak force record in each third-point test:
1
Mmax = Pmax L (5.8)
6
MOE of Southern Pine No. 2 sawn lumber parallel to the major strength direction (E0 )
for composite section property calculation was obtained from the National Design Specifications
for Wood Construction (NDS) (AWC 2012) March 2013 addendum as a mean value. Using Eq.
(5.3) through (5.6), section properties of major and minor strength direction CLT can be found in
Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Section property of 3-ply SP CLT

Strength Direction I(in4 /f t) GA(kip/f t) S(in3 /f t)
Major 67.78 4331.25 32.86
Minor 2.77 4331.25 4.03
5.4 Test result and discussion
As previously mentioned, in PRG-320 a span-to-depth ratio of approximately 30 is recom-
mended for evaluation for CLT bending specimens to reduce the effect of shear deformations. A
total 36 of bending specimens in both major and minor strength directions with a clear span to
depth ratio at exactly 30 were tested to ultimate failure. For each test, complete load-displacement
history, peak load, and failure mode were recorded for further analysis. Typical load displacement
curves of major and minor tests are shown in Figure 5.3.
It was clear that all bending specimens failed in a brittle manner without any ‘yielding’
exhibited before ultimate failure. Load-displacement segments up to 1000 lbf in major test specimens
84
(a) Pilot Major (b) Pilot Minor
(c) Structurlam Major (d) Structurlam Minor
Figure 5.3: Bending test load-displacement history for major (left) and minor (right) strength di-
rection specimens
and 500lbf in minor ones were selected to compute MOE. These thresholds were determined to be
far less than the failure load and therefore were chosen as beams remained elastic without any
permanent deformation. Linear regression was performed within the prescribed segment for each
test, obtaining the ratios of P/∆. Together with Eq. (5.2), MOE adjusted for shear deformation
was computed for all 36 specimens. For computing modulus of rupture (MOR), all peak loads were
identified and then the application of Eq. (5.6) through Eq. (5.8) led directly to MOR. The statistics
(mean and efficient of variation) for tested MOE and MOR were tabulated in Table 5.5. It is noted
PL
that on average, the shear deformation adjustment term (1 − 5δGA ) is around 84%.
Table 5.5: Mean values of MOE and MOR
85
Direction Provider MOE,106 psi (COV) MOE,ksi (COV)
Clemson 2.38(10.54) 7.40(12.59)

Major
Structurlam 1.20(8.14) 3.95(13.12)
Clemson 2.62(5.88) 9.55(20.13)

Minor
Structurlam 1.86(11.99) 7.00(17.19)
5.4.1 Failure mechanism of major strength direction specimens
The percentage differences of MOE and MOR for Clemson Pilot and Structurlam panels
were considerably high as seen from Table 5.5. MOE (the bending E) is mostly used for checking
serviceability requirements (e.g. deflection, vibration) and is mainly depend on the density of the
wood, quality of the wood (knot, split, checking etc.) as well as level of composite action of CLT.
During major strength tests, specimens behaved linear elastically before brittle failures took place,
and no signs of premature adhesive failure (delamination) were observed. Thus the above obser-
vations eliminated the possibility of glue failure that may cause decreased MOE (i.e. specimens
maintained high level of composite action before failure). Careful examination of lumber quality
revealed that Southern Pine lumbers used in Clemson Pilot panels were of better quality than that
in the Structurlam panels, though both of them were stamped as No. 2 SP lumbers. Pilot panel
lumbers contained overall fewer defects, and were 10% denser than Structurlam lumbers (see Ta-
ble 5.2 for density). Therefore, it is safe to conclude that a relatively low MOE mean value obtained
from Structurlam panels was a result of less density and lower quality lumbers being used.
Differences in MOR values can be explained in the perspective of failure mechanism. Pilot
panels displayed a clear bending failure where lower extreme fibers in constant moment region
experienced bending/tension rupture. The typical bending failure mechanism observed during Pilot
panel major axis tests followed a sequence of three stages (Figure 5.4):
1. Initiation of diagonal rolling shear cracks in the middle layer in the constant
moment region. Glue line remained intact;
2. bending failure occurred due to tension failures of the longitudinal fibers in the
bottom tension layer
3. followed by rupture in the tension layer, typical rolling shear failure was extended
86
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5.4: Typical failure of major strength direction Pilot CLT
87
Figure 5.5: Wood fiber tension failure at lumber knot
in the middle crosswise layer. A portion of the lower glue line was compromised first and then
the crack continued to propagate upward in a zigzag pattern to upper glue line or sometimes
to the compression layer.
It is worth noting that rupture failure in the tension layer would often take place at lumber
defects if any, especially at knots due to stress concentration and material irregularity (Figure 5.5).
It is suggested that for critical bending elements, lumbers in outmost tension layer to be better
engineered and carefully inspected for defects before putting into manufacture and service. Using
higher grade material such as Machine Stress Rated (MSR) lumbers for tension layers can be a less
economic; however, the composite action of CLT can be fully exploited.
Specimens with finger joints displayed a similar fashion of failure propagation as the Pilot
panels; however, ultimate failure was due to the presence of finger joint (FJ). 9 out of 10 Struc-
turlam major strength specimens failed at FJs within constant moment region (Figure 5.6) with one
exception, which failed at lumber knot. Appendix A contains ten pictures taken after the major
strength tests. The finger joint itself constitutes a self-centering profile representing a folded scarf
joint. It enables a simple, fast and form-fit connection between lumber elements by maximizing
the bond surface and minimizing longitudinal losses of board material (Brandner et al. 2013). For
Structurlam panels, these edgewise finger joints (Figure 5.7) were machined, glued and infrared (IR)
accelerated cured (Figure 5.8) prior to surface preparation and adhesive application.
In the United States, PRG-320 requires that the strength, wood failure and durability of
88
finger joint to be qualified in accordance with the Standard for Wood Products - Structural Glue
Laminated Timber A190.1 (ANSI 2012a). During the preparation of this manuscript, it is unsure
whether Structurlam panels have plant pre-qualification of FJ according to ANSI/APA A190.1 or
CSA O177 (Association et al. 2006). Therefore due to the presence of FJ and its observed relatively
low strength, the average Structuralam specimen major strength MOR was 46.6% lower than Pilot
panels. The authors suggest that future studies to be performed at improving FJ quality in terms
of its typology, geometry and adhesive as well as smart engineering of the FJ to avoid its presence
in tension layer especially the area subject to significant amount of moment.
Figure 5.6: Finger joint failure in Structurlam major strength specimens
Figure 5.7: Edgewise finger joint (left); flatwise finger joint (right)
89
Figure 5.8: Structurlam lumber finger joint process
5.4.2 Failure mechanism for minor strength direction specimens
This section discusses the failure mechanism of minor axis bending specimens. Load-
displacement histories of minor axis bending tests are shown in Figure 5.3. The failure mechanism
of minor axis specimens was different compared to the major axis ones; however, all minor strength
specimens failed in a similar manner. When load on the specimen was gradually increased, the
minor axis test panel exhibited the following typical failure sequence (Figure 5.9):
1. Opening of vertical gap closest to the mid-span in the tension side (bottom layer)
of the panel. Note that the panels were not edge glued;
2. crack initiation at the gap in the longitudinal (middle) layer;
3. bending failure in the longitudinal layer. This bending failure would either prop-
agate to the upper glue line causing delamination in that interface or confined within the
longitudinal layer (Figure 5.9). Typically, the ultimate failure was accompanied by a very loud
noise associated with rupture of wood fiber in tension.
5.4.3 Characteristic Bending Stiffness and Strength
In order to quantify performance-rated CLT for structural applications, the tested charac-
teristic values in major and minor strength direction have to meet the minimum required criteria
provided in PRG-320. For ‘V3’ CLT bending properties, Table 5.1 lists the minimum values for
bending stiffness EI and bending strength Fb S. The ‘V3’ designated CLT was chosen because its
the closest configuration to the tested specimens, with only cross layers switched to No.2 Southern
90
(a) rupture and delamination in the glue line (b) rupture and propagation within the longitudinal layer
Figure 5.9: Failure mechanism of minor axis specimens
Pine lumber. PRG-320 defines the characteristic values as the structural property estimate, typically
a population mean for stiffness properties or a tolerance limit (5th percentile with 75% confidence)
for strength properties. Therefore, the reported mean values for bending stiffness in Table 5.5 be-
come characteristic values. Clearly, by comparison of Table 5.1 and Table 5.5, Structurlam 3-ply
CLT did not pass the stiffness requirement in major strength direction.
The minimum required characteristic strength values listed in Table 1 of PRG-320 is a one-
sided tolerance limit (TL) associated with 5th percentile and 75% confidence level. To be more
specific, it is a one-sided lower TL as defined by ASTM D2915 (ASTM 2010). Eq. (5.9) was used
to determine the characteristic test values:
YL = Ȳ − kS (5.9)
where Ȳ is the sample mean and S is the sample standard deviation. k is a parametric confidence
interval factor which determines that the interval covers at least proportion p (1-5%=95%) of the
population with confidence γ (75%). As a parametric factor, the value of k will depend on the type
of distribution which best describe the test results. Major and minor bending strength tested values
were fitted to Normal, Lognormal, Gumbel, Frechet, and Weibull distributions. Based on statistical
R2 and KS test, it is determined that Normal Distribution yields the best fit (Figure 5.10).
For Normal Distribution, ASTM D2915 (ASTM 2010) conveniently provides a k table that
can be looked up based on p, γ and sample size N (K8 = 2.189, k10 = 2.104). For T L based on
distribution other than Normal, a non-central t-distribution is needed to calculate the k factor. The
91
calculated lower T L strength values and population mean stiffness values are provided in Table 5.6.
(a) Major (b) Minor
Figure 5.10: Normal distribution for bending strength
Table 5.6: Characteristic bending test values
Direction Adhesive Finger Joint MOE,106 psi TL MOR,ksi MOE MOR
required,106 psi required,ksi
MF No 2.38 5.36
Major 1.6 2.045
PUR Yes 1.20 2.75
MF No 2.62 5.34
Minor 1.4 1.205
PUR Yes 1.86 4.47
According to PRG-320 performance CLT criteria, all bending strength characteristic values
have passed the standard. In terms of bending stiffness, Structurlam major strength direction
specimens failed the requirement by a margin of 25%.
5.5 Monte Carlo method for bending strength estimation
On the basis of above test, Monte Carlo simulation was proposed to estimate bending
strength of composite CLT based on random sampling individual lumber properties. The estima-
tion relied on shear analogy method and equivalent section area, and it took inputs in terms of
CLT configuration, layup, thickness of lumber and CLT panel, and different stiffness and strength
parameters of lumber. First, the bending stiffness and maximum moment carrying capacity of CLT
were derived.
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5.5.1 Bending Stiffness ECLT of CLT Panel
In the shear analogy method, the characteristics of a multi-layer cross section are separated
into two virtual beams A and B. Beam A is given the sum of the inherent flexural and shear
stiffness of the individual layers along their own centers, while beam B is given the ‘Steiner’ points,
or increased moment of inertia because of the distance from the neutral axis (see Figure 15). These
two imaginary beams are coupled with infinitely rigid web members and therefore parallel axis
theorem is used to sum the bending stiffness of two beams (EIA and EIB ):
n
X
EICLT = EIA + EIB = Ei (Ii + Ai Ni2 ) (5.10)
n=1
where EICLT is the bending stiffness of CLT panel, usually calculated per foot of CLT width; Ii is
the moment of inertia in the i-th layer; Ni is the distance from neutral axis to centroid of each layer;
Ai is the equivalent section area calculated by width bi times thickness ti .
The location of the neutral axis is calculated in Eq. (5.10):
Pn
(bi ti Yi )
N = Pn=1
n (5.11)
n=1 (bi ti )
where N is the distance from neutral axis to bottom edge of the panel; Yi is the distance from the
centroid of i-th layer to bottom edge; n is total number of layers. Note that equivalent width of the
i-th layer can be obtained from Eq.(5.4) by using the mean value of parallel E0 .
Figure 5.11: Beam modeling using shear analogy method (adapted from Gagnon et al. (2011))
5.5.2 Maximum Moment Carrying Capacity
Maximum moment carrying capacity of CLT panel is estimated using the properties of lam-
ina which compose the CLT. Okabe et al. (2014) proposed an interaction equation which originated
from glulam bending strength calculation. Failure of CLT is determined by the interactive state of
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bending and tensile stresses of lumbers in each layer:
σbi σti
+ =1 (5.12)
fbi fti
The derivation of the maximum moment carrying capacity is briefly repeated here, the
readers are referred to Okabe et al. (2014) if further details are needed. Assuming that the layers
are perfectly bonded together without any delamination or slippage, the bending curvature ρ of
panel should be universal in each layer:
1 M Mi
= = (5.13)
ρ EICLT Ei Ii
Ei Ii
Mi = M (5.14)
EICLT
where M and Mi are the moment of CLT panel and moment of i-th layer, respectively.
With the same assumption that that the CLT panel reserved its composite action, the
bending stress and tensile stress of each layer is expressed in Eq. (5.15) and (5.16):
Mi Ii Ei ti Ei
σbi = = · ·M = · ·M (5.15)
Si Si EICLT 2 EICLT
Ni Ni Ei
σti = i · Ei = · Ei = ·M (5.16)
ρ EICLT
where σbi is the bending stress in the i-th layer; σti is the tensile stress in the i-th layer; Si is the
section modulus of i-th layer; i is the axial strain of the i-th layer. Substituting Eq. (5.15) and Eq.
(5.16) in to Eq. (5.12) gives CLTs maximum moment carrying capacity in terms of its geometry
and lumber component characteristics:
EICLT 2fbi · fti

Mmax = · (5.17)
Ei (ti fti + 2Ni fbi )
where Ni is the distance from the centroid of i-th layer to the neutral axis; fbi and fti are the bending
and tensile strength of lumber at i-th layer, respectively. Due to the failure mechanism observed in
the bending test, the out-most longitudinal tension layer was used to compute the maximum moment
carrying capacity (i.e. i=3 for major strength direction and i=2 for minor strength direction).
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5.5.3 Bending Property of Southern Pine No.2 Lumber
A statistical database for mechanical properties of various lumber species initiated in the
1978, known as the In-Grade Testing Program (IGTP) was selected as the baseline to compare the
No.2 Southern Pine lumber used in this study. The IGTP was motivated to establish a statistical
database for mechanical properties of various lumber species and to establish reference design values.
Bending, shear, tension and compression stiffness/strength were evaluated in this test program for
various common US wood species, including Douglas Fir-Larch, Hem-Fir, Southern Pine and other
softwood and hardwood species. The program took 12 years to test over 70,000 pieces of full size
dimension lumbers, randomly selected from sawn mills all over the nation. As a matter of fact,
several ASTM standards (e.g. D198, D245 and D2555) were published in advance to support the
testing program. In 1977, ASTM D1990 was published to outline the criteria for adjustment and
interpretation the data, and therefore established the design values of visually graded lumbers.
The IGTP test data was fit into five distributions (Normal, Lognormal, 2-P Weibull, 3-P Weibull
and non-parametric) with the parameters and statistical tests (KS, Anderson-Darling and Shapiro-
Wilk) given for each corresponding estimate. In this study, Southern Pine No.2 2x6 lumber at 12%
moisture content test data (Green and Evans 1987) fitted to a lognormal distribution was selected
as the baseline. The reason for selecting lognormal distribution is three-folded: first, lognormal
distribution is better at capturing extreme values and it has a long tradition being used in the
sawn lumber industry to model mechanical properties; second, it will generate positive-only random
numbers during Monte Carlo simulation; third, lognormal distribution passed all three statistical
tests in terms of their critical values. The lognormally fitted parameters for bending stiffness (MOE),
bending strength (MOR) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) were tabulated in Table 5.7.
Table 5.7: Lognormal distribution parameters for IGTP No.2 2x6 SP lumbers at 12% moisture
content
Property Sample Size Logarithmic Mean Logarithmic STDEV
MOE 413 0.463 0.247
MOR 413 1.889 0.447
UTS 412 1.239 0.537
A ‘mini’ in-house lumber testing program was also carried out to verify whether the lumber
used in this study falls into the similar distributions described in Table 5.7 (with the exception of
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UTS). It is worth noting that the in-house test program had no intention to replicate the effort
establishing design values, but simply to verify whether the lumber received for CLT Pilot panel
manufacture were on par with the ones tested in IGTP. ASTM D198 (ASTM 2015), D1990 (ASTM
2016a) and USDAs technical report on IGTP ‘Procedure for Developing Allowable Properties for
a Single species Under ASTM D1990 and Computer Programs Useful for the Calculations’ (Evans
et al. 2001) were strictly followed in terms of test procedure and data analysis.
5.5.4 In-house bending test
ASTM D1990 (ASTM 2016a) refers to ASTM D198 (ASTM 2015) and ASTM D4761 (ASTM
2013) for mechanical test methods. These standards offer a wealth of information on the mechan-
ical test methods that can be used. Missing from these standards is the identification of the test
conditions that are consistent with adjustment used in establishing allowable properties. The IGTP
was based on 2x8 bending tests that are third-point loaded with a span to depth ratio 17, the MOE
values have deflections measured at load heads. Such setup are referred to the standard conditions
hereafter. For test conditions that are deviated from this, ASTM D1990 as well as In-Grade Test
technical report (including detailed explanations and examples) provides all the adjustment equa-
tions necessary to bring the raw test data to standard conditions. A slight deviation from the IGTP
standard specimen is that the moisture content of raw MOE and MOR data was adjusted to 12%
rather than 15% percent, since PRG-320 target the average lumber moisture content on 12% at time
of manufacturing. It is worth noting that their applicability to the test conditions depends upon
how different those conditions (i.e. specimen size, span length. M.C., test temperature, etc.) are
from the assumed conditions. A flow chat published in the ASTM D1990 is shown in Figure 5.12,
which was helpful in understanding the steps of the adjustment process.
The sampling plan to pull out the in-house bending specimens from 2x6 bundle followed the
instruction provided in the ASTM D2915 (ASTM 2010). The lumbers were sequentially numbered
upon their arrival and twenty-one numbers were randomly generated to sample the lumbers. All
lumber pieces were tested on a third-point bending setup with clear span to depth ratio 76.5. Draw
wire deflection measurement was taken at the bottom of the mid-span. A MTS load head with
rate of 0.1 in./sec applied load to the specimens (see Figure 5.13) . Ultimate bending failures were
observed for all twenty-one specimens. Note that ultimate tensile strength (UTS) test was not
performed in this study. After the adjustment process based on ASTM D1990, the standardized
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1
Figure 5.12: Flow chart of ASTM D1990 adjustment process. M.C. was adjusted to 12% in the
in-house tests
data was fit into lognormal distribution and compared to IGTPs published parameters (Figure
5.14). Two statistical goodness-of-fit tests, namely the KolmogorovSmirnov test and the Anderson-
Darling test were implemented to investigate the significance of the difference between observation
and distributions described in the IGTP. Note that all the critical values were calculated based
on degree of freedom equals to the number of specimen minus one (20) and 5% significance level.
The test statistics in Table 5.8 revealed that neither hypothesis was rejected, indicating the tested
values were robust as a representative of the In-Grade test program whereby large population were
examined. In addition to statistical tests, the correlation relationship between MOE and MOR were
investigated. It is found that MOE and MOR were positively correlated with a correlation coefficient
0.684 (Figure 5.15). Similarly, it is believed that UTS is also positively correlated with MOE and
MOR, however, their correlation was beyond the scope of this study and were not considered in the
Monte Carlo simulation. The lognormally distributed UTS obtained from IGTP is plotted in Figure
5.16.
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Figure 5.13: In-house No. 2 2x6 Southern Pine bending test
(a) MOE (b) MOR
Figure 5.14: Lognormal distributions for IGTP and in-house bending test
5.5.5 Monte Carlo Simulation
It was concluded that the donated lumbers for manufacturing Clemson Pilot panels were
representative of the No.2 2x6 Southern Pine species group. On the basis of this conclusion, the
in-house lognormal estimates for MOE and MOR (solid line in Figure 5.14), along with lognormal
UTS estimates obtained from IGTP were used to generate random numbers for the simulation.
The MOE and MOR random numbers were correlated with a coefficient equals 0.684 based on the
explored correlation. For each simulation, six and three sets of random variables were generated
for each major and minor strength direction Monte Carlo specimen, respectively. In fact, six and
three pieces of longitudinal lumbers were most commonly seen in a major and minor strength 12 in.
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Table 5.8: Test statistics for in-house bending and IGTP
Statistical Test MOE Test Statistics MOR Test Statistics Critical Value
KolmogorovSmirnov 0.137 0.098 0.288
Anderson-Darling 0.789 0.424 2.502
Figure 5.15: Correlation of MOE and MOR
wide CLT cross section (Figure 5.17), occasionally seven and four were observed. However, for the
sake of simplicity, six and three were selected as number of longitudinal boards. The variation of
lumber properties along its length due to the presence of finger joint is not specifically modeled in
the Monte Carlo simulation. The information regarding location of finger joints was not attainable
during the preparation of this manuscript. However, it can be fully implemented once the lengths of
lumbers before finger joint process are profiled. The crosswise lumbers were neglected in the Monte
Carlo simulation since bending failure was never observed in the cross layer.
Bending strength of CLT panels were simulated as the following procedure:
(a) Prepare cumulative distribution function of lognormal probability density for
MOE, MOR and UTS;
(b) generate random variables for each specimen and set total number of simulations
equals 1 million;
(c) adjust the equivalent width of crosswise layers by Eq. (5.4) and calculate section
properties using and Eq. (5.6) and Eq. (5.10). Note that the 2x6 tested mean bending stiffness
1.550· 106 psi was used as E0 in Eq. (5.4);
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Figure 5.16: Lognormal distributions of IGTP UTS
Figure 5.17: Typical cross section of major (left) and minor (right) strength direction 3-ply CLT
specimen
(d) maximum moment carrying capacity of CLT panel was calculated using Eq. (5.17).
Although random numbers were generated for each longitudinal layer, only the lowest tension
layer was checked for failure criterion (Eq. (5.12)). For instance, the bottom layer and the
middle layer in a 3-ply CLT were checked for failure in major and minor strength direction,
respectively. With the section modulus S calculated in Step (3), the simulated CLT MOR was
obtained by applying Eq. (5.7).
5.5.6 Simulated Results
Figure 5.18 shows the Monte Carlo simulation results of 3-ply CLT MOR for both major
and minor strength directions. KS and Anderson − Darling statistical tests were performed with
the null hypothesis that observed test data was compatible with the proposed distribution from
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Monte Carlo simulations. The test statistics shown in Table 5.9 indicates simulations matched well
with Pilot Panel test results but very poorly with the commercially made panels that contained
finger joints. This is due to fact that finger joint did not have sufficient bending capacity such
that premature failures were observed in the commercially made Structurlam specimens. In the
meanwhile, finger joints were not specifically modeled in the simulation. This is a very unique
situation where longitudinal boards in the Pilot specimens were continuous without any finger joint,
thus only one set of random variables was generated for each piece of lumber in the Monte Carlo
simulation. As a matter of fact, this is not the case in the mass production of CLT. Commercially
manufactured CLT or glulam will often contain finger joints. Their capacity varies due to different
mating orientation (Figure 5.7), adhesives, curing techniques employed in the manufacturing, etc.
In addition, the lumber pieces feeding the finger joint machine do not always come with same
length and each manufactures have their own quality control standards where large defects are often
automatically detected and cut off. In other words, the strength and location of the finger joint
in the CLT or other engineered wood product become two additional variables that have yet been
fully implemented in the Monte Carlo simulation. With bending tests on finger joint assembly and
lumber piece dimension measurement, distributions can be properly built around these two random
variables. This enables a more realistic and much desired Monte Carlo model to simulate CLT
bending capacity for commercially produced CLT.
(a) MOR Major Direction (b) MOR Minor Direction
Figure 5.18: Results of simulation on bending strength of 3-ply CLT panel
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Table 5.9: Test statistics for CLT MOR and Monte Carlo simulations
Statistical Test MOR Major Direction MOR Minor Direction Critical Value
KolmogorovSmirnov 0.240 0.234 0.454
Anderson-Darling 0.755 0.251 2.571
5.6 Conclusion
The following results were obtained in this study:
1. 12 feet long 3-ply Southern Pine Clemson Pilot CLT panels were produced in a 4
ft. by 4 ft. hydraulic press using staged press. No premature glue line failure was observed in
the bending test;
2. for Structurlam major strength direction panels, it was found that bending stiff-
ness was below the minimum requirement by 25%. Low density of the wood was considered
as the cause for this.
3. a Monte Carlo method that utilizes interaction equation for failure criterion was
proposed to model the bending capacity of composite CLT. MOE, MOR and UTS of 2x6 sawn
lumber served as the input parameters for the model. An in-house bending test was performed
on 21 No.2 Southern Pine lumbers. The obtained results were adjusted to standardized data
based on ASTM D1990 and fitted into lognormal distributions. Results confirmed that those
lumbers were representative as a species group tested in the In-Grade Test Program. The
Monte Carlo simulation showed promising results compare to the Pilot panel bending strength;
4. the bending capacity and location of the finger joint are not considered in the
Monte Carlo model. The future research could be directed to include these two parameters
in the model and to look into how finger joint can be optimized or engineered in terms of
their configuration and location so that full composite capacity of the lumber can be better
exploited.
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Chapter 6
Bending and Shear Strengths of
Composite CLT-Glulam Beam
6.1 Introduction
Wood construction offers many advantages that typically not found in other construction
materials. Wood is relatively inexpensive, renewable, easy to work with (light-weight), strong (high
strength to weight ratio) and adaptable. The economic, environmental and energy efficiency advan-
tages are the primary reasons that more residential buildings constructed of wood than any other
structural materials. The International Building Code (IBC) is a building code that establishes the
minimal requirements for building systems using prescriptive and performance related provisions.
For different building materials, the IBC refers to the material specific construction manuals. For
example, the latest version of IBC International Building Code, refers to AISC 360 (Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings), ACI 318-14 (Building Code Requirement for Structural Concrete) and
NDS 2015 (National Design specification for Wood Construction) for steel, concrete and wood con-
struction, respectively. To determine the load requirements, the IBC makes references to ASCE/SEI
7-10 (Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures).
CLT has been formerly recognized as a construction material in the 2015 IBC. The appli-
cation of CLT in difference construction types is discussed in section 2.4 of this dissertation and it
is briefly summarized here for convenience:
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1. Type III Construction: CLT is only permitted for use as interior building
elements;
2. Type IV Construction: Type IV is commonly known as ‘Heavy Timber’ con-
struction. It requires that the exterior walls made of non-combustible material and the interior
building elements of solid or laminated wood without concealed space. However, the 2015 IBC
has prescriptively allowed the use of CLT in Type IV construction, including exterior and
interior walls, floors and roofs, provided that the CLT elements meet the code specified fire
rating.
3. Type V Construction: This type of construction allows the use of any structural
materials permitted by the IBC code. For CLT, the 2015 IBC and NFPA 5000 (Association
et al. 2005) both refer to ANSI/APA PRG 320, Standard for Performance Rated CLT. As such,
any CLT complying with the PRC 320 standard is permitted for use in Type V construction.
4. Type I and II Construction: Type I and II are those types of construction
in which the building elements are of noncombustible materials. While untreated wood is
considered combustible, wood products are still permitted in Type I and II construction,
given that these wood products are treated with fire retardant and used in the code-specified
situations. However, during the preparation of this dissertation, there is no known commercial
production of fire retardant treated CLT; thus, Type I and II are not currently used for any
mass timber construction.
With the recent development and advancement of CLT, the wood construction is entering a
new renaissance period as increasing numbers of building owners and developers often consider mass
timber in lieu of steel and concrete in mid-rise construction because of its advantages (e.g. sustain-
ability). Since CLT panels are pre-fabricated, the accuracy and stability of the panel dimensions
allow for more rapid construction with fewer crews. The light weight nature of CLT, when compared
to precast concrete panels, results in smaller size of cranes and operational spaces needed at the job
site. Since heavy equipment is not needed, the job site is typically safer and the operational cost is
lower. Another benefit of mass timber system is sustainability as wood is considered a renewable
building material that can be replenished with a proper forest management. Wood is considered
a carbon sequester. It also takes less energy to harvest and process than steel or concrete. The
carbon sequestration nature of the wood itself along with other smart energy management systems
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implemented in a mass timber building can actually result in a net negative carbon footprint over the
life cycle of the building. The structural efficiency and resiliency are also advantages of mass timber
construction. Wood has a very high strength-to-weight ratio, which often leads to a lightweight,
strong and stiff building. The shake table test performed for a full-scale seven stories CLT building
has proven that the mass timber building is able to withstand some of the most serve earthquakes
(Ceccotti et al. 2013).
Today’s mass timber has greater structural capabilities compared to the traditional light
frame construction. The development of CLT has opened up new opportunities to use mass timber
in larger and taller wood buildings. To date, at least two studies have systematically looked into the
possibility of constructing timber skyscrapers and the type of mass timber structural systems that
is needed to make this viable. In the first study (Green and Karsh 2012), mass timber is used as the
predominant load-resisting system in the design of a twenty-story tall building. For lateral system,
a mass timber core is used with steel W sections to create a strong column weak beam design. The
steel beams with Reduced Beam Section (RBS) ensures the plastic hinge to form in the beams, rather
than the strong laminated solid wood panels and glulam columns. With the strong column weak
beam design, the risk of weak story collapse is reduced. The second study examined the conceptual
design of a 42-story CLT-concrete hybrid building in Chicago. This study is called ‘Timber Tower
Research Project’ which is carried out by the architecture and engineering firm Skidmore, Owings
and Merrill (SOM). The design utilizes mass-timber as the main structural material to minimize the
embodied carbon footprint of the building. The study also benchmarked the carbon footprint of the
wood solution to that of a concrete system. It was found that the mass timber building is able to
reduce 65% to 70% of the total carbon footprint generated by reinforce concrete or steel solutions
(Skidmore and Merrill 2013).
With the recent trend of using wood in taller and larger buildings, there is a need to
develop a pre-fabricated composite wood floor system that can span a long distance (e.g. 40 ft.
or longer). Conventional light-frame or stick-frame wood construction may not be able to sustain
the structural demand for longer spans. The presented research proposed a build-up mass timber
floor system consisting of CLT as the top and bottom flanges and glulam beams as the webs. The
design, assembly and experimental investigations of both small and full-scale composite specimens
are discussed in this chapter. The serviceability and strength of the proposed floor system were
evaluated via non-destructive and destructive tests, respectively. Note that several research projects
105
on CLT and mass timber floor systems were also initiated about the same period of this study. In
the following section, a literature review is presented on the topic of mass timber floor systems and
the motivations of this study are discussed.
6.2 Background and motivation
The current commonly used or proposed mass timber build-up floor systems can be broadly
grouped into one of the two categories, namely timber-concrete composite system or timber-only
system. When concrete is used, it provides a higher stiffness and strength than that of an all-wood
floor system. The timber-concrete composite floor also provides improved acoustical performance in
the floor system.
The first composite floor system (i.e. timber-concrete composite) usually involves the use
of shear connectors or dowel type fasteners to transfer the shear between timber and concrete to
achieve composite action. One such example is the timber-concrete composite system used in the
University of British Columbia (UBC) Earth Sciences Building. The composite floor system used in
1
the UBC building is known as the Holz Beton Verbund (HBV) system where metal mesh plates
were adhered and embedded into the CLT panels and topped with concrete (Figure 6.1). Clouston
et al. (2005) performed shear and bending tests on the HBV composite system. They found that the
timber-concrete composite floor behaved nearly as a full composite action system and ductile failures
were consistently observed in the metal mesh plate. Other than the metal mesh plate, traditional
dowel type anchorages have also been used in timber-concrete composite system. Steinberg et al.
(2003) tested the shear capacity of five types of timber anchorages topped with light weight concrete
(Figure 6.2). They concluded that the capacity and stiffness of the anchorages were able to provide
adequate shear transfer at the timber-concrete interface. Steinberg et al. (2003) also found that the
overall behavior of the composite system was mainly governed by the stiffness and strength of the
connectors.
A different example of timber-concrete floor system can be found in the Life Cycle Tower
in Durbin, Austria. For each floor slab, a layer of reinforced concrete is bonded to glulam beams,
creating a decking that performs well both thermally and acoustically. The composite floor is
supported by glulam double posts to achieve a complete vertical load path. The schematic drawing
1 Holz Beton Verbund are German words for Wood Concrete Composite.
106
(a) (b)
Figure 6.1: Timber concrete composite with mesh steel plate (Equilibrium Consulting Inc.)
Figure 6.2: Dowel type anchorage used in timber-concrete composite (Steinberg et al. 2003)
of this system can be found in Figure 6.3.
(a) (b)
Figure 6.3: Timber concrete composite system in Life Cycle Tower (Buildipedia)
107
Jacquier and Girhammar (2015) performed bending tests on all-timber or timber-only com-
posite glulam-CLT beams connected with double sided punched metal plates and inclined screw
(individually and combined). The specimen tested were 20 ft. long inverted T shaped beams (see
Figure 6.4). They observed withdraw failure of the plates at peak bending strength when only the
plates were used to connect the glulam and CLT panel. When the combination of both the punched
metal plates and inclined screw were used to connect the glulam and CLT panel, a marginal im-
proved in the peak bending strength was observed. The failures in the specimen with both punched
metal plates and inclined screws were concentrated in the glulam and CLT, indicating a satisfactory
bond at the interface.
Figure 6.4: Cross section of composite glulam-CLT beam with double sided nail nail plate and screw
connection (Jacquier and Girhammar 2015)
Similarly, Masoudnia et al. (2016) experimentally tested a 20 ft. composite T-beam com-
posed of CLT slab and LVL web. The members were connected with 48 self-tapping screws and the
test setup is shown in Figure 6.5. Their results indicated that the consideration of composite action
in the design of CLT composite beams greatly decrease the required material and cost. By forming
a composite section, the flexural stiffness of the T-beam was increased by almost 2.5 times when
compared to the same T-beam configuration but without composite action.
Theoretically, a conventional flat CLT slab with adequate thickness or plies may be used for
long span application (e.g. greater than 30 ft.). The technical design guide published by Structurlam,
a CLT producer located in the Canada, indicated that for a typical office or classroom loading, a
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Figure 6.5: CLT-LVL composite beam test setup (Masoudnia et al. 2016)
9-ply, 12.4 in. thick CLT is able to span 26 ft, with vibration controlled the design. While a thick
CLT panel can achieve the required span distance, it may not be economical to use thick solid
CLT panel. Furthermore, a thick CLT slab will increase the self-weight of the building and in turn,
increase the seismic demand of the building.
T-beams and boxed-beams have a long history in long-span applications in the buildings
and other infrastructures. For example, prestressed concrete T- beams are often used in parking
garages. The low profile of the T-beam allows sufficient vertical clearance for vehicular traffic. T-
shaped and boxed girders are also commonly seen in bridge applications, although the strength
and span demands often require a much deeper section. T-beams and boxed girders are efficient
geometric shapes. According to parallel axis theorem, the material further away from the neutral
axis has greater contribution in resisting bending whereas the material near the neutral axis has
minimum contribution in resisting bending. Thus, in pursuing of a more efficient cross section, a
more efficient T-shape or boxed girder shape can be utilized to improve the bending stiffness and
strength. In summary, a CLT slab with supporting glulam or other engineered lumber may be viable
and efficient solution in fulfilling long span requirements.
109
Unlike precast concrete T-beam, where tensile forces are mainly resisted by the prestressed
tendons, the tensile capacity of timber beams or webs is relatively low compared to steel tendons
or rebars. One popular alternative is to strengthen the structural composite lumber with fiber
reinforced polymer (FRP) and the FRP timber beam has already been successfully implemented
as bridge girders. Figure 6.6 shows several deep FRP reinforced glulam girders erected in place
during the bridge construction. However, FRP is relatively expensive and difficult to implement.
The presented research has favored the ‘all timber’ solution in the hope that the aforementioned
advantages of mass timber construction can be fully retained. Therefore, a CLT slab attached to
the bottom of the CLT-glulam T-beam (i.e. forming a boxed section) was proposed to provide
additional flexural and tensile capacity needed in long span situations. This has essentially led to
the concept of hollow-core mass timber composite beam, as shown in Figure 6.7. The proposed
hollow-core timber composite beam is analogous to the precast concrete boxed girders. The overall
thickness of the build-up members (i.e. the sum of the CLT slab thicknesses and glulam web depth)
is governed by the loading and span requirements; however, due to the limitation of lane width
during transportation, the width of the pre-assembled composite beam is limited to the dimension
of a standard semi-tractor trailer (around 93” or 7.75 wide).
Figure 6.6: Farfield bridge with FRP reinforced glulam girders (Advanced Structures & Composite
Center)
One challenge faced by this system is the need for shear transfer between the CLT and glulam
to ensure that satisfactory composite behavior is achieved. Typically, this is achieved with structural
110
Figure 6.7: Proposed concept of hollow mass timber composite beam
wood adhesive or mechanical fasteners. Both options either used individually or combined are able
to offer sufficient stiffness and composite action. However, using adhesive to attach CTL to glulam
requires one to maintain a large clamping force until the adhesive is fully cured, which may take
several hours. In addition, there is anecdotal evidence to show that, during a fire outbreak or under
an elevated temperature condition, the bonding strength of certain adhesives may deteriorate. Due
to these limitations, the proposed hollow-core composite beam system utilized mechanical connectors
(i.e. screws) to attach the CLT and glulam.
While there is an increasing demand for mass timber long span system, there is only a scant
body of knowledge existed on the behavior of composite CLT or mass timber beams, in particular,
full-scale experimental data are very limited. To address the research gaps, a series of modeling and
experimental studies were proposed and carried for the proposed CLT-glulam composite system.
The objectives of the presented study are summarized as the following:
1. To investigate the feasibility of using inclined self-tapping screws as means of
connecting build-up members via shear test of the CLT-glulam connection and to confirm the
theoretical estimation of the connection strength.
2. To design a composite floor system that is able to sustain the load of a typical
office occupancy (100 psf live load) using the best interface connector configuration determined
in via the connection test.
3. To evaluate the assembly process and provide suggestions for future research
4. To destructively test the build-up composite beam in both bending and shear and
use the test results to validate the design procedure for the composite beam.
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6.3 Self Tapping Inclined Screw and Small Scale Tests
6.3.1 Selection of web member and connection for the composite beam
The work presented in this section was built on the foundation of the past CLT research
performed at Clemson University. The concept of hollow-core mass timber beam was initially pro-
posed by Montgomery (2014). A series of experimental studies of the connection between CLT and
glulam were carried out and the results were documented in the thesis by Montgomery (2014).
The main reasons that standard flat CLT panels were selected as the top and bottom flanges
of the composite system are as follows. First, the cross lamination or layup of standard CLT panels
provides bi-directional load resistance and dimensional stability in a two-way bending behavior.
Second, the layup of the CLT flanges may be modified with custom layups that are beneficial for the
composite system, provided that the custom CLT panels meet the performance rating of the PRG-
320 standard. For example, a thicker CLT and/or better grade lumber may be used in lieu of the
recommended layups in PRG-320 to increase the load resistance. Third, the standard dimensions of
CLT panels are well within the target dimensions of the proposed pre-assembled mass timber long
span system. In a typical CLT manufacturing facility, the dimensions of the panel can be as large
as 10 ft. by 50 ft. and 12 in. thickness (Stora Enso, Structurlam, etc). Therefore, CLT panels were
selected for use as the flanges.
A wide range of engineered wood products is suitable for use as the webs of the hollow-core
composite system. The list of possibilities considered for the web includes: dimensional lumber,
I-joist, glue laminated timber (glulam), structural composite lumber (SCL), parallel strand lumber
(PSL), laminated veneer lumber (LVL), truss (include wood truss and open web truss). The selection
of an appropriate web material is a matter of selecting a product that better suits the availability,
structural, non-structural and fire requirements of the intended application of the composite beam.
Based on the target design load (100 psf), dimensional lumber and I joist were excluded
from the consideration. Preliminary calculations revealed that for a 30 ft. span with standard
loading, dimensional lumber and existing I-joists available on the marker are impractical to use due
to unreasonably tight spacing.
SCL and LSL were initially considered in this study. Compared to SCL, LSL is typically
cheaper and it provides a higher shear strength. LSL beam offers many advantages such as cost
competitiveness, the ability to be fabricated straight and long. However, LSL was not selected for the
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final design because the relatively poor screw withdraw capacities observed in the tests performed
by Closen (2013). Closen concluded that self-tapping screws had a tendency to split the LSL beam
section because, compared to solid wood, the LSL lumber is generally drier and more porous, which
are not good qualities for achieving strong mechanical connection.
Wood and open-web truss were ruled out because of fire concern and its construction in-
compatibility with self-tapping screws. The web of the trusses is very thin and the hollow portion
of the truss would allow fire to quickly spread transversely. Second reason is that the shallow top
flange (usually 2x material placed horizontally) does not have enough depth to embed the inclined
self-tapping screw.
Glue-laminated timber (glulam) was considered a good candidate as the web members used
in the composite floor system. The glulam beams have been mainly used as bending members;
however, they also provide sufficient shear resistance due to their deep sections. The dimension
requirements as a result of long span system are satisfied since the mature glulam industry is capable
of manufacturing long, deep sections with various widths. As far as the attachment method, glulam
is feasible since the flat surface and nature of deep section allows the application for both wood
structural adhesive and self-tapping screw.
In conclusion, CLT flange with glulam web, attached by self-tapping inclined screw is pro-
posed as a cost effective solution for mass timber long span system. The design example of a 40
ft. long single span composite CLT-glulam system for office occupancy is presented in section 6.4.
The determination of the member dimensions for CLT and glulam and the spacing of the screws are
discussed in the next few sections.
6.3.2 Joint with inclined screw
The preliminary analysis indicated a feasible solution of mass timber long span system
that consists of CLT flanges and glulam beam webs, connected using self-tapping inclined screw
(Montgomery 2014). However, the actual screw type and required spacing of the connection, which
ensures the proper engagement of composite action and the design procedure for the composite
system were not determined by Montgomery (2014). The stiffness and the strength of the connection
are the most important parameters that govern the overall behavior of the composite beam.
The important geometric parameters of screws are specified in Figure 6.8. In general, fully
threaded inclined screw is distinguished between lag screw and self-tapping screw. Lag screws used
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in the traditional timber design have part of the shank without threads (denoted ls in (a)), and
the lag screws often require pilot holes. In contrast, self-tapping screw do not require pilot holes.
However, it is beneficial to insert self-tapping screws into pre-drilled holes to provide a proper guide
for achieving the target angle, especially for those long and large diameters screws. Self-tapping
screws can have a portion of non-threaded shank, either near the screw head or in the mid-section of
the screw, which enables pre-tension of the screws (Figure 6.8(b)). In a timber-to-timber connection,
self-tapping screws with a non-threaded shank in the mid-section with two different thread pitches
are often used to induce clamping force into the connecting timber pieces. In order to develop the
clamping force, the contact surface will have to be lied within the segment of the non-threaded
shank. For better reinforcement purpose, fully threaded screws are used to allow for a continuous
load development and force transfer along the whole length of the screw.
Figure 6.8: Geometric parameters for different wood screws (Jockwer et al. 2014)
In the past two decades, new high strength fully threaded screws have been widely used in
many engineered wood products. There are two main advantages for using fully threaded inclined
screws. First, the continuous thread gives more grip and more efficient force transfer between the
main member and side member. Second, inclined embedment of dowel type fasteners utilize com-
bined tension/compression and shear capacity that greatly increase the stiffness and load carrying
capacity of the joint compared to fasteners installed without an angle (Pirinen et al. 2014). Inclined
screws with diameter up to 1/2 in. and length up to 2 ft. are commonly available in the market.
The availability of self-tapping screws with continuous threads, characterized by high withdraw ca-
pacity, has led to the opportunity to conceive new engineered configuration and geometries for wood
structures using connection endowed with higher values of stiffness and load-carrying capacity. In
summary, in an inclined screw, the load transfer mechanism involves not only the bending capac-
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ity of the screw and the embedment strength of the wood, but also the withdraw capacity of the
fasteners as well as the friction between the timber members.
The force interaction of the inclined screw in the shear connection can be explained using a
simplified strut-and-tie model (Figure 6.9). The connection force in the inclined screw is transferred
as shear and tension. The tension component works as tie (blue), while wood works as compression
strut (red), which creates friction force (yellow) between the members, increasing the stiffness and
load carrying capacity of the connection. Over the years, different models have been proposed by
many authors and code councils to predict the capacity of inclined screws. European standards (EN
1995) suggested the use of a quadratic combination formula of to combine the screw shear and axial
strengths for the definition of to determine the load carrying capacity or reference design load. Note
that this analytical equation is only in the loading condition given the for screws simultaneously
subjected to shear and axial stress load, as which in is the case of the inclined screw.
Figure 6.9: Force interaction in a inclined screw connection
According to CEN (European Committee for Standardization), the inclined screw strength
can be estimated using the quadratic shear and axial strengths interaction equation in EC5 (EN
1995), commonly known as the European code:
Fax.Ed 2 Fv.Ed 2
( ) +( ) ≤1 (6.1)
Fax.Rd Fv.Rd
where Fax.Ed is the design axial force, Fax.Rd is the axial strength, Fv.Ed is the design lateral force
(in the shear plane), Fv.Rd is the shear strength. The design axial strength values are calculated
115
on the basis of the material coefficient γm and the modification factor Kmod . The shear strength is
defined using the Johansen Model for timber-to-timber joints. However, over the years, this formula
has been shown to grossly underestimate the ultimate strength of inclined screws (Tomasi et al.
2006), making it inappropriate for designing the inclined screw connections.
To this end, the work carried out by Blass and Bejtka is of fundamental importance. Those
two authors have set forth a theoretical analytical model for inclined screws subject to combined
shear and tension forces (Blass and Bejtka 2001; Bejtka and Blass 2002). Based on the Blass and
Bejtka’s model and Eurocode 5 quadratic equation formula, a general model has been developed
for the calculation of strength and stiffness of the geometry configurations depicted in Figure 6.10.
The model can be used to estimate the capacities of the inclined screws in shear-compression joint
(Figure 6.10 left), shear-tension joint (Figure 6.10 middle), and crossed joint (Figure 6.10 right).
Based on the work of Kevarinmäki (2002), on the deformability and joint ductility, a specific model
for the calculation of stiffness for inclined screws has been developed. It allows the evaluation of the
instantaneous slip modules Kser for various inclined angles.
Figure 6.10: Common timber connection joints. Left to right: shear tension, shear compression and
crossed joint
Bejtka and Blass (2002) extended the Johansen’s yield theory (also known as the European
yield models) (Johnsen 1949) and incorporated several additional parameters in the model such as
withdraw capacity of the screw, force direction, friction resistance between members, etc. They
investigated three failure modes for single- and double-shear connections considering the bending
capacity of the fasteners. For instance, in failure mode 3, where two plastic hinges are formed,
solving the equations of equilibrium for the main and side members yields the load carrying capacity
of the joint (Figure 6.11). However, this method have very limited application since it relies on the
withdraw test values, which are not readily available for different wood species, types of screws and
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inclined angles.
Figure 6.11: Forces and stresses for European Yield Mode 3 for a inclined screw connection (Bejtka
and Blass 2002)
Based on the work of Bejtka and Blass, Jockwer et al. (2014) developed a simple model
to estimate the load carrying capacity of the inclined screw. The resistant of the connection when
loaded in an angle α to the grain direction can be calculated from the resistances in axial (Rax ) and
in lateral (Rv ) direction of the screw:
R0 = Rax (µsin(α) + cos(α)) + Rv (sin(α) − µcos(α)) (6.2)
where µ is the friction coefficient between two contact surfaces. The axial lateral strength of the
screw can be obtained using Eq. (6.3) and (6.4):
W
Rax = (6.3)
1.2cos2 α + sin2 α
p
Rv = 2My fh def (6.4)
where My is the screw yield moment, fh is the dowel bearing strength, def is the effective diameter,
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W is the withdraw capacity of the screw. During the joint behavior shear and pulling test, it was
found that (1) density of the timber and inclined angle α are the parameters with the most influences
on the stiffness and strength of the joint; (2) fully threaded screw shows highest strength and stiffness
properties.
In Finland, Kevarinmäki (2002) developed an equation to estimate the capacities for both
crossed joint and shear-tension joint. The type of screw is selected based on the anticipated force
demand of the joint. For example, for the sheathing nail in a shear wall, crossed joint is desired
since it is more resistant to reverse cyclic load. On the other hand, shear-tension joint is often
used for composite beams under sustained gravity load and shear connection where the direction
of the force remains unchanged during the lifetime of the structure. Kevarinmäki (2002) conducted
145 inclined screw joint tests, including both shear-tension and crossed joints. Based on the tested
strength values and failure modes, Kevarinmäki (2002) proposed an equation that can predict the
mean withdrawal strength of the shear capacity of the joint. Since the loading on a floor system
under gravity load is uni-direction and it does not involve reversed cyclic loading, the shear-tension
screw joint is used in the proposed CLT-glulam composite beam. The capacity of the crossed joint
is slightly more complex to calculate and it is not discussed here. Interested readers are encouraged
to refer to Kevarinmäki (2002). For the shear-tension screw joint, shear capacity can be calculated
as:
In Finland, Kevarinmäki (2002) developed the capacity estimations for both crossed joint
and shear tension joint. The type of screw is selected based in the nature of the anticipated force
introduced to the system. For example, when assemble wall panels, cross joint is desired since it
is more resistant to reverse cyclic load. On the other hand, shear tension joint is often used when
assemble bending and shear element where direction of the force remains unchanged during lifetime
of the structure. Based on this argument, he conducted 145 inclined screw joint tests, including
both shear tension and cross joints. Based on the tested strength values and failure modes, he
proposed the mean withdraw strength equation that can be used to predict the shear capacity of
the joint. Since the loading on a floor system is uni-directional and does not involve reverse cyclic
load, the shear tension screw joint is used in the presented study. The capacity of the cross joint
is slightly more complex to calculate and is not covered here, interested readers are encouraged to
refer to Kevarinmäki (2002) if relevant information is needed. For a shear tension screw joint, shear
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capacity can be calculated as:
Rd = nRT,d (cos(α) + µsin(α)) (6.5)
where n is the number of screws in a joint, RT,d is the screw withdrawal capacity, α is the inclined
angle, and µ is the kinetic friction coefficient between two contacting members. The screw withdrawal
capacity depends on the withdrawal strength in the main and side members, tension capacity of the
screw and pull through strength of the screw head. The minimum strength of these three failure
modes (i.e. withdrawal, screw tension failure and pull through) is used for RT,d :

fa,1,d πds1 + fhead d2h ,







RT,d = fa,2,d πd(s2 − d), (6.6)





Fu.d

where d is the outer diameter of the thread (nominal size), s1 is the length in member 1 towards the
screw head (side member), s2 is the length in member 2 towards the screw tip (main member), Fu.d
is the screw tension capacity, fa,1,d is the withdrawal capacity in member i, dh is the head diameter,
fhead is the pull through strength of the screw head. These parameters are usually available from
the manufacturer’s product information sheet.
The validity of the method proposed by Kevarinmäki (2002) has been tested by many
researchers, including Prat-Vincent et al. (2010); Angeli et al. (2010); Tomasi et al. (2010). The
inclined screw test results led to the following conclusions:
1. The increase of screw inclination provides an increasing of the resistance and
stiffness of the joints
2. The mechanical behavior of screws subjected to shear-compression is relatively
complex. The test results of shear-compression joints showed that the shear-compression joint
is less efficient.
3. The experimental studies confirmed that the connection resistance can be pre-
dicted using both Blass & Bejtka and Kevarinmäki’s formulations.
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6.3.3 Selection of self-tapping inclined screws and theoretical strength
predictions
With the previous section discusses the behaviors of different inclined screw joints and
the determination of a suitable configuration for composite beams under gravity load, namely, the
shear-tension joint, this section discusses the determination of the inclined angle used in this study.
The experimental studies conducted by Prat-Vincent et al. (2010), Angeli et al. (2010) and
Tomasi et al. (2010) have discovered that increase in the screw inclination angle provides an increase
in the resistance and stiffness of the joint. This finding was also observed in the inclined screw joint
tests performed at Clemson University. Montgomery (2014) tested the shear-tension CLT-to-glulam
joint with different combinations of screw diameter, length and inclined angle. The four screws used
in his study are shown in Figure 6.12:
Figure 6.12: ASSY and SFS Intec screws studied in Montgomery (2014)
• The top screw shown in Figure 6.12 is the ASSY SK2 screw. It was used in Montgomery (2014)
to clamp the glue bond during adhesive curing. It has a wide head with threads in the main
member and shank in the side member to improve clamping pressure.
• The second screw from the top of Figure 6.12 is the ASSY VG Cylindrical screw that is 5/16
in. in diameter and 11 3/4 in. in length.
• The third screw from the top of Figure 6.12 is the same ASSY VG Cylindrical screw but
significantly larger, with 3/8 in. in diameter and 15 3/4 in. in length.
• The fourth screw is an SFS Intec WT-T3 that is 5/16 in. in diameter and 11-13/16 in. in
length.
2 ASSY is the name for a family of screws with asymmetrical thread produced by SWG (Schraubenwerk Gaisbach
GmbH). http://www.swg-produktion.de/en/produktion/products/assy.html
3 WT-T is a double-threaded lag bolt system developed and manufactured by SFS Intec Switzerland.
https://sfsintec.biz
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For a pure mechanically fastened joint with inclined screws, Montgomery (2014) investigated
six configurations with inclined angles at 30◦ , 45◦ and 90◦ . For each configuration, three tests were
performed. The failure loads averaged for three tests are summarized in Table 6.1. All six tests
were performed using a 2 ft. long CLT-glulam joint specimen that consisted of 3-ply Southern Pine
CLT flanges and a single glulam web. Two screws spaced at 6 in. on center were installed at each
flange-web interface for all test configurations, except for Test 2, where the number of screws was
doubled to investigate the group effect. The typical specimen geometry and inclined screw test setup
are shown in Figure 6.13.
Table 6.1: Shear Test Results Montgomery (2014)

Test Number Test Description Averaged Peak Load (kip)
1 Small ASSY screw 45◦ 20.01
2 Small ASSY screw 45◦ (group study) 40.36
3 Large ASSY screw 30◦ 35.91
4 SFS Intec screw 45◦ 23.03
Figure 6.13: Specimen for inclined screw joint Test 3 (Montgomery 2014)
Comparing the strength and stiffness values published in Montgomery (2014) indicates that
a larger diameter ASSY VG screw installed at 30◦ provides a desirable performance in terms of
balancing between ultimate capacity and stiffness. The results of a cost-benefit analysis also favored
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the larger ASSY VG screw since it costs less per kip of shear capacity provided. Therefore, the 3/8
in. diameter ASSY VG cylindrical screw, installed at 30◦ angle was selected to connect the flanges
(CLT panels) to the web (glulam). The packaging/label of the ASSY VG screw, a sample screw and
the bit are shown in Figure Figure 6.14.
Figure 6.14: ASSY VG Cylindrical 3/8 in. screw
A preliminary estimation of the capacity of the selected inclined screw joint configuration
(ASSY VG screw at 30◦ angle) was carried out based on the information obtained from the literature
review. Once the theoretical values were obtained, two shear tests of the screw joint were conducted
to verify the theoretical predictions. Consider a shear-tension joint consisted of 3-ply Southern Pine
V3 CLT and in-house manufactured No.2 glulam connected by 3/8 in. ASSY VG inclined screw
installed at 30◦ . The theoretical joint capacity can be calculated using Eq. (6.2) to Eq. (6.6).
The method proposed by Jockwer et al. (2014) and Kevarinmäki (2002) were used to compute the
ultimate strength of the screw joint. The calculations are presented in Appendix B. Both methods
yielded close estimations for strength level capacity per screw, one at 10.6 kip and the other at 11.4
kip.
6.3.4 Small scale inclined screw joint test
The dimensions for the inclined screw joint test specimen are shown in Figure 6.15. The
3-ply Southern Pine CLT flanges and glulam webs were manufactured at Clemson using pilot-scale
press (Newman HP-188) with a 4 ft. x 4 ft. platen. In order to test the inclined screw in shear, a
force generated by actuator was applied to the top of the glulam offset while letting the bottom of
the two CLT flanges reacting against a strong floor (see Figure 6.18). This causes the applied load
122
to be evenly resisted by each side of the CLT-glulam connection. Two nominally identical static
shear tests were performed for the ASSY VG screws with each specimen contained four screws, two
on each side at a 6 in. on center spacing. This symmetrical two-sided test setup with two screws at
each interface eliminated eccentric load and moment from the specimen.
Figure 6.15: Specimen dimensions for the inclined screw joint shear test
The specimen assembly started with drilling pilot holes for the CLT flanges. For pilot
drillings, 7/32 in. is the diameter recommended by My-ti-con4 for softwood species (Closen 2015).
However, due to market availability, a slightly larger 1/4 in. diameter 12 in. long drill bit was
purchase for the job. A ZL WT-U mode angle guide was set at 30◦ of inclination and the drill
bit passed through all CLT layers (Figure 6.16). Note that the two darker metal inserts in Figure
6.16(a) were milled and hardened in the in-house machine shop at Clemson for guiding the 1/4 in.
diameter drill bit. An angle guide with a larger diameter hole could cause wobbling of the bit tip
and even breaking of the screw. Once the pilot holes were drilled, the unattached CLT and glulam
beams were fastened with temporary pipe clamps to facilitate the screw installation. Figure 6.17
shows a Milwaukee hammer drill driving in the long inclined screw. However, this low speed high
torque hammer drill was not able to drive in the screws completely; for a few last turns, a ratchet
4 My-ti-con is the distributor of ASSY screws in the North America
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with long extension had to be used to fully embed the screw head.
(a) Angle guide (b) Pilot drilling
Figure 6.16: Drilling pilot holes using an angle guide
Figure 6.17: Inclined screw installation with hammer drill
A self reacting frame with strong floor was used to apply the load and provide reactions. At
bottom of the specimen, a thin sheet metal with two square tubing welded at two ends restrained
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the CLT flanges. In fact, CLT flanges had a tendency to spread outward and split the glulam web
when under load, the restraints helped concentrate all applied forces on the screw joints. An MTS
actuator with 150 kip capacity was used to apply the load on the glulam web, with a displacement
controlled procedure at a rate of 0.1 in./min. This loading rate was used for mechanical connections
based upon the requirement of ASTM D1761 (Mechanical Fasteners in Wood ). Two LVDTs were
mounted on one side of the web member and reported displacement was the average of these two
readings. Figure 6.18 shows the setup for the small-scale shear test.
Figure 6.18: Test setup for small scale shear test
The load-displacement results for two small-scale static shear tests is shown in Figure 6.19.
It is observed from the figure that two shear test curves showed almost identical stiffness and the
first yield a slightly higher ultimate capacity at 34.75 kip whereas the second one 32.55 kip. The
averaged strength 33.65 kip was close to the value (35.91 kip) reported in Montgomery (2014). The
strength and stiffness values are important design parameters to ensure the composite behavior of
the build-up section, therefore they are discussed here. In comparison of the strength values, it
was found that both theoretical predictions overestimate the screws ultimate capacity (8.4 kip from
test, 10.6 kip from Jockwer et al. (2014) and 11.5 kip from Kevarinmäki (2002)). Apparently, using
theoretical predictions will result a inadequate design, therefore the tested ultimate capacity was
used in the next section when determine the spacing for the screws. In addition to the ultimate
125
capacity, the stiffness values were also extracted from the shear test. Due to the nonlinear response
of the inclined screw joint, the stiffness were categorized based on their displacement regions: initial
stiffness with displacement less than 0.06 in.; linear stiffness with displacement between 0.06 in. and
0.25 in.; and secant stiffness covers the displacement up to failure. These values are tabulated in
Table 6.2.
Figure 6.19: Results for two static shear tests
Table 6.2: Inclined screw stiffness values
Items Stiffness per screw

00
Static initial (< 0.06 ) 13.33 kip/in
Static linear (0.0600 ∼ 0.2500 ) 31.47 kip/in
Static secant 24.33 kip/in
The failure of the two shear tests were consistent: one side of the two screw sheared off at
the connection interface, see Figure 6.20. However, this may not be the true failure mode since the
experimental setup did not allow any separation of the connecting members, only limited sliding. If
the long composite beam were to be subject to uniformly distributed load, the curvature resulted
from deflection and the failure of the screws will cause separation of the members. It is highly likely
that the inclined screw joint will show a more ductile behavior than what is tested in the smalls
scale shear test.
126
Figure 6.20: Screws sheared off in a inclined screw joint
6.4 Design and Assembly of CLT-Glulam Composite Beam
6.4.1 Determination of beam size and design parameters
The objective of this section is to estimate the size of the long span composite beam and its
desired loading. The actual member size and screw spacing are determined in the design presented
in the next section.
The geometry of the design composite beam was largely constrained by the size of the
existing testing facility and size of CLT that can be delivered by semi-tractor trailer. The strong
floor at the Clemsons Wind and Structural Engineering Research Facility was utilized to test the
inclined screw joint. The height of the testing bay is adjustable by relocating the two cross beams
that hold the MTS actuator (Figure 6.18). The 5 ft. by 40 ft. CLT panels were produced by
Structurlam, a CLT manufacturer located in Penticton Canada. The glulam beams (24F-V4-1.7E)
were produced by Anthony Forest Products (Washington, GA). The decision was made at this point
to set the overall geometry of the composite beam at 5 by 40 ft., the beam depth was then determined
based on the loading demand. At this size, both CLT and glulam can be easily transported by a
standard flat-bed trailer.
One of the most common commercial occupancies, Office, was selected as the target design.
For dead load, ASCE 7-10 requires an itemized list to estimate the total dead load. However, a
moderate 20 psf dead load was assumed. For live load, ASCE Chapter 4 provides a minimum
uniformly distributed live load table for all intended occupancies. For office buildings, lobbies and
first floor corridor are designed with the largest live load demand, at 100 psf, followed by corridor
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above first floor (80 psf) and regular office space (50 psf). The most severe demand of 100 psf live
load was used to design the CLT-glulam composite beam.
6.4.2 Design of the long span composite beam for office occupancy
As the same for design of all structural elements, the design of long-span mass timber
composite beam includes strength limit state and serviceability limit states. The strength limit state
for a floor beam usually includes bending and shear capacity checks. In general, the serviceability
limit states usually govern the design for long span systems, and this is certainly the case for wood.
Serviceability limit states normally include the maximum deflection limits for total load (live +
dead), live load only and long-term load. In fact, it has been shown that the deflection limits alone
may not be enough to design a satisfactory floor system. This is not the only case for wood, but
are generally true for all construction materials such as concrete and steel. Long-span system, in
particular, are prone to vibration from normal machinery and human footstep loadings.
Of course, there are many other important serviceability requirements that worth careful
considerations. Acoustical performance is one of them, which deals with the isolation of airborne
and structure-borne sound. A good acoustical design can greatly improve the comfort level of
the occupants. For example, acoustic performance may affect the employee productivity in office
settings, performance quality in auditoriums, and the market value of apartments, condominiums
and single-family homes. Each occupancy type may have a different comfort level threshold. Unlike
the strength level design, the acceptance criteria of acoustic is subjective; thus, acoustic design has
its own challenges. Another key aspect, which is unique to CLT or other mass timber construction, is
the building enclosure design. Building enclosure design has important implications for the energy
performance and durability of the structure as well as indoor air quality and occupant comfort.
Design considerations for building envelope include water intrusion, control of heat flow, air flow
and moisture flow. The satisfaction of these serviceability requirements is equally important, if not
less important than the safety or strength level designs. However, only the basic structural design
along with deflection checks was performed in this study. Vibration serviceability was addressed
separately in Chapter 7. It is recommended that future research to look into other aspects of the
mass timber serviceability designs.
After a few iterations of trial and error, the cross section of the composite beam was de-
termined based on material availability, structural capacity as well as serviceability deflections, see
128
Figure 6.21. Conventional 3-ply layup for Southern Pine CLT was selected for flange members, with
the lumber of the outer two longitudinal layers of the CLT parallel to the span direction; whereas the
webs are 24F-V4-1.7E glulam beams with stock width 3.125 in. and height 11 in. The designation
of the glulam beam indicates the following stress class and design values: 2400 psi allowable bending
stress, 1.7 · 106 psi modulus of elasticity, ‘V’ stands for visually graded lumbers and 4 is the layup
combination number.
Figure 6.21: Cross section for the CLT-Glulam composite beam
In the following sections, in addition to the determination of inclined screw spacing, the
designs for strength and serviceability limits states are presented. While the calculations are per-
formed assuming full composite action, the actual performance of the long-span composite beam
was examined later during the full-scale destructive test.
Check for bending and vertical shear assuming full composite action Section
properties of the composite beam were calculated based on the equivalent width method, analogous
to the transformed section method of reinforced concrete T-beam design, proposed by Okabe et al.
(2014) where the width of the cross layers are taken as 1/30 of the longitudinal layers. This ratio
is based on the proposed E0 /E90 value in the PRG-320. The MOE value for the longitudinal layers
of CLT with No.2 SYP lumber was taken as 1400 ksi (NDS), whereas the 1700 ksi was used for the
glulam beams. The calculated section properties are summarized in Table 6.3. More details for the
section property calculations and limit state checks may be found in Appendix C.
Note the first moment of area (Q) is calculate at the CLT-glulam interface with the neutral axis
coincides the section centroid. To calculate the LRFD moment and shear carrying capacities, the
129
Table 6.3: Section properties of the composite beam (assume full composite)
Section Property Value

I (moment of inertia) 2.056 · 104 in4
S (section modulus) 2.136 · 103 in3
EI (flexural stiffness) 2.899 · 107 kip · in2
A (area) 3.915 f t2
Q (first moment of area) 1.269 · 103 in3
following two equations were used:
MCapacity = λ φb KF b fb S (6.7)
2
VCapacity = λ φv KF v Fv d twebs (6.8)
3
where K, λ and φ are adjustment factors that can be found in NDS, fb is the allowable bending
stress for SP No.2 lumber, d is the overall depth of the cross section.
On the demand side, the factored shear and moment demand were computed by assuming
uniformly distributed load on a simply supported beam:
Wu L2
MDemand = (6.9)
8
L
VDemand = Wu (6.10)
2
The calculated demands and capacities are tabulated in Table 6.4. It is seen that the beam
has satisfactory capacity in bending and vertical shear.
Table 6.4: Bending and shear capacities of the composite beam
Bending (kip · f t) Bending with FJ (kip · f t) Shear (kip)

LRFD Demand 206.2 206.2 21.1
LRFD Capacity 322.8 224.7 24.3
Note that the contribution of CLT flanges to shear strength was ignored as other studies
have shown that the flanges of I- or T-beams have little influence on the overall shear strength.
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Observation of Table 6.4 indicates that the member sizes selected for the beam are adequate under
the full composite assumption. However, to fully engage the build-up members for composite action,
appropriate spacing for the self-tapping inclined screws must be determined for horizontal shear
transfer.
Check for deflection assuming full composite action Since the long-span composite
beam is used as a bending member, the expected deflections under the design loads (i.e. without load
factors) should be computed and checked against the serviceability limit states to ensure satisfactory
service conditions. The live load only deflection along with a long-term (creep) deflection were
checked, their limits were taken as ∆LL < L/360 and ∆Long < L/240, respectively. The formula for
calculating long-term deflection is provided in the NDS:
∆T = Kcr ∆LT + ∆ST (6.11)
where ∆T is the total deflection, Kcr is the time dependent deformation factor (taken as 1.5 for
CLT), ∆LT is the immediate deflection due to the long-term component of the design load (typically
dead load or a part of the dead load) and ∆ST is the short-term or normal component of the design
load (typically the live load only). The deflections were calculated at mid-span for a uniformly
loaded beam:
5wL4
∆= (6.12)
384 EI
Table 6.5 summarized the calculated deflections and their respective limits. Under the full
composite assumption, the deflections are all under the limits.
Table 6.5: Live load and long term deflections
Deflection (in) Deflection Limit (in)

Live load 0.90 1.30
Long Term 1.54 1.95
Spacing of the inclined screws and horizontal shear Spacing of the inclined screws
and horizontal shear The horizontal (interface) shear demand is was determined using the equation
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of shear flow and assumesassuming full composite action of the section:
V (x)Q
τ= (6.13)
It
where V (x) is the shear demand at location x along the beam, Q is the second moment of area at
the connection interface, I is the moment of inertia and t is the beam width at the interface (taken
as 6.25 in. the width of two glulam beams). For a uniformly loaded and simply supported beam, the
shear demand is maximum at the supports and decreases linearly as the distance from the support
increases. Apparently, the spacing of the inclined screws depends on the magnitude of the shear
force. Under the demand of uniformly distributed load, the screws have minimum spacing at the
support and maximum spacing at mid-span.
On the resistance side, due to the lack of established allowable design values and appropriate
adjustment factors for self-tapping inclined screws, the tested ultimate strength of the inclined screw
was taken as the factored LRFD design value. For proper reliability calibration of the connection,
large number of screw shear tests have to be performed. In this study, φ factor was assumed to be
1.0. Inverting Eq. (6.13) and cancel out the interface width term t, the maximum spacing allowed
to transfer the vertical shear V (x) can be written as:
V (x)Q φR
≤ (6.14)
It t spacing(x)
φRI
spacing(x) ≤ (6.15)
V (x)Q
where R is the LRFD resistant for a single screw.
Figure 6.22 shows the maximum allowable spacing of the screws as a function of distance
from the support. Also shown in the figure are the spacings selected for the composite beam. The
adequacy of the horizontal shear design is achieved if the provided spacing falls under the maximum
spacing envelope. For design purpose, three spacings were used for three sections of the beam:

400 o.c., 00 < x ≤ 50






Spacing(x) = 600 o.c., 50 < x ≤ 130 (6.16)




1000 o.c., 130 < x ≤ 19.50


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Note Eq. (6.16) only shows the spacing for half of the span. Since both the beam geometry and
loading are symmetrical, the placement of the inclined screws is also symmetrical.
Figure 6.22: Maximum screw spacing envelop
6.5 Assembling of the Composite Beam
The previous sections determined the dimensions for CLT and glulam as well as the screw
spacings needed to transfer the horizontal shear. This section covers the assembling process from
beam delivery all the way to the finished specimen. As an old saying goes, ‘a picture is worth a
thousand words’, thus many of the information related to assembling process are conveyed graphically
in this section.
First, a shop drawing that specifies the spacing and orientation of the inclined screws was
prepared to facilitate the assembling process as well as the drilling of pilot holes for the inclined
screws. In section 6.3.2, it has been discussed that the shear tension joint is the most efficient
and easy to design type of timber-to-timber connection. Its improved strength and stiffness come
from the combined utilization of shear and tension strengths of the screws. The easiest way to
configure the inclined screw profile is to consider the beam deflection shape assuming no composite
action. If the CLT and glulam were stacked together without any adhesive or mechanical fasteners,
each layer would deflect and bend with respect to its own neutral axis under bending load. In this
circumstance, the stress state at the joint will be tension above the interface and compression below
the interface. Thus creating a potential for relative movement. The purpose for inclined screw is to
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prevent relative movement at the interface of members. Figure 6.23 shows the deflection shape of
a non-composite section with the tension and compression side labeled at the connection interface.
Take the top left corner of the beam as an example. The compression side of the glulam web has
a tendency to move towards the mid-span while the tension side of the CLT to move towards the
beam end. Therefore, orienting the screw with its tip pointing towards the mid-span subjects the
fastener in combined shear and tension. Note that for those screws connecting the bottom CLT to
the glulam, the screw tip should be oriented towards the beam end. A shop drawing containing the
spacing and orientation of the inclined screws was produced and it is shown in Figure 6.24 for half
of the span (the other half is mirrored).
Figure 6.23: Exaggerated deflection shape for a non-composite beam
The 3-ply Southern Pine CLT and 24F-V4 glulam beams were delivered separately by flatbed
trailers. Figure 6.25 shows the unloading of a package of four CLT panels using an overhead crane
and spreader beam. These materials were stored under a shed and covered with vinyl tarp prior to
the assembly of the composite beam specimen.
To begin the assembling process of the composite section, two glulam beams were placed
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Figure 6.24: Shop drawing for inclined screw
on top of the two CLT panels. The top CLT panel shown in Figure 6.26(a) was used as the bottom
flange. The pilot holes were first drilled for the bottom CLT flange. Next, the two glulam beams were
oriented vertically and temporarily secured to the bottom CLT flange with angle brackets (Figure
6.27(a)). The top assembly (glulams and bottom CLT flange in an inverted position) was then lifted
away leaving the unattached top CLT flange in place (Figure 6.27(b)). Finally, two fork lifts were
135
Figure 6.25: CLT unloading from a flatbed trailer
used to lift the top CLT flange and the temporary glulams and bottom CLT flange assembly was
rolled underneath the top CLT flange (see Figure 6.28). At this point, the CLT flanges and glulam
beams were all in position, pending the installation of inclined screws.
(a) Placement of the build-up members (b) Bottom flange pilot drilling
Figure 6.26: Placement of the material for bottom flange pilot drilling
The drilling of pilot holes was also performed on the top CLT flange. With the beam
temporarily secured on saw horses, a total of 168 screws were installed from top and bottom of
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(a) Temporary erection of glulam beams (b) Top assembly lifted away
Figure 6.27: Temporary erection of glulam beams and lifeted away top assembly
Figure 6.28: CLT panel topping the temporary assembly
the assembly, see Figure 6.29. Recall in the small-scale shear test of the inclined screw, an impact
hammer drill was used and it lacked torque to drive the screws completely in. For the full-scale
specimen, a Milwaukee 18V cordless impact drill rated at 700 lb · f t of torque was sourced and used
during the assembly process (Figure 6.30(a)). The impact motion of the drill allows the screws to
be easily driven into the CLT and glulam. One disadvantage of the cordless impact drill is its harsh
noise during operation, therefore ear protection was worn at all times. During the screw installation,
the inclined angle was constantly checked with a protractor angle finder(Figure 6.30(b)).
Once the assembly of the composite section was completed, the end of each side of the
beam was sandwiched in between a steel W18 wide flange beam and 2x6 lumber to simulate the
bearing contact of CLT wall above the composite beam (Figure 6.31.). The W8 above the lumber
was connected to the W18 through threaded rods and the W18 wide flanges were bolted down to
137
the strong floor. This support condition resulted in a center-to-center span of 39 ft. with 6 inches
of overhang on each side of the beam (see Figure 6.31.).
(a) Install from above (b) Install from below
Figure 6.29: Installation of inclined screw on the composite beam
(a) Cordless impact drill (b) Angle finder
Figure 6.30: Tools used in inclined screw installation
6.6 Full Scale Destructive Tests of CLT-Glulam Composite
Beam
In the section 6.4.2, full composite action was assumed for the design of the composite beam.
To evaluate the composite action and the actual bending performance of the composite beam, a series
of non-destructive and destructive tests were conducted to examine the following parameters:
138
Figure 6.31: Support of the long span composite beam
• Linear apparent stiffness;
• Service level deflections;
• Interface slips;
• Ultimate capacity and failure mode.
6.6.1 Test setup and sensor installation
Test Setup The setup and sensors selected for the test are mainly driven by the intended
purposes, namely, for determining the stiffness, deflections or ultimate strengths for flexure and
shear. A third-point test and a three-point test were used for flexure and shear tests, respectively.
The third-point bending test is typically used for the investigation of bending properties of wood
members, such as ASTM (2013) and ?, since a well-defined constant moment region is desired when
determining the ultimate capacity and failure modes for flexure.
String Potentiometer To track the differential movement between the flanges and webs,
eight string potentiometers were attached to the composite beam, four on each side (Figure 6.32).
These eight string pots occupied only half span. It was assumed that the beam would deform
symmetrically under load; hence, only half of the span was monitored. On each side of the beam,
(1) two spring pots were mounted on the top wide surface of the glulam to measure the slip between
top flange and web, and (2) two spring pots were mounted to the bottom of the glulam to measure
the slip between bottom flange and web. Note that two string pots (top and bottom of the glulam)
were installed in Zone I of the beam and two spring pots in Zone II (see Figure 6.32 left). Zones I
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and II correspond to regions where the screws were spaced at 4 in. o.c. and 6 in. o.c., respectively.
For tracking the vertical deflection of the beam, a long stroke string pot was utilized to monitor
vertical displacement at the bottom center of the specimen.
Figure 6.32: Attachment of string potentiometers on the composite beam
Data Acquisition System The complete data acquisition (DAQ) contains two stand-
alone systems: MTS Flextest software suite that controls and records the movement of the hydraulic
actuator and three USB-1208FS units from Micros Measurements that records the string pots. The
string pots were operated with a constant 15V power supply and the string pots output signals
(0-10V) were recorded by two USB-1208FS devices. A third USB-1208FS device was used to send
custom voltage signal (0-5V) to the MTS systems for the purpose of data synchronization.
Figure 6.33: USB-1208FS Data acquisition aystem
140
6.6.2 Bending test–1
With the experimental setup and data acquisition system ready, the first bending test ap-
plied a third-point loading. The loading beam was fabricated with a 20 ft. long W18 with two
8x8x0.5 HSS oriented perpendicular to the W18 and welded to the bottom of the W18 section as
the loading points (Figure 6.34). The two HSS loading bars were spaced at 1/3 of the span: 13.3 ft.
Figure 6.34: Third-point bending setup
A general loading procedure for bending as well the shear test performed later was separated
into two steps. First, the load controlled procedure (500 lbf/min) was utilized to evaluate perfor-
mances of the composite beam under dead load only, service load and factored ultimate load. No
failure shall be observed during the load controlled procedure if the beam was designed adequately.
Following the load controlled procedure, the displacement controlled procedure (0.25 in./min) was
then utilized to determine the ultimate strengths (flexure and shear). For destructive test, the dis-
placement controlled procedure is a safer procedure to operate because a sudden loss of strength in
the test specimen would not cause abrupt actuator cylinder movement. In contrast, the force con-
trolled procedure could result in a sudden and large movement of the actuator if a brittle failure was
to occur. For the safety of the experimental study, two levels of displacement-triggered interlocks
and one force-triggered interlock (at 120 kip) were configured in the MTS Flextest software to avoid
unexpected and excessive movement of the actuator.
Load controlled procedure Figure 6.35 shows the moment and shear diagrams of a
fixed-fixed beam subject to uniformly distributed loading (a) and third point loading (b). The load
increments (in terms of 2P) in the load controlled procedure were determined such that the moment
PL
within the constant moment region in the third point loaded beam 9 equals to that of uniformly
141
W L2
loaded beam in the mid-span 12 . Table 6.6 shows the five target applied loads (actuator forces)
determined based on the design dead load (20 psf) and live load (100 psf) for bending or flexture
test. The moments shown in Table 6.6 contains dead load only, service load, factored load and two
additional increments in between. For each load level, the actuator load was ramp from zero to the
target load. Upon reaching the target load, the load was held for 120s to examine and document any
failure mechanisms that occurred. The load was then release to zero and the process was repeated
for the next load level.
Figure 6.35: Moment and shear diagrams for bending test 1
Table 6.6: Mid-span deflection and stiffness of the 1st bending test
Load Deflection Secant Stiffness Moment Note

(kip) (in) (kip/in) (kip · f t.∗ )
6 0.29 15.00 13.0 Dead Load Only
12 0.72 14.76 26.0 --
24 1.67 13.57 52.0 --
36 2.60 13.76 78.0 Service Load
54 4.02 13.68 117.0 Factored Load
76 5.90 13.33 164.7 Displacement Controlled
*The moment is calculated based on fixed-fixed B.C.
Displacement controlled procedure Followed by the load controlled procedure, a dis-
placement controlled procedure was applied to the specimen to bring it to the strength limit. During
the displacement controlled procedure, the actuator traveled at a constant rate of 0.25 in./min and
this rate was used in the subsequent displacement controlled procedure. The test setup remained
the same, and the mid-span deflection and interface slips were monitored through the same string
142
pots.
Figure 6.36 shows the load versus mid-span displacement curve obtained from the bending
test. Note that the mid-span displacement was obtained from the string pot installed underneath
the specimen rather than the MTS actuator internal LVDT reading. In fact, under a third-point
loading setup, the mid-span deflection is expected to be slightly larger than that of the MTS LVDT,
due in part to bearing deformation of the CLT at the supports. Since the use of actuator LVDT
may not be suitable since it does not measure the true deflection of the beam, the deflection and
secant stiffness tabulated in Table 6.6 were all computed from mid-span string pot readings.
Figure 6.36: Load displacement curve for the 1st bending test
Observations in bending test–1 During the displacement controlled test, the W18 wide
flange loading beam experienced top flange local buckling near the connection between the steel beam
and the actuator, although steel was stiffened at all loading points. The test was terminated at 76
kip (Figure 6.36 dotted line).
A residual deflection of 0.35 in. was carried into the displacement controlled loading. Figure
6.37 shows a picture of the test. As seen from Figure 6.36, the beam deflected linearly with some
loss of stiffness at 76 kip when the steel loading beam failed. The composite CLT-glulam beam
showed no observable strength degradation and survived almost 140% of the factored design load.
Occasional popping sounds were heard during test, when the load was approximately above 60 kip).
143
It was later discovered sounds came from partial withdrawal of some screws from the glulam beams.
Figure 6.37: Deformed beam during a displacement controlled loading procedure
Though the beam performed well capacity wise under service and factored load, it is of great
interest to examine the efficiency of the inclined screw connection at the CLT-glulam interfaces, as
the differential movement between the members may indicate loss of composite action. Figure 6.38
plots the interface slips on top of the beam response under displacement controlled loading. The
displacements from eight string pots (SP) were presented separately according to their locations:
the slips for the four string pots located in Zone II (see Figure 6.32)are shown in the left of Figure
6.38 while the slips for the other four string pots located in Zone I are shown in the right of Figure
6.38. The numbering of the string pots can be found in Figure 6.32. The slips were very minimum
and barely noticeable to human eyes. The slip at 76 kip load was 0.07 in., which is roughly the
thickness of a gauge 14 sheet metal. The differential movements can be attributed to many reasons,
including re-sitting and extension of the screw, screw withdraw from wood members, extension and
contraction of the wood member at interface, etc.
One of the beam’s under-performance was the deflection at service load (2.6”, 36 kip). The
measured displacement at service load was equal to the L/180 limit (2.6), which was below the
serviceability requirement of L/240 (1.95) set forth in IBC for floor beam. However, the assump-
144
Figure 6.38: Interface slippages during the displacement controlled loading–1st bending
tion of boundary condition heavily influences the interpretation of the applied load and associated
deflections (see Table 6.7). Under the pinned boundary condition assumption, the beam’s deflection
was acceptable at 1.61 in. However, the actual boundary condition of the test was neither fixed or
pinned. The clamping fixture used in the test was thought to result in a partially fixed boundary
condition. It is concluded from the results of the first bending test that stiffness of the beam was
under-designed, albeit it maintained high level of composite action during the test. The CLT and
glulam member sizes shall be adjusted to satisfy the deflection requirements.
Table 6.7: Deflection with fixed and pin boundary condition assumptions
Fixed B.C. Deflection (in.) Pinned B.C. Deflection (in.)

Load (kip) Assume Fixed Load (kip) Assume Pinned
Dead only 6 0.29 6 0.29
Service 36 2.6 18 1.61
Factored 54 4.02 27 1.90
L/360=1.3”, L/240=1.95”, L/180=2.6”
Stiffness reductions The deflections shown in Table 6.6 indicate that the beam’s com-
posite action was compromised at higher loads and resulted in a reduced flexural stiffness. The true
stiffness and its reductions are valuable parameters that may be used to improve the current design
and perhaps provide insight for future ribbed floor system design. However, the interpretation of
145
the beam flexural stiffness heavily depends on the assumption of support condition. Consider two
sets of support conditions shown in Figure 6.39, the left with pinned-pinned boundary condition
and the right with fixed-fixed. For a third-point loading, a is one third of the span (a = 1/3L). The
flexural stiffness can be obtained using the following equations:
23P L3
EIpinned = (6.17)
648∆
5P L3
EIf ixed = (6.18)
648∆
Figure 6.39: Boundary conditions for a third-point bending setup
where ∆ is the mid-span deflection. It it also worth noting that shear deformation is ignored due to
the long span length and the relative small contribution of shear deformation observed in Chapter
5.
Using deflections measured during the bending test, the flexural stiffness can be calculated
with the assumed boundary conditions. Figure 6.40 visualizes this stiffness reduction at different
load levels and the theoretical flexural stiffness calculated assuming full composite action using
equivalent width method is also shown in the figure. Regardless of the assumed boundary condition,
the stiffness reduction was consistent since it is a function of only load and associated deflection.
Compare to the dead load case, the stiffness reduction was 33% at service loading (36 kip) and 35%
at factored loading (54 kip). The reduction at service load was substantial: almost 1/3 of the initial
stiffness. Based on the test observations, the reduction in stiffness has the most contribution from
withdraw and flexibility of the inclined screws, despite the fact that the deformation in the interface
was very limited.
146
Figure 6.40: Stiffness reduction in bending test
6.6.3 Bending test–2
The purpose of the second bending test was to examine the bending strength of the CLT-
glulam composite beam. As mentioned in a previous section, the steel loading beam experienced
local buckling during Bending Test 1. In Bending Test 2, a concrete infilled 8x8x1/2 HSS was used
along with a three point bending test (i.e. only one loading bar at the mid-span). The 5 ft. long
HSS was fully filled with 3000 psi Quikrete ready mix concrete. The three point flexural test was
performed two weeks after casting of the concrete into the HSS section (see Figure 6.41 for test
setup), allowing the concrete to reach at least 75% of its compressive strength.
The three-point bending test followed a similar combination of load and displacement con-
trolled procedures, with the load applied in the load controlled procedure modified based on the
new loading diagram. Figure 6.42 shows a set of new moment diagrams used for computing the load
increments in the load controlled procedure. Note that the load which caused the failure of the W18
loading beam (76 kip) was also converted in the center point loading procedure. Table 6.8 shows
the four load increments used.
Figure 6.43 shows the beam’s load displacement response under three-point loading, the
specimen eventually failed in the displacement controlled procedure at 61 kip. The failure load at
147
Figure 6.41: Three point flexural test setup
Figure 6.42: Moment and shear diagrams for bending test 2
148
Table 6.8: Load increments used in 2nd bending test
Load Level (kip) P (kip)

Dead Only (20 psf) 3
Service (120 psf) 16
Factored (1.2D+1.6L) 24
76 kip 32
61 kip resulted a over-strength factor of 2.54 and it equivalent to around 300 psf life load capacity at
failure. A noticeable difference in the 2rd load controlled procedure is that the beam clearly shows
creep effect at holding loads (i.e. 3 kip, 16 kip, 24 kip and 32 kip). This could indicate damage in
the system, including both the wood member and the screw connection. Wood typically does not
show creep effect under a very short duration of sustained load (2 mins). Therefore, the observed
creep most probably came from the re-withdrawal of the screws. Rotation of the beam end can be
seen in Figure 6.44, where it shows the beam is lifted from the support.
Figure 6.43: Load displacement curve for the 2nd bending test
The inclined screws still held well in the 2rd bending test. Figure 6.45 shows the limited
interface slips from eight string pots up to the beam’s three-point bending capacity at 61 kip. This
near perfect composite action (deformation wise) has ‘forced’ the beam to fail in the wood members
149
Figure 6.44: Rotation in the beam support
and the failure mode is discussed in the next few paragraphs.
Figure 6.45: Interface slippage during the displacement controlled loading–2rd bending
150
Observations in bending test–2 In Chapter 5, small scale bending test was performed
on the strip-like 1x12 ft. specimens. It was learned that the majority of the bending failures can
be attributed to the finger joints and lumber defects. Vertical finger joints were present in the CLT
panels. The vertical finger geometry and the lumber defects often cause stress concentrations and
those eventually lead to the beam pre-mature failure. The failure mechanism of the composite beam
was similar to that observed in small-scale bending tests, where tension rupture of the wood fibers
in the tension face of the CLT flange. For the composite beam, additional failures were observed in
the glulam beams.
At 41 kip, the beam experienced a loud ‘hiccup’ accompanied with a small load decrease
(around 1 kip). It was decided to pause the loading procedure for inspection. However, nothing was
found consider the crack may hide inside the hollow core. The test was resumed. At around 52 kip,
the specimen started to give warning signals of its failure: continuous wood fiber snapping sound
from beam’s tension side and small wood chunks falling off from underneath. The beam eventually
failed at 61 kip with a loud ‘explosion’ sound. The failure mechanisms can be categorized as the
following:
1. The most majority of the failure took place at the tension side mid span. After the destructive
bending test, the middle 10 ft. section was cut off for thorough inspection, it was found that
the tension side of the CLT panel contained many finger joints and lumber defects, whereas
the compression flange was intact. Figure 6.46 shows the tension side failures;
2. One of the finger joint failures passed through the thickness of the tension CLT and caused
delamination and rolling shear failure, see Figure 6.47;
3. The glulam beams also experienced substantial rolling shear and bending failures (Figure 6.48).
From small-scale timber specimen tests, it was observed that the CLT panels often failed
in a brittle manner with little to no sign of partial failure prior to the ultimate failure. However,
this is not the case for the tested full-scale composite beam. Although not ductile, the composite
timber beam gave loud noise prior to reaching its strength limit. The failure can be identified with
wood fiber snapping sound and falling objects. This can be advantageous to the building occupants
as they gain additional time to escape prior to any catastrophic failure.
151
Figure 6.46: CLT tension side failures. Red circle: finger joint failure; Rectangle: lumber knot
failure; Green rhombus: survived finger joint
Figure 6.47: Tension CLT delamination and rolling shear failure
152
Figure 6.48: Glulam rolling shear and bending failure
6.6.4 Shear test
The same composite beam specimen tested for bending was also utilize for shear test. In
the bending test, the peak moment demand occurred at the mid-span. The segments near the ends
of the beams or supports were largely undamaged. Thus, the beam segments near the supports were
utilized for shear test.
After the destructive bending test, the composite timber beam was cut into three sections:
13 ft. and 17 ft. from the ends and 10 ft. from the middle section. A 16.75 in. deep circular saw
and a reciprocating saw, both with carbide blade, were used to cut the beam. Prior to cutting the
composite beam, screws near the cutting locations were removed. However, some of the damaged
screws were not able to be backed out. Nevertheless, the circular saw cut was able to cut through
these steel screws (see Figure 6.49).
The 13 ft. section was used for the shear test and the test setup can be found in Figure 6.50.
The 13 ft. section was clamped at the ends with a point load applied at 5 ft. from the left support
(Figure 6.50), with 6 in. of overhang at each end of the beam. The point load was applied right at
the boundary of two inclined screw spacing zones: Zone-I with 4 in. o.c. and Zone-II with 6 in. o.c.
The same string pots were used in the shear test specimen. The string pots were instrumented at 1
ft. from the center of the supports.
One of the key steps before performing the test was to estimate the short beam’s capacity,
in both shear and bending. Short beam has a much greater bending capacity due to the shortened
moment arm and the vertical and horizontal shear capacity have to be carefully considered since
153
Figure 6.49: Cutting the CLT-glulam beam for shear test
Figure 6.50: Shear test setup
154
the testing capability is heavily bonded by the capacity of actuator and load frame. Table 6.9
summarizes the estimated support reactions at different failure scenarios and the corresponding
actuator forces P . The forces associated with different failure scenarios were estimated based on the
following assumptions:
1. Bending Assume that the 13 ft. span specimen has the same moment carrying
capacity as the 40 ft one, as obtained in bending test 2.
2. Vertical Shear Assume two glulam beams fail in shear.
3. Horizontal Shear Based on the capacity of a single inclined screw, spacing and
the shear flow equation (Eq. (6.13)).
Table 6.9 indicates that the most likely failure mode would be horizontal shear failure (i.e.
failure of the inclined screws). Since Zone II (with screws spaced at 6” o.c.) had a lower horizontal
shear capacity compared to Zone I, it was anticipated that failure would most likely initiated in Zone
II. The estimated actuator loads for horizontal shear failures are within the capacity of the actuator
(150 kip).
A load controlled procedure was applied first to examine the performance of the beam under
service loads through in a series of load increments. These increments were calculated based on the
reactions computed using the design loads (20 psf dead and 100 psf live) for a 39 ft. span and then
converted into the force needed in the actuator to achieve the same reaction force at the left support.
The moment and shear diagrams for the asymmetrical shear test is shown in Figure 6.51. Table 6.10
shows target actuator loads for dead load only, service load and factored design load. In addition,
a 150% factored load was added to the loading procedure to observe the serviceability potential for
the combination of 20 psf dead and 150 psf live load. Note the actuator forces P shown in Table 6.10
were rounded up to the nearest kip. Followed by the load increments and unloading, a displacement
controlled procedure was applied to determine the ultimate shear capacity. The short beam was
loaded to ultimate failure in a displacement controlled procedure at 0.25 in./min. All the interface
string pots were removed prior to the ultimate destructive shear test in concern that sudden zipping
of the screw lines may damage the sensors.
Figure 6.51 shows force versus displacement response of the shear test. During the load con-
trolled procedure, the short shear specimen deformed linear elastically with very minimum residual
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Figure 6.51: Moment and shear diagrams of the shear test
Table 6.9: Shear Test Failure Estimations
Failure Mode Shear (5’ Support) (kip) Shear (7’ Support) (kip) P (kip)
Bending 119.0 85.0 203.7
Vertical Shear 60.6 60.6 104.0
Horizontal Shear (Zone-I) 55.6 39.7 95.4
Horizontal Shear (Zone-II) 51.9 37.1 89.0
deflection after unloading. Meanwhile, there was no wood damage or screw failure observed up to
150% of the factored design load. This observation is collaborated by the very low interface slips
shown in Figure 6.53 (peak slip at 0.05 in.). It can be seen that the 5 ft. section experienced slightly
larger interface slips (Figure 6.53 left) than that of the 7ft. section (Figure 6.53 right). This is
expected since the shorter section received more shear demand in an asymmetrically loading. Based
on the results of the two connection tests of the inclined screws, the slips at ultimate failure for the
two tests occurred at approximately 0.29 and 0.38 inches, which were significantly higher than the
peak slip of 0.05 in. observed in the shear test with 150% of the factored design load (see Figure
6.19). In summary, the test results show that the composite beam has adequate shear capacity at
service load with reserved capacity to safely carry the shear demand for more than 150% of the
factored design load or more than double of the service load. This is expected, as shear typically is
not the controlling design factor for long span beams.
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Table 6.10: Load increments used in the shear test
Load Level Reaction V (kip) P (kip)

Dead Only 2.0 4
Service 11.7 20
Factored Load 17.4 30
150% Factored Load 26.1 45
Figure 6.52: Load displacement curve for the shear test
Observations in shear test During the displacement controlled test, the specimen safely
passed the 150% factored design load (45 kip) and the first failure occurred at 79.6 kip (actuator
force). The failure took place in one of the bottom CLT flange corners of the 7 ft. section. This failure
started with delamination in the CLT glue line, which extended towards the support, accompanied
with minor rolling shear failures (Figure 6.54(a)). At support, the delamination failure passed
through the bottom CLT layer and contained in the width of a 2x lumber (Figure 6.54(b)) . This
delamination in the CLT created 45◦ angle rolling shear cracks, very similar to the shear failure
cracks typically observed in a reinforced concrete beam. However, in the composite beam, the
damage did not propagate upward into the glulam webs. The shear-induced cracks were contained
in the bottom tension flange. Right after the delamination failure, the load decreased from 79.6 kip
to 25 kip due to the partial loss of a tension layer.
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Figure 6.53: Interface slippage during the load controlled shear test
The destructive shear test was extended beyond the first failure to investigate the reserved
capacity of the beam. Figure 6.52 shows that the beam had reserved capacity to carry load beyond
the first failure load (79.6 kip). When the load was increased to above 80 kip, the screws started
to withdraw from the glulam beams, making continuous popping sound. The zig-zag load pattern
at the tail of the load-displacement curve (Figure ShearLoadDisplacementResponse) indicates the
gradual withdrawal of a series of screws from the glulam beams. At 108.6 kip, one of the glulam
beams in the 7 ft. section failed in the interface connections, likely due to loss of composite action
from the screw failures. The applied load was quickly shared by the other glulam beam, resulted
in unbalance load distribution and bowing of the top flange. Due to safety concern, the test was
terminated at this point. Consider the shear force at 5 ft. section, the failure load resulted a over-
strength factor of 3.62. The ultimate shear capacity is equivalent to 400 psf live load on a 40 ft. 5
ft. wide floor beam.
During the after-test inspection, the residual slips (after removing the load) of the glulam
beams relative to the CLT were measured. The 4” o.c. screws in the 5 ft. section show no trace of
movement, while majority of the damage was concentrated on the screw lines in the 7 ft. section,
where the slips were measured at 1/4 in. at both sides, see Figure 6.55. Due to the withdrawal of
screws, separations between webs and flanges were observable at the interface and the gap varied
from location to location with the maximum gap measured around 3/8 in (Figure 6.56). No other
wood failure was observed for the shear test.
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(a) Delamination in the tension CLT flange (b) Delamination extended through the 2x at support
Figure 6.54: Delamination failure at 79.6 kip
6.7 Conclusion and Future Research
With the growing need for long span solutions in the building sector, this chapter explored
the possibility of developing a structurally efficient mass timber long span floor element. Mechanical
connectors, namely, inclined screws were considered in this study. Theoretical predictions as well
as small-scale screw joint shear tests were performed to deepen the understanding of such timber-
to-timber connection. With the information in hand, a full-scale 40 ft. long span composite beam
was designed and fabricated using CLT and glulam beams connected by inclined screws fastened
at 30 ◦ . The beam was further subjected to destructive flexural and shear tests to confirm its load
serviceability as well as ultimate strength. The beam performed well with flying colors in terms with
structural capacity, however, its flexural rigidity may be under-designed.
Lesson learned is that serviceability is equally important as structural design as it impacts
the building occupants’ comfort on a daily basis. An excessive deflection in the floor system may
cause crack in the gypsum fire protection board, misalignment of mechanical and electrical pipes,
etc. In fact, deflection is only one aspect of the serviceability design, an occupant-friendly floor
system consider other serviceability requirements such as vibration and acoustics.
The proposed long span composite beam solution can be packaged as a preassembled unit
with integrated MEP systems and thus enables fast plug-n-play construction in the job site. This
further accelerates the mass timber construction from element level to assembly level. Of course,
the logistics of the material and planning will be the key behind the scene. Two items were not
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(a) Interface slip at 5 ft. section near support (b) Interface slip at 7 ft. section near support
Figure 6.55: Interface slippages after the shear test
considered in the presented study and this could be viewed as the proposed future research:
1. The connection between long span composite elements. In this regard, traditional
lap/butt joint or perforated plate can be use with short wood screws to fasten the elements
together. The potential of two way slab can be further explored.
2. Cost benefit analysis. The presented study has chased more of a feasible long
span solution than the cost behind it. The integrated benefit must be carefully balanced when
assessing the construction feasibility of such element because the structural cost could seem
prohibitive.
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Figure 6.56: Opened gap at connection interface
161
Chapter 7
Vibration Properties of Composite
CLT-Glulam Beam
7.1 Introduction
Wood light-frame construction was the first building system unique to early America. De-
veloped in the first half of the 19th century, light-frame construction became the standard for U.S.
suburban housing shortly after World War II. Freed from heavy timbers of the post-and-beam system,
wood light-frame offers ease of construction. Despite its increasing use of timber for single-family
and multi-family house, the user experience has however not always been fully satisfying (Gliso-
vic and Stevanovic 2010). Particularly timber floors in multi-family houses are very susceptible to
annoying vibration cause by human activities. Woeste and Dolan (2007) has pointed out that the
annoying vibration is most probable when the floors are design to the building code minimum but
various steps can be taken to prevent the likelihood of such vibration, probably with minimal added
cost. The vibration response is also dependent on the damping properties of the structures. It has
been shown that damping is a key factor for the human perception of the vibration response, and
thus annoyance (Lenzen 1966).
The out-of-plane low amplitude motions resulted from surface impacts (eg. foot falls) are
not uncommon in timber buildings and are commonly designed against. In North America, dy-
namic response for timber floors are mostly associated with residential and mercantile occupancies
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like offices, and joisted floor constructions having flexible subfloor layers and supported on timber
stud walls. Typically, vibration serviceability design of such floors presumes that dynamic motions
building occupants experience are dominated by flexibility and masses associated with particular
building occupancies. Associated technical measures are to stringently limit static deflections of
joist under concentrated load (assume direct relationship between static and dynamic response); or
empirically relating parameters like estimated fundamental frequencies and static deflection with
particular floor systems. Both approaches are simple, but fail to directly address dynamic response
observed by building occupants. For light frame wood construction, composite deck framed with
I-joist beams and girders, sheathed with OSB or plywood have been designed and constructed for
decades. This type of floor system is easy to build and is cost effective. However, the span of timber
I-joist is limited to around 20 to 30 feet, often controlled by deflection and vibration issues. In fact,
the recent popularity of open space floor plans have led to specifications of larger bay sizes and
longer spans in floor system. In such cases, the traditional wood joist type of floor is barely able to
accommodate the load that come with the increasing span.
Among the long span solutions, Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) panel has been favored as
primary load bearing members due to its dimensional strength. The range of applications of CLT
as a construction material in North America is far from fully developed but it is clear that some
applications will seek to employ this material in increasing structural-demanding applications. To use
the material more efficiently, composite floor decks can be proposed in large variety of constructions
and occupancies, such as administration and commercial buildings, hotels and bridges. Due to the
increased floor mass and longer span, floor vibrations have become an area of concern. Floor decks
with low frequencies may be resonance with the vibrations due to human activities and the resulting
acceleration may exceed human comfort levels. Therefore, the design of composite floor structures
are often limited by serviceability criteria such as deflection limits and vibration behavior, rather
than strength criteria.
Building occupants’ discomfort resulted from a poor vibrational serviceability may related
to annoyance, fatigue, discomfort and pain (Griffin 2012). If the discomfort of the affected personnel
becomes overwhelming, the occupants may opt for extreme measures such as litigation or relocation,
and consequently the building would suffer diminished commercial value or even decommissioned
in rare cases. While most floor vibration problems are not this extreme, the scenarios highlight
the potential significance of this serviceability problem. The efforts required to adjust an annoying
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floor vibration problem after the building is commissioned can be very difficult and expensive to
implement. In most cases, the costs of fixing the problem in-situ are much greater than tackling
the problem in the design phase prior to the floors construction, which doesnt even include the
potential liability cost, such as legal expenses, loss of rental, or consulting fees (Hanagan 2005). The
easiest ‘fix’ for a floor vibration problem is avoidance: simply design a floor such that its unlikely
to experience a vibration serviceability problem when put into service. The key to avoidance is the
ability to predict the dynamic behavior of the floor in the design stage and to determine if it will be
a problem under service conditions, a task much easier said than done, and the subject of much of
the floor vibration research to date.
To investigate the vibration characteristics and possible remedies for annoyance/discomfort,
this chapter is organized as follows: first a literature review is performed to understand the human
perception of vibration discomfort and available design criteria. Topics related to CLT vibration
will be covered as well. Second, given the potential vibration discomfort in long span timber system,
the need for vibration modal test and expected research outcome are justified. Following the mo-
tivations, basic structural dynamics and modal testing techniques will be reviewed for the purpose
of conducting experimental modal analysis on the composite beam assembled in Chapter 6. Third,
a heel-drop modal analysis will be performed and modal information will be extracted for analysis.
Finally, a finite element model calibrated based on the experimental data will be presented.
7.2 Motivation and Scope of Research
To note is that limited investigation of behaviors of CLT panel have been undertaken and
have yielded preliminary understanding of vibration characteristics of such material (Hu and Gagnon
2011; Fitz 2008; Weckendorf and Smith 2012; Weckendorf et al. 2016). However, all these investiga-
tions were focused solely on non-composite CLT panels. With the demand for longer span length,
direct application of thicker CLT panel will result in less economic use of material, introducing
redundant seismic weight that burdens the lateral system and foundation size.
The proposed CLT-Glulam composite hollow core concept provides a viable solution for the
demand of long span load bearing structural element. There is no doubt that the composite beam
assembled by engineered wood product will satisfy the stiffness and strength requirement. However,
information regarding vibration serviceability of full scale composite timber beam is scarce and much
164
needed for final concept delivery. Associated technical measures are to stringently limit static de-
flections under concentrated load (assume direct relationship between static and dynamic response);
or empirically relating parameters like estimated fundamental frequencies and static deflection with
particular floor systems. Both approaches are simple, but fail to directly address dynamic response
observed by building occupants. Vibration evaluation can be used to assess the serviceability of the
floor system (typical activities: identification of natural frequencies and damping ratios). Mean-
while, full size modal testing of the floors is able to provide additional information to the dynamic
behavior and possible remedies.
The purpose of this chapter is to examine the dynamic behavior of grounded CLT-glulam
composite beam using experimental modal analysis techniques. The testing results will be extracted,
analyzed and finally, human comfort and testing floor’s vibration serviceability will be quantified.
The desired goals of the research are as follows:
1. Conduct literature survey on human perceptibility to vibrational motions and
vibration serviceability design of timber floors. This will include a initial assessment of floor
vibration serviceability based on hand calculations;
2. Identify and summarize best practice in dynamic testing of floor systems, including
equipment selection, modal testing theories, experimental techniques, and signal processing.
Also included in this goal is the design and fabrication of in-house force plate, a device that
measures the impact of foot heel drop on the specimen;
3. Perform experimental modal testing on the grounded composite CLT-Glulam
beam using the heel-drop excitation. The global modal properties (natural frequencies, damp-
ing ratios, mode shapes) of the floor system will be identified;
4. Construct finite element model and validate using the modal properties obtained
in the experimental study. The FE model is then used to perform additional parametric
studies;
5. Evaluate the vibration design criteria and provide additional comments on indus-
trial construction practice.
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7.3 Literature Review and Background
Annoying floor vibrations are common in many types of building structures. Problems of this
nature have been reported in the office building, shopping malls, airport concourse, and restaurants,
among others (Hanagan and Murray 1997). Although floor vibrations can result from many sources
(e.g. reciprocating machinery, boiler, heavy truck traffic), the most common and problematic are
caused by the occupants themselves. Occupants generate foot-fall impacts from activities such as
walking, dancing, jumping, etc. Such floors are particularly problematic because they cannot be
easily isolated from the structure and they occur so often. The assessment ‘annoying’ is in general,
determined by the occupancy requirements and human perception of floor vibrations.
7.3.1 Human perception of vibration in floors
Vibration perception is subjective–some people feel it annoying while other people might
find it barely perceptible. Murray et al. (2003a) indicated that human response to floor motion is a
very complex phenomenon, involving the magnitude of the motion, the environment surrounding the
sensor, and the human sensor. For example, a large amplitude continuous motion is more annoying
than motion caused by infrequent low magnitude impact. The threshold of discomfort perception of
floor motion in a busy commercial work place can be higher than in a private home. The reaction of
a senior citizen living on the fifteenth floor can be considerably different from that of a young adult
living on the second floor of an apartment complex, if both are subjected to the same motion. The
way a person experience a floor vibration can be divided into two main categories distinguishing
between vibrations that are felt through the balance organs and through sight or hearing:
1. The floor vibration makes people on the floor vibrate and they experience discom-
fort (Ohlsson 1988);
2. The floor vibration causes loose objects on the floor or attached to ceiling or wall
to rattle, shake or swing, or making the structures squeak, which causes discomfort (Smith
2003).
Nonetheless, many attempts have been made to statistically determine what properties
should be fulfilled for an acceptable floor (Sjökvist and Brunskog 2013; Weckendorf 2009). Their
research is not unambiguous but certain conclusions can still be drawn.
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Perhaps the most frequently cited reference for human perception of vibration is by Reiher
and Meister (1946). The Reiher-Meister scale is based on a displacement range of 0.01-10 mm
and frequency range of 1-100 Hz. The modified Reiher-Meister scale shown in Figure 7.1 was
proposed by Lenzen (1966) for vibrations due to walking impact. For floors with less than 5% critical
damping, Lenzen suggested the original scale be applied if the displacement is increased by a factor
of ten. Wiss and Parmelee (1974) suggested that a constant product of frequency and displacement
existed for a given combination of human response and damping. Allen and Rainer (1976) developed
vibration criteria in terms of acceleration and damping intended for quiet human occupancies such
as residential buildings and offices. As damping increases, the steady-state response due to walking
becomes a series of transient responses; resulting in a less significant response. Murray (1979)
suggested a human perception scale for required damping as a function of the product of initial
displacement and frequency, which are the same parameters used in the Wiss-Parmelee scale. Allen
et al. (1985) suggested a design procedure for assembly floors subjected to rhythmic activities such
as dancing and exercises. The International Standards Organization (ISO) (ISO 1989) recommends
vibration limits in terms of acceleration root-mean-squared (rms) and frequency. As shown in Figure
7.2, a baseline curve is used by ISO and different multipliers are used for different occupancies.
Various design guides and codes around the world address vibration serviceability in the
same manner: outline simplified hand calculation methods for estimating the dynamic properties of
a floor system, estimate an applied dynamic load that simulates walking forces, and finally compute
the dynamic response of the system of the applied load for comparison with an established level
of human comfort acceptability. The following section describe the present design criteria for floor
vibration.
7.3.2 Present and Historical Development of Vibration Design Criteria
United States The majority of the floor vibration assessment and design criteria devel-
oped in U.S. is based on the ISO criteria, which essentially imposing limits on both acceleration and
frequency. Among all, the guidelines published by the American Institute of Steel Construction:
Floor vibrations due to human activity, Design Guide 11 (Murray et al. 2003b) is one of the widely
accepted and referenced manuals. It is applicable to a variety to building materials since it provides
simple hand calculation on the key components of the vibration design: the estimation of fundamen-
tal frequency, handling of the composite action, approximation of the harmonic force and evaluation
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Figure 7.1: Lenzen’s modified Reiher-Meister scale. (Lenzen 1966)
of the peak acceleration. The criteria are provided both for walking and rhythmic excitation.
Each vibration serviceability evaluation involves two sets of calculations: one to compute
the fundamental frequency of the floor element and another to compute the maximum amplitude
of acceleration. The floor is deemed satisfactory if the calculated performance point falls below the
dashed line in Figure 7.2. ISO Standard suggests limits in terms of RMS acceleration as a multiple of
the base line curve (the bottom line in Figure 7.2). The multipliers are 10 for offices, 30 for shopping
malls and indoor footbridge, and 100 for outdoor footbridge. Evaluation results are then compared
with Figure 7.2 to determine if the serviceability design requirement is met. The following equation
represents the comparison:
ap P0 e(−0.35fn ) a0
= ≤ (7.1)
g Wβ g
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Figure 7.2: Recommended peak acceleration for human comfort for vibrations due to human activ-
ities (Murray et al. 2003b; ISO 1989). The root mean square acceleration is the square root of the
area under the acceleration spectral density (ASD) curve in the frequency domain
where a0 /g is the human tolerance level of peak acceleration (as fraction of gravity); ap /g is the
estimated peak acceleration due to walking excitation (as fraction of gravity); P0 is a constant force
(65lb. for floors and 92lb. for foot bridges); fn is the fundamental natural frequency of the system;
β is the modal damping ratio and W is the effective weight of the system, including self-weight, dead
load and live load, without any load combinations. The numerator P0 e−0.35fn represents an effective
harmonic force due to walking which results in resonance response at the natural floor frequency fn .
The right side of the inequality (7.1) represents the human tolerance level of peak accelera-
tion, which can be easily obtained from Figure 7.2 upon selection of occupancy type. The left side
of the inequality computes the peak acceleration response assuming a spring-mass-damper system
driven at its natural frequency by an effective harmonic force due to walking, resulting in a resonance
169
response. Here, only the lowest resonance response (1st harmonic) is considered under the assump-
tion the response due to other harmonics of the step frequency is small in comparison. As Murray
et al. (2003b) observed, motions due to quasi-static deflection and footstep impulse vibration can
become more critical than resonance if the fundamental frequency of a floor is greater than about
8Hz, a more stringent acceleration limit and static deflection stiffness can be imposed–horizontally
extend the acceleration tolerance limit beyond 9.5Hz and a minimum stiffness of 1kN/mm under
concentrated load.
DG11 suggest the peak acceleration used as the threshold for human comfort in office and
residences subjected to vibration frequencies between 4Hz and 9.5Hz is 0.005g or 0.5% of gravity
(see Figure 7.2). The lower threshold with in the frequency of 4Hz to 9.5Hz can be reasoned by the
fact that human organs are very sensitive to low frequencies of vibration. Broner (1978) indicated
exposure to low frequency vibration (or infrasound) would cause nausea, disorientation and general
unpleasantness, in some extreme cases, suicidal attempt. Another reason for this reversed plateau
at 4Hz to 9.5Hz is the possible excitation of 2nd or 3rd harmonic of walking, where a harmonic is
defined as the an integer multiply of the occupancy step frequency. For example, human footfalls
average about 2 steps per second (Ji et al. 2005) under normal walking condition, If each footfall
is seen as an excitation, the following 2nd, 3rd as well the 4th harmonic will be at 4Hz, 6Hz and
8Hz, respectively. Floor that have a natural frequency at or near one of those harmonic frequency
may exhibit an excessive response since the harmonic frequency would coincide with the resonant
frequency of the floor.
DG11s procedure for estimating the natural frequency assumes a uniformly loaded, simply
supported beam:
r
π gEI
fn = (7.2)
2 wL4
which is essentially identical to the equation offered in the CLT Handbook. Note w is the uniformly
distributed weight per unit length, without any load combination.
The last two parameters required for the inequality (7.1) are the effective weight W and the
modal damping β. DG11 outlines a series of calculations for effective weight as a function of relative
stiffness of components, continuity factor and floor geometry. As far as damping ratio β, an accurate
way of obtaining such value would be through experimental measurement. If direct measurement is
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not practical, DG11 demands that β to be estimated based on experience and recommended values
for the expected occupancy type of the evaluated floor. For office building (the type of occupancy
which the CLT-Glulam beam is designed for), DG11 recommended the following values for damping
ratios: 0.02 for floor with few non-structural components (ceiling, ducts, partitions, etc.), 0.03 for
floor with non-structural components and furnishings, but with only small demountable partitions,
and 0.05 for full height partitions between floors. It is not sure whether these recommended values
are valid for timber composite beams, however, the dynamic testing will provide preliminary modal
damping ratios for bare, unfinished floor.
European work and Eurocode 5 In Europe, the work of Ohlsson has been very impor-
tant, since it lay down the basis for Eurocode5. Ohlsson (1983) tested floors made of steel joist and
timber to develop design criteria. He conducted both in-field and laboratory studies where people
were invited to provide their feedback. His then design criteria was focused on limiting initial impulse
velocity, frequency transformed compliance as well as the spacing of adjacent natural frequencies.
Based on his work, the present Eurocode5 consider the following limits on pertinent parameters:
• The first eigenfrequency should be higher than 8Hz. If not, special investigation should be
made.
f1 > 8Hz (7.3)
• The maximum instantons deflection under 1kN (224.8lb.) point load applied at anywhere on
the floor taking the account for load distribution is limited to
w1kN < 1.5mm (7.4)
• The unit impulse velocity response, i.e. the maximum initial value of the vertical floor vibration
velocity (m/s) caused by an ideal unit impulse (1 N·s) applied at any point of the floor giving
maximum response (disregarding components above 40 Hz) is limited to:
v < 100(f1 ζ−1) m/s (7.5)
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where f1 is the floor fundamental frequency and ζ is the modal damping ratio, taken as 0.01 unless
otherwise proven more appropriate.
Canadian work Onysko (1986) made a timber floor study in Canada through a survey
among residents and testing floors in existing houses. He found that the traditional North American
criterion of deflection under a uniformly distributed load was not well correlated to acceptability
among residents. The deflection under 1kN point load was better correlated. He also discovered that
the span length should be factored into consideration. The correlation to the duration of a transient
vibration also had a good correlation to acceptability, but since damping is difficult to estimate, this
could not be included in a design criterion. He stated that if damping can be properly identified,
the transient vibration response would be a reliable criterion for floor vibration serviceability design.
Three North American researchers, Hu, Chui and Onysko summed their work in a publication (Hu
et al. 2001) where they agreed that the frequency components, magnitude of response and damping
are the most important factors. Hu (2002) continued with field testing of timber floors and developed
five different criteria through the statistical logistic regression:
1
f1 0.39 ≥ 15.3
w1kN
L0.38
f1 ≥ 10.3
m 0.27 a0.19
RM S
f1 0.22 ≥ 15.3
w1kN (7.6)
L0.49
f1 0.14 ≥ 10.7
L0.35 apeak
f1 0.21 ≥ 17.5
v1kN
7.3.3 Past vibration studies on CLT
Information on vibration properties of CLT plate system is very limited, and almost non-
existent for a new generation of CLT products entering the North American marketplace. Typical
vibration study on CLT involves using modal analysis tools to determine the dynamic characteristics.
Modal data extraction focused on determination of fundamental natural frequencies, mode shapes,
separations between modal frequencies, and modal damping ratios; which are parameters used to
assess the vibration serviceability if floor system in buildings. Occasionally, finite element models
were proposed and calibrated based on the experimentally obtained data to further assist future
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research.
The following is a literature review with particular regard to experimentally tested CLT
floor system (composite or non-composite), measurement comparison to Finite Element Method and
general composite beam modeling techniques. The realm of modal testing will be briefly introduced
here (though a more detailed experimental modal testing theory and application will be provided in
section 7.6), since it helps better understanding of the past CLT vibration studies.
Modal testing Modal testing refers to a referenced type of dynamic measurement which
both input force and output response will be used to form frequency response functions (FRF)
between the excitation and measured locations. In contrast, in some situations where response-
only measurements (unreferenced modal testing) may be the only measurements available because
capturing the input force is not practical or possible, such is the case for walking or heel-drop
excitations. Unreferenced excitation can still yield important information about a test floor, however,
it is not nearly as fully descriptive as a force-referenced test. The advantage of knowing FRF relations
in a test grid is that in addition to natural frequency and damping estimates, the mode shapes can
be estimated from the magnitude and phase information contained in the complex domain of FRFs.
Hanagan et al. (2003) notes the ability to express the behavior of a floor system in terms of its modal
properties provides a consist baseline for comparing the results of finite element analysis and actual
measured behavior.
In a modal test, the floor is excited by some mechanical means and its response is measured
using a set of accelerometers. A variety of floor excitation methods, as documented in the literature,
have been successfully implemented. The most common approach can be classified as transient
excitation, including instrumented hammer (Williams and Falati 1999), damped impact hammer
(Eriksson 1991), and heel drops (Hanagan et al. 2000). Continuous excitation can be created using
electric and hydraulic shakers. It is important to assess the different excitation source to identify
those most suitable for the test object, to evaluate walking induced vibration. In an effort to charac-
terize the best suitable modal testing technique and providing a set of guidelines for future research,
Hanagan et al. (2003) applied different modal testing techniques and quality control procedures to
a steel composite laboratory floor. They recommended that a transient excitation in the form of
a heel drop and a continuous excitation resulting from a chirp signal to a shaker yielded the best
results. When cost and portability are at issue, the heel drop is the best practice.
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Heel drop is a very simple method that has been used for years (Lenzen and Murray 1969)
in which a person stands in the middle of the floor, assuming a natural stance, maintaining straight
needs, rising onto his toes approximately 2.5 in. and suddenly relaxing to allow the full weight to
freefall and strike the floor with his heels. The heel drop impact is normally idealized as a triangular
pulse with initial magnitude 600 lbs., decrease to zeros over 0.05 seconds, totaling an impulse of 67
N·s. Some design guides that use heel drop (such as Canadian Steelwork Code 1989) often treat
it as an impulse of 70 N·s. The obvious advantages of the heel drop test are that it is easy to
perform and relatively low burden on the budget. By using a simple force plate placed on the floor,
the well-known heel drop test can be adapted to be a part of an effective modal testing technique:
instrumented heel drop test. Blakeborough and Williams (2003) evaluated the use of instrumented
heel drop (where force impulse history is obtained through a force plate) test as an alternative
source of excitation for conducting modal testing on a floor. They discovered that the application
of instrumented heel drop test provide good coherence across the bandwidth. In addition, heel drop
test gives a much smother FRF, making it easier and more importantly to obtain accurate estimates
of natural frequency modal damping. They concluded that instrumented heel drop test showed
excellent resolution of frequency response functions in the range of 2 to 15 Hz, making it ideally
suited to determine the modal properties of potential floors.
The literature covering the applications of different modal testing techniques and quality
assurance measurements is quite vast as it mostly spans the automobile, aerospace and mechanical
industries. However, vibration testing related to engineered wood products are relatively rare,
especially those involves CLT. On top of this, the readers are directed to Ewins (2000) for a thorough
guidance through the theory, practice and application of experimental modal analysis.
Laboratory/In-situ testing of timber floors The following is a chronological survey of
the literature involving experimental testing and modeling of floor systems. The literature reported
here is purposely selected among those which test specimens involve engineered wood floor system.
In addition, several well documented studies that contained valuable modal testing experience are
cherry-picked since these experience helped shaping the experimental testing procedures adopted in
this study.
Hu and Gagnon (2012) performed a complete set of dynamic testing to assess the vibration
characteristics of bare CLT floors, these tests include: subjective evaluation, static concentrated
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load of 1kN, instrumented hammer modal test and forced vibration test. The tested floor system
consisted of CLT panels made with different thickness (230mm, 182mm and 140mm), various length
(8m and 4.5m) and two types of joint details (step joint and spline joint). Their discovery confirmed
the combination of natural frequency with 1kN deflection, or with acceleration or velocity was well
correlated to human perception. Although CLT specimens had different thickness, joint means or
span length, the modal testing revealed a consistent value of around 1% for modal damping ratio.
Based on human perception study and experimental testing, the author proposed a simple from of
the design method that controls the span based on the geometry, stiffness of the floor system. It is
worth mentioning here that this serviceability equation was advised in the CLT Handbook, guiding
the preliminary vibration design of CLT floor.
Weckendorf and Smith (2012) performed an operational modal analysis on bare 5-ply CLT
(same thickness in each layer) specimens with different test parameters: support material (timer
and steel beam), boundary condition (clamped or not), and whether there’s person on the floor.
The floor specimens were excited by a person pushing and pulling a broad-band, low weight two-
wheel trolley while walking around the floor perimeter. Note that operational modal analysis is
an unreferenced testing technique, where only the response signal from accelerometers are analyzed
in the frequency domain, therefore ambient noise in the environment is picked up as well. In such
scenario, maintaining a low noise testing environment is a key. By comparing the frequency response
of tested specimen, they discovered that doubling the floor width results almost unchanged natural
frequencies but introduced additional modes. On the boundary condition comparison, they observed
a notable difference in both natural frequencies and modal damping ratios. The first order mode
damping ratio without people standing on the floor was reported to be below 1%, however, it
almost tripled (3%) if a person is located at the center of the floor. They suggested that a simple
extrapolation of vibration serviceability design practice proposed for other types of wood floor system
is not appropriate to design CLT plate floor system and should be discouraged.
Labonnote and Malo (2010) approached to the CLT vibration serviceability in a different
way. They conducted finite element analyses for the CLT floor system with various material prop-
erties. They believed that thicker plate with higher quality wood in the outer layer will increase
the vibration performance. Choosing an inner layer with optimal annual ring angle (close to 45◦ )
showed higher shear stiffness which led to improve vibration properties. However, the support condi-
tion of the CLT floor system in the construction usually constrained the plate in a two-way bending
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situation, where controlling the ring angle in the inner layer may seem unpractical.
The dissertation of Barrett (2006) provides a well-documented study of the evaluation of
in-situ steel composite floors. Three areas were examined in his research: the best practice in high
quality dynamic testing of in-situ floor system, modal testing of multi-bay steel composite floor and
examination of dynamic properties, and development of a set of fundamental finite element modeling
techniques to adequately represent the dynamic response of the tested floor system. Based on his
experience using multiple excitation signals, burst chirp excitation generated using an electrodynamic
shaker is recommended as the most accurate and consistent source of excitation for acquire high
quality measurement suitable for use in the parameter estimation, operating deflection shape and
calibration/validation of FE models. He further addressed that the measurement, analysis and
computation of floors FRF is the core premise linking all areas of the modal study. Based on United
Kingdoms Dynamic Testing Agency (DTA) previously classified five different Levels of Test in its
Handbook of Modal Testing, the author also provided a meaningful classification of floor vibration
test further determined in terms:
1. the methods and equipment used for testing
2. the extend of the useful information that can be extracted from the tests
Hanagan et al. (2003) summarized their experience conducting modal analysis on the steel
joist floor system using both transient and continuous excitations. Several measurement issues
pertaining to the experimental modal analysis were explained and resolved: selection of measurement
bandwidth, excitation source, excitation level, excitation placement within the floor plan, recording
length and need for averaging. The definition of these terminologies and their settings within the
current study will be outlined later in sectionX 7.2. Meanwhile, Hanagan and her collaborators also
offered practical suggestions on the selection of testing equipment, e.g. FFT analyzer, vibration and
force transducers and their sensitivity requirements. Experience of modal analysis from the above
authors has been very beneficial in improving the quality of signal collection and analysis procedure
for assessment of vibration serviceability performed in the presented research.
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7.4 Initial Vibration Assessment Using DG11 Guidelines
As discussed thereof, DG11 provides a quick assessment tool for the floor vibration due to
walking excitation. Fundamental natural frequency (Eq.(7.1)) and peak acceleration (Eq. (7.2))
are the key parameters that relates the floor dynamics to human vibration perception limits. How-
ever, in Eq. (7.1), the damping ratio β is difficult to estimate without direct measurement. The
damping associated with floor system primary depends on non-structural components, furnishings
and occupants. DG11 recommends modal damping ratios in a range of 0.01 to 0.05. The lower
value is suitable for floor with no non-structural or furnishings and few occupants, while the value
0.05 is suitable for offices and residents with full-height room partitions between floors and other
non-structural components. In this preliminary assessment, damping ratios are varied in the range
0.01–0.05 with 0.01 interval to investigate its sensitivity on the calculated peak acceleration.
The flexural rigidity EI of the CLT-Glulam beam, considering the composite action can be
expressed as:
n
X
EI = (Ei Ii + γEi Ai Zi2 ) (7.7)
i=1
where 0< γ ≤1 (γ=1 for rigid full composite action, γ=0 for non-composite). With the design
loading assumed in Chapter 6 (self weight, 20psf dead, 100 psf live), flexural rigidity EI calculated
using equivalent width method (shown in Appendix B), the fundamental frequencies estimated using
Eq. (7.2) are tabulated in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Estimation of fundamental natural frequencies based on DG11 guideline

Properties Full Composite Non-Composite
Span Length (ft) 39 39
EI (kip· in2 ) 2.878 · 107 1.918 · 106
fn (Hz) 7.08 1.02
It is worth noting that in Eq.(7.2), only the self weight of the beam is used for w; however,
in estimating the peak accelerations, the W in Eq.(7.1) includes the self weight, dead and live loads,
without any load combinations. Applying the estimated natural frequencies in Table 7.1, the peak
accelerations consider the variation of damping ratio and composite action is shown in Figure 7.3.
Observation of the figure reveals that ISO baseline and the limit for office and residential occupancies
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both fall below the estimated peak accelerations, regardless of the selection of damping ratio and
composite factor γ. This indicates a poor vibration serviceability in terms of excessive acceleration
that the occupants might experience.
DG11’s quick hand calculation vaguely quantifies the dynamic characteristics of the com-
posite floor in the sense that it lacks estimation of true damping ratio and beam bending stiffness,
let along the idealized boundary condition and loading scenarios, the calculated natural frequencies
and peak accelerations can not be highly credited. In an effort to accurately estimate the dynamic
properties, the rest of this chapter will focus on the introduction of the modal analysis theory, test
execution and analysis of the of the instrumented heel-drop test. The measurement of floor acceler-
ations subjected to footstep impact serves as a direct indicator of the floor’s vibration serviceability.
Figure 7.3: Estimated peak accelerations (% gravity) for the CLT-Glulam composite beam
7.5 Basic Structural Dynamics of Floors
A very basic introduction of the subject of structural dynamics is presented in the following
section. For a more thorough guidance on the theory of structural dynamics testing as well as the
essential signal processing techniques, the readers are directed to (Craig jr and Kurdila 2006; Ewins
178
2000).
Before embarking on the detailed concept of structural dynamics, it is appropriate to put
different stages of concept into the context of a typical theoretical vibration analysis progress. Gen-
erally, the analysis starts with a description of the structure’s physical characteristics, usually in
terms of mass, stiffness and damping properties, this is referred as the Spatial Model. Then it is
customary to perform a theoretical modal analysis of the spatial model which leads to a description
of the structure’s behavior as a set of vibration modes: the Modal Model. This model is defined as
a set of natural frequencies with corresponding modal damping and vibration mode shapes. It is
important to remember that this solution always describes the various ways in which the structure
is capable of vibrating naturally, i.e. without any external forcing or excitation. Therefore, these are
called the ‘natural’ or ‘normal’ modes of the structure. The third stage is generally that in which
we have the greatest interest, namely the analysis of exactly how the structure will respond under
given excitation and especially, with what amplitudes. Clearly, this will depend not only upon the
structure’s inherent properties but also on the nature and amplitudes of the imposed excitation and
so there will be innumerable solutions of this type. However, it is convenient to present an analysis
of the structure’s response to a ‘standard’ excitation (from which the solution for any particular
case can be constructed) and to describe this as the Response Model. An example of ‘standard’ ex-
citation will be that of a unit-amplitude sinusoidal force applied to each Degree-of-Freedom (DOF)
individually, and at every frequency within a specified range. Thus the response model will consist
of a set of Frequency Response Functions (FRF) which must be defined over the applicable range
of frequency. Figure 7.4 illustrates the theoretical route to the vibration analysis. As indicated,
it is possible to proceed from Spatial Model to Response Model through a response analysis. It is
also possible to proceed to undertake an analysis in the reversed direction: i.e. from a description
of the response properties (such as measured frequency response functions) we can deduce modal
properties and less commonly, the spatial properties. This is an ‘experimental route’ to vibration
analysis which is shown as the reversed direction in Figure 7.4.
Although very few practical structures could be realistically modeled by a single-degree-
of-freedom (SDOF) system, the properties of such system is very important because those for a
more complex multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) system can always be represented as the linear
superposition of a number of SDOF characteristics. Considering a SDOF spatial model with mass
m connected to a spring with stiffness k. The equation of motion without external forcing can be
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Figure 7.4: Theoretical and experimental routes of vibration analyses
obtained by applying Newtons second law:
mü(t) + k u̇(t) = 0 (7.8)
The trial solution x = Xeiωt leads to the requirement that:
k − ω2 m = 0 (7.9)
Hence the modal model consists of a single solution with a natural angular frequency given by
p
(rad/s). The natural frequency is easily obtained as: ωn = k/m (rad/s). The natural frequency
is easily obtained as:
r
ωn 1 k
fn = = (7.10)
2π 2π m
For a damped system, damping describes the rate of decay of the vibration response. There
are some different models for describing damping, e.g. viscous damping and structural damping,
Ewins (2000) gives a good explanation of different dampings. Essentially, all structures exhibit
a degree of damping due to the hysteretic properties of the material from which they are made.
Damping cause mechanical vibration energy to dissipate by transforming into other sources of energy.
When considering a multiple degree of freedom (MDOF) system, there exist more than
one natural frequencies or eigenfrequency (one for each DOF). Each eigen-frequency is associated
with a specific mode shape that describes the form of the vibration for that eigen-frequency. The
spatial parameters such as mass and stiffness along with the boundary conditions define the modal
properties.
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7.6 Modal Testing Theory and Equipment Preparation
The key for accurately characterizing the dynamic behavior of a floor system and validating
the FE models to represent that behavior, relies solely on the acquisition of high quality dynamic
measurements. Thus it is of paramount importance to introduce the fundamental theory of modal
analysis that allows experimentalists to estimate the dynamic properties of a floor through testing. It
is also important to discuss the available testing methods and their associated equipment/techniques
since the acquisition of high quality modal data is a product of the available equipment and its
effective employment.
The following section provides an overlook of the theory of modal testing and the processing
of the dynamic measurements, the equipment used to acquire dynamic measurements, a description
of applied and recommended experimental modal testing technique for floor systems. It should be
noted that many of the techniques used in this study were based on recommendations outlined by
Hanagan et al. (2003) and others (Reynolds et al. 1999; Pavic and Reynolds 1999; Barrett 2006),
from their experience testing in-place steel composite floors and concrete floors; however, in many
cases, the recommended techniques are improved or expanded upon the experience of testing the
floor specimen of the presented research.
7.6.1 Modal testing method
Unreferenced Response-Only Modal Testing Unreferenced response-only modal anal-
ysis, more often known as operational modal analysis (OMA), is a technique for extracting modal
parameters from vibration response signals of mechanical structures. As inferred from its name, a
main difference compared to the referenced modal analysis technique is that the measurement of the
input forces is not required. This enables a testing of structures under operating conditions or in
other situations where the input forces are impossible to measure. It is therefore also called Ambient
Modal or Output-only Modal. This means, for instance, that if a bridge is going to be tested, the
bridge traffic and normal operation need not to be interrupted during the test. Similarly, if an engine
is going to subject to output-only modal testing, it is more desirable to perform such test with the
engine running at normal operating conditions. Implementation economy is one primary advantage
of ambient vibration tests as only the output vibration of the structure needs to be measured. This
is particularly attractive for civil engineering structures (e.g., buildings, bridges) where it can be
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expensive or disruptive to carry out free vibration or forced vibration tests (with known input).
Perform modal test under operating (ambient or natural) conditions means that the struc-
ture is subjected to realistic vibration behavior, which might be difficult to obtain by use of artificial
excitation. It also means that the test can be performed simultaneously with other response test and
it provides the possibility for extraction of modal information under conditions where a traditional
accelerance based modal test is very difficult or impossible to perform. The ambient loadings that
are suitable for testing the floor system could include but not limited to: heel-drop, walking parallel
or perpendicular to the floor framing, or bouncing at harmonics of the bays dominant frequency.
The measured responses are governed by the dynamic characteristics of the system and
the forces, which excite the system. The derived model thus contains information of both the
system characteristics as well as the excitation signals. Therefore, identifying modal properties
using ambient data does have disadvantages:
1. The identification methods are more sophisticated. As the loading is not measured,
in the development of identification methods it needs to modeled by some stochastic process or
its dynamic effects on the measured response have to be removed. Otherwise it is not possible
to explain the characteristics in the data based solely on modal properties;
2. Without loading information, the identified modal properties can have significant
identification uncertainties. In particular, the results are as good as the broadband assumption
applied;
3. The identified modal properties only reflect the properties at the ambient vibration
level, which is usually lower than the serviceability level or other design cases of interest. This
is especially relevant for the damping ratio which is commonly perceived to be amplitude-
dependent.
The easiest dynamic measurement to take when testing a floor system is the unreferenced
response-only measurement because it requires the least amount of equipment and technique. A
single-channel hand–held spectrum analyzer, Figure 7.5, will have sufficient ability to conduct un-
referenced measurement, while being much less expensive and more portable. Examine the accel-
eration levels from various types of unreferenced excitation can indicate a lot about the behavior
of the floor under service conditions. Despite whether the input force is measured or not, it can
still provide adequate excitation to a floor system within frequency range of interest for floor vi-
182
bration serviceability. Thus, analysis of the frequency content of the response form an unreferenced
excitation can give insight into the active frequencies of the floor. The only information obtained
from a single channel measurement is the accurate measurement of time-history acceleration and
frequency domain of that history. Given certain types of excitation dynamic properties of the floor
can be estimated to a limited degree from the unreferenced measurement; however, it should be
understood that only fully referenced modal testing provides the accuracy typically needed for any
detailed characterization of the behavior of a floor system. As long as this limitation is understood,
then unreferenced measurement is an effective and low cost tool that has its place in dynamic testing
of floor systems.
Figure 7.5: Handheld spectrum analyzer (TestWorld Inc.)
Referenced Modal Testing As discusses thereof, results of response-only modal testing
contain information on both the structure itself and the excitation source. Therefore the Operating
Deflection Shape (ODS) shows the response of a structure to both resonant and forced vibration.
On the contrary, referenced modal analysis is similar to ODS in that deformation of the structure
can be viewed, but it is primarily concerned with resonance frequencies (or natural frequencies) of
a structure. Modal analysis is typically performed by exciting the structure with a known force
and measuring the response of the structure at many locations using accelerometers (or any other
motion sensors).
Base on the size of the specimen and desired signal-to-noise level, the excitation source can
be categorized into two classifications:
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1. Impact testing is sometimes called bump testing, tap testing, or resonance testing.
It involves the use of an instrumented device to excite a structure in order to measure the
response. The commonly used excitation source includes instrumented hammer and force
plate. Due to the limited excitation energy induced by the impact, the size of the specimen
and the desired frequency bandwidth needs to be carefully planned out before execution of the
modal testing.
2. For larger or more complex structures it may be necessary to use an electrodynamic
shaker to excite the structure with sufficient energy to achieve the required signal to noise levels.
It is also useful to user shakers if extremely consistent and accurate results are required because
shaker input eliminates the potential for human error that might be found with impact testing.
With shaker excitation there are different types of signals to be used to excite the structure
under test: random, burst, sine, and chirp. Readers interested in referenced modal testing
using electrodynamic shaker should direct to Barrett (2006).
It is noted here that the referenced modal testing is selected for the completion of the
study since it’s a classic and mature dynamic analysis technology, where manuals, bulletins, journal
publications are abundantly available. Its ability in generating high quality dataset, obtaining
natural frequencies and mode shapes, along with its relatively easy and straightforward parameter
estimation process also contribute to the preference of referenced modal testing. The following
section explains the fundamental theory of the referenced modal testing.
7.6.2 Modal testing theory
Before diving into the modal testing theory, it is necessary to recognize and consider the
difference between referenced measurement data and unreferenced measurement data. If both ex-
citation force and resulting response are recorded, in either time or frequency domain, the test is
considered as a referenced modal testing. In some testing situations, response-only measurements
(unreferenced modal testing) may be the only measurements available because capturing the input
force is not practical or possible, such is the case for walking or heel-drop excitations. Unreferenced
excitation can still yield important information about a test floor, however, it is not nearly as fully
descriptive as a force-referenced test. The unreferenced modal testing would generate results with
relative magnitude and phase angle of a floor. It should be stressed that this would only yield
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information about the frequencies and relative shape (not mode shape), and no information about
the acceleration response per input force, which is key in validating FE models.
In one of the comprehensive texts available on this subject, Ewins (2000) used three phases
to describe the theoretical multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) vibration analysis, which is based on the
premise that the response of a structure is just a combination of the response of its individual modes
of vibration. The first phase is to set up the governing equations of motion (i.e. determine mass,
stiffness and damping for the MDOF system of equations). The second phase is to perform a free
vibration analysis using equation of motion, the solution to free vibration yields the eigenvalue and
eigenvectors of the system of equations, containing modal properties in terms of natural frequencies,
damping ratios and mode shapes. The last stage is a forced vibration analysis where the applied
forces are often harmonic or sinusoidal in nature. By solving system of equations under applied force,
the complete solution is presentable using a single matrix, known as frequency response function
H(ω), which often short for FRF. Thus, Hij (ω) represents the harmonic response Xj in one the
degree-of-freedom j, caused by a single harmonic force, Fi , applied at a different degree-of-freedom, i.
The FRF is a complex frequency domain function that contains real part (amplitude) and imaginary
part (phase angle). With the definition explained, the FRF can be obtained as the response divided
by the input force:
X(ω)
H(ω) = (7.11)
F (ω)
Note that ω is the circular frequency in units in radians/second and is used simply for
convenience; it is interchangeable with circular frequency f , in units of cycles/second. The term
H(ω) in Eq. (7.11) is a general form often used to annotate a frequency response function. Using
the same notation seen in Ewins (2000), a more specific designation for the quantity describe in
Eq. (7.11) is a α(ω), the displacement response per input force, which is known as the ‘receptance’.
Equally, other forms of FRF exist based on selected response quantity. If the velocity response per
input force is used, the corresponding FRF is called the ‘mobility’ and the notation Y (ω) is used.
Likewise, of the acceleration response per input force is used, the FRF term is often referred as
‘accelerance’ and notated by A(ω). Displacement, velocity, and acceleration can be calculated by
185
derivatives or integrals of one another, and they can be related as follows:
X(ω)
Receptance : α(ω) =
F (ω)
Ẋ(ω)
M obility : Y (ω) = = (jω)α(ω) (7.12)
F (ω)
Ẍ(ω)
Acceleranec : A(ω) = = (jω)3 α(ω) = −ω 2 α(ω)
F (ω)
√
In mobility and accelerance expression, j = −1 and the jω terms are derived from the com-
plex representation of the harmonic forcing function f (t) = F ejωt , and the harmonic displacement
response x(t) = Xejωt . Therefore harmonic velocity and acceleration responses are ẋ(t) = (jω)Xejωt
and ẍ(t) = (jω)2 Xejωt = −ω 2 Xejωt , respectively. Note that these referenced FRF functions is in-
dependent of the excitation, meaning the vibrational characteristics (natural frequencies, damping
ratios) are irrelevant to how the structure is excited.
In a MDOF system like floors, not just one frequency response function is computed, but the
entire matrix called the frequency response function matrix [H(ω)]. Each entry of the FRF matrix
is a complex function in the frequency domain representing the input/output relationship between
two degrees of freedom on the structure for a given frequency ω. Thus, the accelerance FRF matrix
is an assemblage of terms Aik (ω), which relates the acceleration response of a particular location on
the floor i, to an input force at another location k, as shown:
 
A (ω) A12 (ω) · · · A1k (ω)
 11 
 .. 
Ẍi (ω) αi (ω) A21 (ω) A22 (ω) · · · . 
[A(ω)] = = = . (7.13)
 
Fk (ω) Fk (ω)  . .. .. .. 
 . . . . 

 
Ai1 (ω) Ai2 (ω) · · · Aik (ω)
While the derivation of the harmonic acceleration response of a MDOF system from the uncoupled
equations of motion is straight forward, it is presented in Appendix D for any interested reader. The
fundamental solution is shown in Eq. (7.14), which constitute a single term in the accelerance FRF
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matrix:
R
X(ω) X −ω 2 φir φir /mr
Aik (ω) = = (7.14)
F (ω) r=1
(ωr − ω 2 ) + j(2βr ωr ω)
2
where R=the number of modes; ωr =the circular frequency of the rth mode; mr =the modal mass
of the rth mode; βr =modal damping ratio of the rth mode; [Φ] = [φ1 φ2 · · · φR ]=matrix of R mode
shape.
Note the expression is in a form that assumes viscous damping, and although not shown
here, there are more general forms that accommodate other damping models such as proportional
or hysteretic damping (Ewins 2000). The denominator of Eq. (7.12) contains the global properties
of the structure, the resonance frequencies and damping ratios, and does not hold any information
pertaining to the location of the excitation or response. This information is contained in the numer-
ator, which holds terms from the mode shape that scales the response. This fundamental analytical
expression of the accelerance FRF is the basis from which all experimentally determined dynamic
properties of the system are derived, as it is a mathematical expression of these quantity of interest
(frequencies, damping and mode shapes) in a formulation directly relate to the quantities measured
during modal testing (acceleration response and input force).
7.6.3 Signal processing
As stated previously, the frequency response function goes by many names, but it is simply
a transfer function which describe the relationship between two simultaneously measured signals:
input signal and output signal. For modal testing of a structure, it is often intuitively set up with the
input signal as the excitation of the structures, such as applied surface force or constraint excitation,
and the output signal as the physical response of the structure, such as displacement, velocity or
acceleration. It is the accelerance FRF matrix between an applied force and the acceleration response
of floor structures that is of interest in this study. The basis of the whole process relies on the accurate
measurement of signals in the time domain and Fourier analysis of those signals to transfer them
into the frequency domain:
Z ∞
1
x(t) = X(ω)ejωt dω (7.15)
2π ω=−∞
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Eq. (7.15) is the Fourier Transformation and it simply states that a function in time
can be written as an infinitely series of sines or cosines with varying frequencies and amplitudes.
Obviously, anything involves infinity will be a headache to deal with, so several assumptions and
simplifications are made along the way to make this process manageable. Rather than infinite
time, only a window of time is analyzed. The signal within the time window is sampled a finite
number of times at discrete increments, which can be analyzed using a Simplified Discrete Fourier
Transformation (DFT) analysis. DFT process can be accomplished in several ways depending on the
type of modal testing setup and instrument employed. The most convenient way is to use a spectrum
analyzer (also known as signal analyzer or digital signal processor) which receives analog signals from
the force and acceleration transducers and immediately digitize the signal using an analog-to-digital
converter. It is this digitization that creates a discretely sampled time record of the signals, which
the spectrum analyzer uses to perform a Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) on the time domain
data to transform it into the frequency domain data. Due to the instrument limitation in the
current research, both signals (excitation input and acceleration response) are collected using NImax
(National Instrument) and a Matlab build-in function fft (Fast Fourier Transformation) computes
the DFT of x(t) using a FFT algorithm. The FFT is a computationally efficient implementation of
the DFT when the digital time window is set up in a specific way, namely the time record length
must be a power of 2, such as 128, 512, 2014, 2048 or 8192. Each spectral values of the FFT is a
complex number, as it represents the corresponding Fourier coefficient that belongs to the sine and
cosine terms of the Fourier series at the given frequency, in addition to the phase lag angle. Thus,
for the two measured signals in time domain, the input force f (t) and acceleration response a(t), the
DFT computes F F Tf (ω) and F F Tx (ω), respectively. It is at this point, with the simultaneously
measured force input signal and acceleration response signal digitized in the time domain and their
respective FFTs computed, frequency domain functions used in the modal testing to describe the
dynamic properties of the floor are captured. From the FFTs of the digitized time history analysis,
the first frequency domain function computed is the cross-spectrum of the acceleration response
signal and the input force signal,Gxf (ω), which is a measure of the correlation between the two
signals:
Gxf (ω) = F F Tf∗ (ω) · F F Tx (ω) (7.16)
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where F F Tx (ω) is the FFT of the acceleration response; F F Tf (ω) is the FFT of the input force;
F F Tf∗ (ω) is the complex conjugate of F F Tf (ω).
Because the values of the FFTs are complex numbers, the cross-spectrum are complex as
well, and phase information represents the relative shift between the two signals. The next frequency
domain functions computed is the auto-spectrum of each signal, Gf f (ω) for the input force signal
andGxx (ω) for the acceleration response:
Gf f (ω) = F F Tf∗ (ω) · F F Tf (ω)

(7.17)
Gxx (ω) = F F Tx∗ (ω) · F F Tx (ω)
where * again, represents the complex conjugate of the signal.
The auto-spectrum, which is the cross spectrum of a signal with itself, can be seen as a
measure of the relative strength of the signal at each of the spectral frequencies at which it is
computed. Note that this is a real valued function, as there is no phase lag between a function and
itself (also because the product of a complex number and its complex conjugate is a real number).
The auto-spectrum can be displayed in several formats, such as unit2 /Hz (commonly called the
Power spectral Density, or PSD), but the one used in the presented research is in root-mean-squared
(RMS) units, which is actually the square root of the values that are computed by Gf f (ω) and
Gxx (ω). This simply put the units in the auto-spectrum back into the intuitive units of the original
measured signal (lbf RMS and g RMS).
In fact, the computation of frequency response function (FRF) in its general form is:
Gxf (ω)
H(ω) = (7.18)
Gf f (ω)
Eq. (7.18) states that the FRF is computed by dividing the cross-spectrum of the excitation
and response signal (a complex valued function holding the phase information between the signals)
by the auto-spectrum if the excitation signal (a real valued function that simply scales the correlation
in cross-spectrum). This makes FRF a complex valued function, complete with magnitude and phase
information (or real and imaginary parts) at each spectral frequency in the units if response per
unit of input excitation. For typical floor vibrations, the FRF measured is the accelerance, the
acceleration response per unit input of force, and is displayed in units of in/s2 /lbf for convenience
189
of presenting the measured values, which generally ranging from 0–15 in the presented research.
Other units, such as g/lbf or m/s2 /N are acceptable, but they lead to much smaller values that can
be hard to work with (1in/s2 /lbf = 2.59 · 10−3 g/lbf = 5.71 · 10−3 m/s2 /N ).
It should be noted that while the cross-spectrum and auto-spectrum that formulate the
FRFs are computed between two signals each time a measurement is taken, it is the average of
repeated measurement that builds the level of confident that the computed spectral values are well
correlated (poorly correlated signal may indicates either high level of noise or very little response or
excitation). Thus, the coherence function is computed with each average, providing a quality check
on the correlation of all measured data. This computation is:
|Gxf (ω)|2
γ 2 (ω) = (7.19)
Gxx (ω)Gf f (ω)
At first glance, this function resembles the correlation function between two random vari-
ables, as it should, the coherence function measures the causality between the input and output
signals. Eq.(7.19) is often referred as the magnitude-squared coherence since it generates a non-
negative real number with range of 0 to 1. Similar to the correlation coefficient, the coherence being
0 indicates absolutely no correlation and 1 indicates two signals are perfectly correlated. Departures
from unity can indicate input noise, output noise, a non-linear process or any combination of these
things. When measuring the input-output behavior of a system, there is always noise present that
obscures the input and output measurements. An important measure is how much of the measured
output is actually caused by the measured input and a coherence spectrum serves this purpose well.
However, since the auto-spectrum and cross-spectrum are analyzed and computed in the frequency
domain, it is possible that the same frequency content appeared at different time. Eq. (7.19) may
not be subtle enough – an algorith is needed to locate frequencies present in both signals at the
same time. It is known as the Welch method and it was proposed by Welch in 1967. The underlying
signal processing techniques are beyond the scope of this study, but it can be easily found in many
textbooks, including that of Hayes (1996). A Matlab (Version R2016a) built-in function welch was
used to generate all the magnitude-squared coherence functions for this study. During the signal col-
lection of each foot-impact, coherence functions were continuously monitored to ensure the highest
quality measurements obtained whenever possible.
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7.6.4 Parameter estimation
In general, modal testing can either be classified as gathering a set of fixed-input, roving-
response measurement (one column of the accelerance FRF in Eq. (7.13), and restated here for
convenience), or conversely a fixed-response, roving-input set of measurement (one row of FRF
matrix).
 
A (ω) A12 (ω) · · · A1k (ω)
 11 
 .. 
Ẍi (ω) αi (ω) A21 (ω) A22 (ω) · · · . 
[A(ω)] = = = .
 
Fk (ω) Fk (ω)  . .. .. .. 
 . . . . 

 
Ai1 (ω) Ai2 (ω) · · · Aik (ω)
If done properly, each yields the same information for the system. The former is typically
accomplished using a shaker excitation in a fixed location while accelerometers (or any other re-
sponse detectors) sweeping across the area of interest at measurement points. The latter is usually
accomplished with accelerometers placed in a fixed location while provide the excitation across the
area of interest. In this scenario, an instrumented impact hammer is traditionally used for the im-
pulse excitation in the fixed-response, roving-input test protocol. It is to note that the two testing
technique is not limited to the described setups, however, it is much less common to use an impulse
excitation in the fixed-input, roving-response setup. An alternative to shaker excitation in the fixed-
input, roving-response setup is using an instrumented heel-drop on a force plate at a fixed location,
which is an attractive low cost technique which yet provides the same high quality data. By mea-
suring the input excitation using a force plate, the modal test becomes a referenced test, therefore
high quality data can be assured. Analysis of set of measurement, the experimentally measured
accelerance FRFs is the final step in the processing of experimental modal analysis. Typically, the
measured FRFs contains one column or one row of entries, representing fixed-input, roving-response
and fixed-response, roving-input setup, respectively. These measurements are used to extract the
dynamic properties of frequencies, damping and mode shapes. This process is called the Parameter
Excitation. The different methods for conducting parameter estimation, and the theories behind the
mathematics for each of the methods, is also vast and is better left to texts devoted to the subject.
A good set of reference goes to the textbook by Ewins (2000) and a paper by Avitabile (2006) which
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gives a brief overview and history of the development and implementation of the various methods
for parameter estimation. The method adopted in this research will be addressed in the section ded-
icated to presenting experimental results and testing techniques. Each term in Eq. (7.13), Aik (ω),
represents the accelerance FRF of acceleration response on one location on the floor with respect to
an input force at another location. In a special case, where the excitation and response are measured
at the same place, such FRF entry is called the driving point measurement and is located at the
main-diagonal of the FRF matrix.
The process of parameter estimation is based on relating these FRF measurements to the
mathematical formulation (from analytical derivation) of the accelerance in Eq. (7.12). In the most
basic term, the peak in the FRF indicate the presence of at least one mode, and sharpness of the peaks
indicates the level of damping in that mode. The relative magnitude and phase between different
Aik (ω) characterizes the mode shapes. While various methods are used for parameter estimation,
they all essentially formulate a mathematical formulation simulating the measured accelerance in
terms of estimated parameters (frequencies, damping and mode shape vectors) that would closely
approximate the analytical expression of the accelerance in Eq. (7.12). In such sense, the term
‘parameter estimation’ can be equally replaced with the term ‘curving fitting’. Specific methods used
for curve fitting and estimation of dynamic properties are presented in the data analysis section of the
chapter. With a cursory review of the basics of the modal analysis, the fundamental of the digital
signal processing, the parameter estimation, it is important to describe the commonly available
testing techniques and testing equipments.
7.6.5 Equipment preparation
A referenced modal test was performed on the CLT-Glulam composite beam to analysis its
vibration properties. The response signals from a array of accelerometers (4) were referenced against
the force plate which records the foot step impact. For such a setup, a fixed input, roving response
test was proposed. Figure 7.6 shows a schematic view of the experimental setup.
To briefly introduce the test setup: the laptop interface with the NI cDAQ with NIMAX
(National Instrument Measurement & Automation Explorer) software. Two NI modules were in-
stalled on the compact USB chassis: NI9234 for the force plate (three channels used) and NI9234
for the piezoelectric accelerometers (all four channels used). The NIMAX configured the physi-
cal channels in terms of their terminal locations, data type and sampling rate, whereas the signal
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Figure 7.6: Schematic view of the vibration test setup
recording was performed by the University owned software DAQScribe. Synchronized excitation
and response signals were recorded in a time domain for post-processing. Detailed description of the
testing equipment used are presented in the following paragraphs:
Measurement of Acceleration Response–Accelerometers Acceleration response mea-
surements were taken using PCB model 333B50 shock accelerometers produced by PCB Pieztronics.
The 333B50 accelerometer has a frequency range of 0.5–3K Hz and operating measurement range of
±5g, they are well suited for the purposes of the vibration test of the timber floors. Each accelerom-
eter weights only 7.5 gram (roughly equals to a pencil) and with measured mean peak acceleration
around 0.7g, the accelerometer tends to flip over or jump around without fastening to the test
structure. The PCB engineers were consulted upon the feasible approaches to attach the Titanium
accelerometer housing to wood surface. They recommended super glue or beewax, however, the use
of super glue requires solvent for detachment and it really takes time considering that the accelerom-
eters are constantly roving their positions; the beeswax was also deemed unpractical since the porous
nature of the wood fibers causes the roughness of the was paste and decreases the adherent capacity.
Finally, they recommended a simple solution of hot glue that works well with wood surface and
Titanium housing (see Figure 7.7). It is advised that the thin soft layer of glue acts as a mechanical
filter and it is not feasible for high frequency modal testing (>1K Hz), however, for the problem at
hand with interest in a low frequency range, the attaching method should perform well.
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Figure 7.7: Accelerometer attachment with hot glue
One of the most overlooked item in the modal testing might be the cables as Brillhart
and Hunt (2005) claimed accelerometer cables are often the weakest link in the setup. The 333B50
accelerometers requires a cable of 10-32 to BNC connection. The fiber glass coaxial cable is the most
expensive cable type and are extremely vulnerable to bent or kink. Nearly half of the time required
to test a floor system is relocating the accelerometers and managing the coaxial cables. Extreme
care was taken to ensure the working condition of the cables and it is recommended to purchase
the TFE jacketed cable as the reasonable extra cost would well worth the future frustration if cable
fails.
Measurement of Excitation Forces–Instrumented Force Plate The force plate is an
essential component for the referenced modal test. It is designed to be used on large civil engineering
plate structures such as building floors or pedestrian bridges. Its construction can easily be scaled
up or down depending on the range of the excitation forces. The weight of the device depends on
the plate material and the size of the load cells, and the frequency of interest are normally less
than 30 Hz (depends on the excitation source). The force plate is designed to sit on top of the
structure being excited. Howard et al. (1999) recommended that the weight of the force plate plus
the excitation source to be less than 1% of the weight of the test structure so that the addition of
equipment would have minimum effect on its dynamic response.
The in-house force plate was manufactured with two one quarter inch thick steel plates of
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Figure 7.8: In-house instrumented force plate
Figure 7.9: Calibration of force plate
dimension 2ft by 2ft. Sandwiched in are three loadcells connected in parallel to the top and bottom
steel plates by threaded rods. Loadcells were manufactured by OMEGA Engineering with model
number LC401-1K, each with an operating capacity of ± 1000lbf. These load cells were individually
calibrated and leveled with respect to steel plates. Upon complete assembly of the force plate, the
device was once again calibrated to ensure voltage linearity. Steel blocks were sequentially placed
on the force plate and the output was recorded, the linearity of the force plate was remarkable with
a linear regression R2 infinity close to 1, see Figure 7.9.
One of the problems discovered during the modal testing is the incompatibility of the signal
to noise ratio (SNR) between the load cell signal and acceleration signal. Piezoelectric accelerometer
has proven its superior noise immunity to white noise (Levinzon 2004), however, the LC402 loadcells
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are relatively less immune to the noise.
Loadcell, according to the type of output signal, there are many types of constructions,
for instance, strain gauge cells, mechanic cells, and other types (fiber optic, piezo-resistive, etc.).
The ones used in this study were a Omega Engineering low profile LC402, they are strain gauge
type with nominal resistance of 350Ω, and suitably wired in a four-arm bridge configuration. In
such configuration, two of the gauges are in tension and the rest two in compression, each wired
with compensation adjustments. Due to the nature of the resistor type of strain gauges, the load
cell is buried in a bard-band noise background where the unwanted information and the relevant
signal sometimes share a very similar frequency spectrum (Hernandez 2006). The more the noise
and the relevant signal share the same frequency spectrum, the less the designer can remove the
unwanted information by using classical filtering techniques (Kailath 1974; Anderson and Moore
2005). Among those classic filtering techniques, averaged based filters (moving averaging, Savitzky-
Golay filter, etc.) and resampling are beyond the consideration in smoothing the load cell output,
provided the following reason:
1. by smoothing the data, extreme values are inevitably clipped, while severity of
this clip increase with the length of the moving window;
2. it cause a temporal auto-correction at a lag. For modal testing which signal peak
and location carry important information regarding natural frequency and damping charac-
teristic, the moving average filter and resampling technique were deemed inadequate for the
smooth purpose.
Based on aforementioned disadvantages and the nature of high frequency load cell noise,
it was necessary to apply a filter that is able to eliminate high frequency unwanted signals. In
such scenario, it is ideal to use a FFT filter along with a low pass filter. Easily understood from
its name, an FFT filter performs a fast Fourier transformation to analyze the frequency content of
the input signal, then, followed by an inverse FFT to transform the filtered data into time domain
values. There are five types of filters available in the FFT filter: Low Pass, High Pass, Band Pass,
Band Block and Threshold. For the load cells use in the in-house force plate, low-pass filter was
selected since it is able to block all frequency components above the cutoff frequency, allowing only
low frequency signal (real heel-drop impact signal) to pass. A low-pass filter was designed using a
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cutoff ratio:
Sampling Frequency
Cutoff Ratio = (7.20)
Cutoff Frequency
To visualize the functionality of FFT filter as well as to determine a reasonable frequency
cutoff ratio, the signal to noise ratio (SNR) of the original signal was investigated through a para-
metric study. One of the heel drop time histories was selected for this study, which was sampled at
1651 Hz. Figure 7.10 shows that the vast majority of the noise was filtered out at frequency cutoff
ratio of 2.1, meaning, for the force plate assembly, 1651/2.1=786 Hz represents the dominant noise
frequency. As a matter of fact, a higher cutoff ratio of 8 was selected since a higher ratio doesn’t
increase SNR anymore. Comparison of the original and filtered heel-drop time domain signal is
presented in Figure 7.11. Close inspection of the figure reveals that the peak magnitudes were well
preserved and no lag was observed. For the subsequent modal analysis, loadcell signals were first
filtered before forming the accelerance matrix; while the acceleration signals were untouched.
Figure 7.10: Loadcell noise in decibels (dB)
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Figure 7.11: Original and filtered loadcell signal
7.6.6 Channel configuration
The signal acquiring equipment consisted of a NI cDAQ 9172 compact USB chassis, a NI 9234
module and a NI 9237 module. NI 9234 (Figure 7.12 slot 1) is a four-channel sound and vibration
input module that is able to measure signals from integrated electronic piezoelectric (IEPE) sensors,
such as accelerometers, tachometers etc. NI 9237 (Figure 7.12 slot 3) on the other hand, is a four-
channel analog input module. It has build-in Wheatstone Bridges (full, half and quarter bridges)
that can be activated based on the wiring diagram. For the cable connections, 9234 utilize a BNC
connector whereas 9237 uses a regular RJ-50.
A standard laptop running NIMAX 16.0 was used to configure the chassis and individual
modules. The configuration task involved assigning the physical terminal locations of each sensor,
set up the bridge type (full bridge for loadcell), signal input range, resistant (loadcell only), and
sensitivity (accelerometer only).
The NI chassis has a internal master time base that can be used to synchronize all the
modules it carries. The data sampling rate of the chassis, without any filter or resampling procedure,
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Figure 7.12: Modal test signal acquiring system.
can be calculated as follows:
fM
fs = (7.21)
256 · n
where fM is the internal master time base 13.1072 MHz; n is an integer from 0 to 31. If n is taken
as 31, the minimum sampling frequency of the data acquisition system can be calculated as 1651.6
Hz and this was used throughout the modal test.
7.7 Experimental Testing Method
The experimental modal testing is a dedicated research activity that is often subject to
compromises and influences. Understandably, the limitation of the available equipment is the most
notable compromise that constrains the information that can be obtained. Time, however, is an
other critical factor that has the greatest influence on the quality, quantity and perhaps the level of
detail during the dynamic measurements. A fine frequency resolution is often critical and particular
when the damping ratio is low. In fact, fine frequency resolution comes at a cost of longer record
length. In addition, the existence of white noise, regardless if the testing is performed in field or in a
laboratory, requires higher number of averages to improve the quality of FRF measurement. Large
test area, fine testing grid, need for signal averaging all take time. The best way to address the
inevitable compromise is to clearly define the overall objectives of the dynamic testing of the floor
system and match those needs with the equipment and time needed for testing.
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In the presented study, the test piece is a 5ft by 40ft composite timber beam that has
a potential vibration serviceability issue related to humman perceptions. The objectives are to
capture enough measurements to adequately estimate the modal properties and validate an FEM
model. This translate to the typical activities of the experimental modal analysis in identifying the
natural frequencies, estimating level of damping in the floor system and determine the mode shapes
(for corresponding natural frequencies). And the frequency band of interest is in the low 100, which
building occupants are sensitive at. While all measurements satisfy the overall objective of the
proposed modal testing to some degree, different types of measurement and methods of testing have
different goals. In traditional modal testing setup using a shaker, the sweeping sine or other types of
broadband excitation (eg. instrumented heel-drop) is used to measure the accelerance FRF over a
certain frequency range of interest. Steady state sinusoidal excitation is used primarily to verify the
accelerance FRF values at specific frequency lines and also serve as the initial excitation for decay
measure. In the presented study, the instrumented heel-drop was selected as the excitation source,
since it is easy to perform and requires no expensive equipment but a force plate. As Raebel et al.
(2001) indicated, the force plate provides better portability compare to the heavy electrodynamic
shaker and their study has proven the heel-drop is a good way of exciting the floor, there is no need
to use the shaker unless very high quality data is required or the frequency range of interest exceeds
30 Hz.
7.7.1 Instrumented heel-drop test
Heel-drop is a form of a broadband excitation where the foot heel impulse is performed on
the force plate and excites the test structure. It can be effectively used in the referenced modal
test in forming the accelerance FRF matrix. Heel drop is a very simple method that has been used
for years (Lenzen 1966) in which a person stands in the middle of the floor, assuming a natural
stance, maintaining straight needs, rising onto his toes approximately 2.5 in. and suddenly relaxing
to allow the full weight to freefall and strike the floor with his heels. A demonstration of heel-drop
excitation on a force plate in shown in Figure 7.13. The heel drop impact is normally idealized as
a triangular pulse with initial magnitude 600 lbs, decrease to zeros over 0.05 seconds, totaling an
impulse of 67 N·s. Some design guides that use heel drop (such as Canadian Steelwork Code 1989)
often treat it as an impulse of 70 N·s. The obvious advantages of the heel drop test are that it is
easy to perform and relatively low burden on the budget. By using a simple force plate placed on
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Figure 7.13: Heel-drop impact on a force plate
the floor, the well-known heel-drop test can be adapted to be a part of an effective modal testing
technique: instrumented heel-drop test. Blakeborough and Williams (2003) evaluated the use of
instrumented heel drop (where force impulse history is obtained through a force plate) test as an
alternative source of excitation for conducting modal testing on a floor. They discovered that the
application of instrumented heel drop test provide good coherence across the bandwidth. In addition,
heel drop test gives a much smother FRF, making it easier and more importantly to obtain accurate
estimates of natural frequency modal damping. They concluded that instrumented heel drop test
showed excellent resolution of frequency response functions in the range of 2 to 15 Hz, making it
ideally suited to determine the modal properties of floors.
The force plate was placed on the slab-on-grade to investigate the measuring consistency over
a few heel-drop impacts. Figure 7.14 shows the time history of the main impact and subsequent
body vibrations of seven heel-drops performed by the same person. the signal of the seven time
histories was synchronized based on the time of the peak force and it can be seen that a single
person is able to achieve high degree of repeatability. Figure 7.15 shows a single heel-drop history
for an experimentalist (myself) weighted 170lb. The weight of the top steel plate was included in
the total weight. In the first part of the signal the experimentalist rises from a normal standing
position onto his toes. This causes small fluctuations in force as he accelerates upwards and then
comes to temporary rest. The experimentalist then balances on his toes for about half a second
before bringing his heels down, causing an initial reduction in vertical force as his center of gravity
accelerates downwards, followed by a very sharp increase in force at the moment of heel impact.
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Following the main impact there is a short period of heavily damped oscillation at a frequency of
around 5 Hz: this is due to vertical vibration of the human body. As discussed thereof, heel-drop
is fixed input, roving response modal test. Upon explanation of how the impact signal is generated,
the following sections further discuss the location of the excitation, the placement of accelerometers
on testing grid and details of the signal acquiring.
Figure 7.14: Time history of 7 heel-drop impacts
Test piece discretization and accelerometer placement The general rule of thumb
of determining the test grid is to estimate the modal shapes and place enough grid points where
the mode shapes have credible chance to be captured. It is anticipated the first and second bend-
ing modes and the torsional mode, all in the long direction (due to the aspect ratio 8, the short
direction has much larger bending stiffness and torsional rigidity) will be captured. Therefore, for
the transverse direction, the beam surface was evenly discretized into four grid lines, while the the
long direction, the grid was spaced at 1ft on center. The dense grid of 156 nodes in Figure 7.16 (it
only shows half of the span) was used for analysis of the topic above. To clearly mark the nodes
for its convenient handling in the parameter extraction phase, the surface of the test specimen was
pencil-marked with 39 column and 4 row lines. The following equation was used to assign the node
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Figure 7.15: A single time history of heel-drop impact
number based on its location:
N odeN umber = (Row − 1) × 39 + Column (7.22)
For example, the node on column 10, row 3 was marked with number 88.
Figure 7.16: Grid lines used in the heel-drop modal testing (only half of the span shown)
Four 333B50 accelerometers were ordered from PCB and they occupied all channels in
NI9237 during the test. These accelerometers were grouped in an array and were used to scan
through the specimen, one column at a time. Figure 7.17 shows one of the measurements where the
accelerometers were placed at Column 25 while force plate placed at Column 22, Row 2.
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Figure 7.17: An array of accelerometers scanning the test piece surface at Column 25
Placement of excitation Placement of the excitation will not greatly affect the quality
of the data provided the excitation is not located on a nodal line or directly above a support
column. The nodal lines are referred to the line locations where the modal shape has no magnitude
(Schwarz and Richardson 1999). For a rectangular floor, the excitation should not be placed along
the centerline of the floor in either direction, it also should not be placed along the lines occurring
at the third points of the floors as there are nodal lines for some of the low frequency modes. If
the excitation or force input is located on a nodal line, the modes will not be seen in the frequency
response function and thus can’t be obtained. Therefore the excitation was placed at Row 2, Column
22 with node number 61. The photo and the schematic view of the excitation placement can be
found in Figure 7.18 and Figure 7.19.
Record length and bandwidth One of the key parameters in modal testing is the
determination of the bandwidth of interest. As discussed thereof, the frequency above 50 Hz do not
contribute significantly to the response of a floor subject to foot step impact. In fact, the heel-drop
excitation only provides sufficient energy in the 0–30 Hz frequency range, therefore a bandwidth of
30 Hz was chosen for the data collection. Once the bandwidth is determined, the minimum required
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Figure 7.18: Picture of the excitation placement on node 61
Figure 7.19: Schematic view of the excitation placement
sampling rate can be calculated using the Nyquist Criterion (Golnaraghi and Kuo 2010):
fs > 2B (7.23)
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The Nyquist Criterion clearly indicates the minimum sampling rate to sufficiently capture a contin-
uous signal is twice the bandwidth, 60 S/s in case. However, as discussed in section named Channel
Configuration, the sampling rate of the NI system was set at its lowest minimum: 1651.6 Hz. There-
fore the current setup of sampling rate was more than enough to completely capture the signal in
the desired bandwidth. In an effort to sufficiently record the decay of the motion, a 40 second time
window was used after each impact, making sure the motion is completely waned out. So for each
impact recording, each accelerometer will generate 66064 samples. Using the closest power of 2, the
number of samples used for data post processing is determined to be 216 = 65536. The following
table summarizes the digital signal process settings:
Table 7.2: Digital signal process settings

Bandwidth Sampling Rate Record Length Frequency Resolution
(Hz) (S/s) (Samples) (Hz)
30 1651.6 65536 (216 ) 0.025
Signal averaging It should be addressed that the experimental measurement of the ac-
celerance involves signal averaging to reduce the effect of ambient noise. In other word, repeated
excitations are needed for each of the measuring nodes. The cross-spectrum and auto-spectrum in
Eq. (7.18) are updated with each heel-drop impact, using the recorded force and acceleration re-
sponse. Note Fourier transformations is needed to convert time domain signals to the cross-spectrum
and auto-spectrum in frequency domain. In the following sections where frequency domain functions
are presented, they reflect the averaged functions. The number of averages needed for a measure-
ment is a compromise between data confidence and lengthy experimental time. The confidence in the
data is measured by the high level of coherence (Eq. (7.19)), while the minimum number should be
whatever ensures quality measurements as indicated by good coherence function. For experimental
measurement of the accelerance FRF, it was determined five averages of each heel-drop impact were
needed to ensure the quality of the measurement within the frequency range of interest, as a higher
number of average did not improve the coherence, only lengthened the time required to take the
measurement.
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7.7.2 Flow chart of the test procedure
Prior to the destructive tests described in Chapter 6, two sets of non-destructive heel-drop
modal analyses were conducted for the composite beam. Each of the modal analyses varied in their
boundary condition of the end supports. The two boundary condition considered in the tests were
fixed and pinned, which can be seen in the Figure 7.20. The composite beam was fastened on a pair
of W18s on its two far end, while these two W18s were bolted down to the strong floor at all times
during the test. Such configuration is referred to as the grounded specimen test, compared to the
other two types: free support and in-situ. For the fixed boundary condition, the composite beam was
sandwiched in between two W sections (a W18 and a W8). In addition, a piece of 2x6 was clamped
underneath the top W8 to mimic the true loading scenario where a partition or load-bearing wall
sits on top of the floor assembly. It is to be noted that ‘fixed’ boundary condition achieved here is
an idealization of its true definition, the joint will allow small amount of rotations in three rotation
degree of freedoms. The pinned boundary condition involved clamping of the CLT bottom flange
to the grounded W18s through threaded rods. Therefore the translational DOFs were constrained,
allowing rotations in its rotational DOFs.
(a) Fixed B.C. (b) Pinned B.C.
Figure 7.20: Boundary conditions considered in the experimental modal analyses
The experimental modal test started with preparation activities such as setting up the lap-
top and force plate, gluing the accelerometers on the beam surface, running the wires, and checking
connectivity. A timer was used to remind the experimentalist of the 40 second signal collection
window. Once ready, the experimentalist heel-drop impacts the force plate (as well as the beam)
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for 5 times before roving the accelerometers to the next column. It was repeated 39 times with 4
accelerometers in a column to cover whole specimen, as Figure 7.21 shows the measurement being
recorded at Column23. During the measurement of each column, coherence functions were contin-
uously monitored to ensure capturing the highest quality data whenever possible. To summarize, a
flow chart of the test procedure is Figure 7.22.
Figure 7.21: Schematic view of the excitation placement
7.8 Presentation of Measured FRFs
The previous sections described the theory, equipment and methods involved in experimental
modal testing using heel-drop excitation. To note, it virtually can be applied to any type of floor
system, not just composite timber floor. Laboratory floor system typically differs from in-situ floor
system, mainly due to the idealized boundary conditions, and the finite space available to achieve a
full scale multi-span, multi-bay setup. Contrast to grounded laboratory test specimens, on-situ floor
system typically covers larger area and the presence of partition walls and building contents often
contribute to the modal parameters. Unfortunately, opportunities to test large in-situ CLT floor
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Figure 7.22: Modal test flow chart
system are rare as its difficult to locate a CLT building on the east United States. Ever rare are
the opportunities to test the floor system made of mass timber and fastened using the state-of-art
self-tapping inclined screws.
The presented research includes the extensive modal testing and complete parameter ex-
traction, all in the hope to characterize the dynamic property of the grounded composite timber
floor system. The floor assembly served as valuable test specimen and provide significant insight
into the improvement of the currently design, and possibly the application of multi-bay multi-span
floor systems. The rest of this section presents the measurement results and behavior of the test
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floor in each boundary condition are summarized, including natural frequencies, damping, and mode
shapes. Finally, the vibration serviceability of the test floor is assessed again and compared to the
DG11’s estimation.
For each of the tested floor, the driving point accelerance FRF is presented first. This FRF is
the key measurement for the modal parameter extraction and provides the strongest measurements
for estimating frequencies and damping. The natural frequencies will be identified for both sets
of the experimental modal analysis. In each entry of the FRF accelerance matrix, the peak on
the magnitude plot (or a dive in the phase plot) is evidence of at least one mode, however, some
are clearly more significant than others. The dominant frequency can be visually identified as the
frequency with the largest magnitude. Therefore, the term ‘dominant frequency’ is used rather than
the ‘fundamental frequency’ since it is commonly reserved to describe the lowest frequency of the
structure and the dominant frequency may or may not be the fundamental frequency. Estimations
of damping using the half power bandwidth method were performed on the driving point accelerance
and composite FRF. For comparison of manually identified natural frequencies and damping ratios
for the FRFs, results from modal software ABRAVIBE were also presented. This modal analysis
software was further used to extract the mode shapes using SDOF curve fitting and fitting algorithm
will be presented.
Modal Analysis Software The modal analysis software used in this research was the
ABRAVIBE Version 1.2 (Brandt 2011). It is free, open Matlab toolbox for analysis of noise and
vibration signals. It was developed not only for vibration analysis, but also a tool for learning as
it provides numerous examples for common acoustic and vibration tasks. The software contains a
suite of Matlab executables that are able to handle the basic signal processing required in modal
analysis, it should be appeal to any one in the signal processing area who wishes to perform spectral
analysis or generate FRF matrix using FFT based methods. For a typical referenced modal analysis,
ABRAVIBE provides a template executable that allows a semi-automatic modal parameter extrac-
tions (among them the most important ones are frequencies, dampings and mode shapes) with the
user-provided FRF matrix. The software also allows the user to construct the 3-D model for the test
floor by importing the node location and connectivity matrices. The software also has the ability
to perform the parameter estimation by curve fitting a set of imported FRFs. Although multiple
fitting algorithms are available in the software, the chose technique was the SDOF rational fraction
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polynomial curve fitting algorithm. The MDOF has the advantages of fitting several FRF peaks
simultaneously and capturing closely spaced modes, however, it was not needed in the presented
research since the natural frequencies were well separated and the application of SDOF algorithm
greatly reduced the processing time.
Driving point and full accelerance With the shaker at node 61, a total of 5 driving
point measurements were taken from the heel-drop impacts (same for other nodes). Figure 7.23
and Figure 7.24 contain the accelerance FRF magnitude, phase and coherence for five driving point
measurements. Notice the FRF magnitude and phase plots are very consistent between each mea-
surement and there are excellent coherence at the accelerance magnitude peaks, indicating a well
correlated, good quality data set were obtained. This full set of accelerance matrix contains 156
frequency response functions, with one at each measuring node. As Eq. (7.14) indicates, each entry
of the accelerance matrix contains the same information regarding the global modal frequencies and
damping ratios, however, driving point accelerance are typically selected thanks to their stronger
signal and better coherence. As a matter of fact, it is of interest to verify and compare the modal
parameters extracted from full set of data in a average sense and from driving point measurements.
Similar to Figure 7.23 and Figure 7.24, accelerance and coherence functions of 156 measurements
are presented in Figure 7.25 and Figure 7.26.
In addition to the 2D plots, commonly displayed FRF formats include waterfall plot and
spectrogram (although waterfall is usually the inverted spectrogram), these plot provide better
visualizations of the FRF magnitude or even sometimes the mode shape if the test piece possess a
very simple geometry (Avitabile 2006). Spectrograms presented in this study are three dimensional
plots made by stacking up the consecutive 2D plots shown in Figure 7.25. Figure 7.27 shows a
spectrogram of the FRF magnitudes measured at all nodes, i.e. the Y-axis (DOF Number) notates
the FRF measurement location. The ridge-like peaks in Figure 7.27 indicates the existence of a
mode and the spreadness of the peak at the mode frequency informs the damping ratio of this very
mode. The following section will discuss the extraction of natural frequencies and mode shapes from
driving point as well as complete set of FRF measurements.
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Figure 7.23: Driving point accelerance and coherence for the fixed boundary condition. Force plate
and accelerometer in node 61
7.9 System identification from measured FRF data set
System identification from measured FRFs plays a crucial role in structural dynamics as
it bridge the gap from experimental measurement to system dynamic properties. The most pop-
ular identification approach is based on the modal analysis method, leading to a interpretation of
visualized eigenmodes.
In practice, near all vibration problems are related to structural resonance behavior (that
is natural frequency excited by input force). Earlier in this chapter, it has been shown that the
complete dynamic behavior of a structure (in a frequency range) can be viewed as the summation
of a set of individual modes of vibration, each having a characteristic modal parameters: natural
frequency, damping ratio and mode shape. The modal parameters can be identified from a set
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Figure 7.24: Driving point accelerance and coherence for the pinned boundary condition. Force
plate and accelerometer in node 61
of frequency response measurement between a reference point (driving point) and a number of
measurement points. Such measurement point, is usually referred as a degree-of-freedom. The
modal frequencies and damping ratios can be found from all FRF measurements on the structure.
These two parameters are therefore called the ‘global parameters’. A FRF measurement on a typical
DOF is often repeated several times for improved accuracy and reliability. However, to accurately
extract the mode shapes, FRF measurement must be made over a number of DOFs, to ensure
sufficient detailed covering over the test piece.
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Figure 7.25: Accelerance and coherence plot for all measured 156 nodes for fixed boundary condition
7.9.1 Determination of modal frequencies
The purpose of the modal tested performed in this study involves the identification of the
modal parameters, with particular interest in the natural frequencies. Natural vibration frequencies
are directly related to human perception of annoyance as low range frequencies often cause resonance
of human organs, and this could lead to nausea, headache, elevated mental stress or other discomforts.
Observation of spectrogram (Figure. 7.27) averaged at all DOF indicated the test specimen to be
a lightly-coupled (or simple) structure. The modes are not closely spaced and are not heavily
damped. It is therefore assume that the CLT-Glulam composite beam to be a simple structure,
as it behaves predominately as a combination of a suite of SDOF systems. So far, a number of
mathematical modes on the modal parameter extraction have been developed and can be roughly
classified by either parametric or non-parametric method. Generally, parametric methods such as
214
Figure 7.26: Accelerance and coherence plot for all measured 156 nodes for pinned boundary condi-
tion
Ibrahim Time Domain (ITD), Eigenststem Realization Algorithm (ERA), Least-square Complex
Frequency Analysis (LSCF), Algorithm of Mode Isolation (AMI), etc. are preferable in accurate
estimation of modal parameters. However, they tend to be more computational expensive. Non-
parametric ones such as Peak-picking (PP), Frequency Domain Decomposition (FDD) have the
advantages being fast in process and easy to visualize the results.
Among the non-parametric methods, peak picking has been widely used to quickly assess the
natural frequencies due to its simplicity, straightforwardness and reliability (De Roeck et al. 2000).
215
Figure 7.27: Spectrogram of all FRF measurements
On the other hand, the accuracy of the peak picking method often depends on the freuquency
resolution of the analysis. In this study, 40 seconds of signal was recorded for each heel-drop impact,
resulting a frequency domain resolution of 0.025 Hz, which is acceptable for using the peak pick
method. The method itself is named after its key step: the identification of the natural frequencies
as the peaks of an FRF plot. The peak picking method is based on the fact that the FRF goes
through an extremum around the natural frequencies. The frequency at which this extremum occurs
is a good estimate for the natural frequencies.
Theoretically, natural frequency and damping are global system parameters that do not
vary with respect to measurement points, however, equipment noise, leakage and white noise may
contribute to variations in the detected parameters. Therefore, in addition to the parameter ex-
traction from driving point accelerance, it is also a common practice to identify natural frequencies
and damping ratios on each measured FRF and take their mean as the system modal parameters.
However, this is sometimes easier said than done since the DOF on the nodes might not capture
any resonance frequency at certain vibration mode (a node is the point that remains still when the
structure is vibrating at a certain natural frequency. Therefore a peak picking at composite FRF
defined as the average of the magnitude at all response points gives a good overall estimate of the
natural frequency and damping ratios. Mathematically, the composite FRF can be calculated as:
Ni X
No
1 X
Hc (ω) = composite(realH(ω)) = real(Hjk (ω)) (7.24)
No Ni j=1
k=1
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Using Eq. (7.24), the composite FRF for fixed boundary condition with the peaks identified
can be shown in Figure. 7.28. The composite FRF gives a good global picture of the information
contained in the individual FRFs. For example, all of the modal peaks seen in Figure 7.27 are
evident in Figure 7.28. Note that it is difficult to find a single FRF put of the set in Figure 7.27
that gives as good a representation as the composite does of all pf the modes of the structure. One
reason for this is the noise in the individual magnitude FRFs is canceled when averaging them from
to form the composite FRF. Use composite FRF has the following advantages:
(A) Decreased noise level due to the average process. The curve are smoothed for
easier frequency identification;
(B) Increased visibility of peaks in the frequency domain FRFs since certain measure-
ment DOFs at node might not carry all the modal parameters.
Figure 7.28: Composite FRF magnitude created from the heel drop test. Natural frequencies are
identified as red dots
For driving point accelerance (Figure 7.23) and composite FRF maginitude (Figure 7.28),
peak picking method identified the same natural frequencies for the fixed and free boundary condition
test pieces, with 7.2 Hz and 6.7 Hz being as the dominant frequencies, respectively. The other non-
dominant natural frequencies are reported along with the damping ratios in the following section.
217
7.9.2 Determination of modal damping ratios
The first method to obtain damping of a mode is the half power bandwidth. The half power
use the transfer function FRF directly to obtain the damping. The half power band is defined as the
√
frequency range enclosed within the -3 dB drop, which is roughly at 2 = 0.707 of the maximum
amplitude (exact:20log10 ( √12 ) ≈ −3.0103dB).
Once a mode is isolated, the peak magnitude and natural frequency can be identified as A1
and fr . Then magnitude at half band frequency fa and fb is:
A1
A2 = √ (7.25)
2
The frequency fa and fb associated with the half power points on either side of the peak
are obtained, as shown in Figure 7.29. Then the damping ratio ζ is obtained using the following
equation:
fb − fa
ζ= (7.26)
2fr
It is worth noting that half power bandwidth method limit its application to lightly damper
structures (less than 5%), as the damped natural frequency ωd is typically close to natural frequency
ωn (see Chopra et al. (1995) for derivation).
Alternatively, the damping can be obtained from time domain analysis which requires no
new measurement. Consider free vibration of a damped system, the impulse response function can
be found in many articles, including that of Harris and Beyer (1988):
p
h(t) = A0 e−ζωn t sin( 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + ζ) (7.27)
where ωn is the natural frequency, A0 is the residual magnitude, and ζ is the damping ratio associated
with this natural frequency. Here the oscillating term is given by a sine wave at damped natural
frequency and the damping is represented by the exponentially decaying curve. It is well known
that the dissipating mechanism can be detected by the analysis of the decaying envelop A(t) of
the impulse response function. For a SDOF system, the constitutive function A(t) is known in the
218
Figure 7.29: Illustration of half power bandwidth method
explicit form:
A(t) = A0 e−ζωn t (7.28)
√
where ζ = 2c km and m and k are mass and stiffness of the system respectively. The envelop
function can be be obtained using a Hilbert transform (Bracewell and Bracewell 1986) of the impulse
response function:
ln A(t) = −ζωn t + ln A0 (7.29)
Thus the damping ratio ζ of the system can be estimated form the slope of the straight
envelop line A(t) plotted in a log in a semi-logarithmic scale. This procedure is well known in the
literature and can be found elsewhere (Staszewski 1997; Brancaleoni et al. 1993).
Table 7.3 and 7.4 shows the damping ratios estimated by the half power bandwidth method
and the time domain impulse response functions. Both of them yielded close estimations. Further
observation of Tables reveals that all damping ratios are less than 5% of the critcal damping. This
has indicated that the assumptions made earlier which treat the beam as a simple structure as well
as light coupling between modes are valid.
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Table 7.3: Damping estimates for composite beam with fixed boundary condition
Mode number Natural Frequency (Hz) Half power bandwith Impulse Response Function
Mode1 7.2 1.00% 0.99%
Mode2 15.8 1.14% 1.14%
Mode3 20.5 1.39% 1.31%
Mode4 24.0 2.97% 3.00%
Table 7.4: Damping estimates for composite beam with pinned boundary condition
Mode number Natural Frequency (Hz) Half power bandwith Impulse Response Function
Mode1 6.7 1.03% 1.01%
Mode2 15.5 1.13% 1.14%
Mode3 19.4 1.41% 1.36%
7.9.3 Determination of mode shapes
The previous sections discussed the extractions of the key modal parameters: natural fre-
quency and damping ratios. If the structure is excited with any of its natural frequencies, the
resonance occurs. The structure naturally vibrates and displace in a pattern and this configuration
is often described as the mode shapes. The animate display of mode shapes describes the pattern of
the vibration and it’s very useful for N V H (noise, vibration, and harshness) engineers. The open-
source ABRAVIBE Version 1.2 (Brandt 2011) software was used to analyze the vibration signals
measured in the experimental modal test. Before diving into the mathematical formulas and curve
fitting, it is of paramount importance to introduce the concept of system poles, which will be used
throughout the ABRAV IBE program.
The motion of a single degree of freedom system can be described by Eq. (7.30):
mẍ(t) + cẋ(t) + kx(t) = f (t) (7.30)
with m the mass, c the damping coefficient, and k the stiffness. The equation states that the sum of
all forces action on the mas m should be equal to zero, with externally applied force f (t), −mẍ(t)
the inertia force, −cẋ(t) the viscous damping force and −kx(t) the restoring force. The variable
stands for the position of the mass m with respect to its equilibrium point. Transforming Eq. (7.30)
to the Laplace domain (assuming zero initial conditions) yields:
Z(s)X(s) = F (s) (7.31)
220
with Z(x) the dynamic stiffness:
Z(s) = ms2 + cs + k (7.32)
The transfer function H(s) between displacement and force (Laplace domain Receptance),
X(s) = H(s)F (s), equals the inverse of the dynamic stiffness:
1
H(s) = (7.33)
ms2 + cs + k
The roots if the denominator of the transfer function, i.e. d(s) = ms2 + cs + k, are the poles
of the system. In other word, at system poles, the vibrating structure reaches its global ultimatum
(resonance). The poles, denoted λ usually resulting in a complex conjugate pair:
λ = −σ ± iωd (7.34)
p
with fd = ωd /2π the damped natural frequency; fn = ωn /2π natural frequency where ωn = k/m =
|λ| and ζ = c/2mωn = σ/|λ| the damping ratio. If, for instance, a mass δm is added to the original
p
system, its natural frequency decreases to ωn = k/(m + δm). If c = 0, the system is not damped
and the poles becomes purely imaginary, λ = ±iωn .
The Frequency Response Function (FRF), denoted by H(ω) is obtained by replacing the
Laplace variable s in Eq. (7.33) by iω resulting in:
1 1
H(ω) = = (7.35)
−mω 2 + icω + k (k − mω 2 ) + icω
p
Clearly, if c = 0, then H(ω) goes to infinity for ω approximating to ωn = k/m.
Although very few practical structure could realistically be modeled by SDOF system, the
properties of such a system are important because those of a more complex multiple-degree-of-
freedom system can always be represented as the linear superposition of a number of SDOF charac-
teristics.
For a structure with N degree-of-freedom, the transfer function H(s) similar to Eq. (7.33)
can be written as:
1 N (s)
H(s) = = (7.36)
M s2 + Cs + K d(s)
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with the numerator polynomial matrix N (s) given by:
N (s) = adj(M s2 + Cs + K) (7.37)
where adj is the adjugate and the common denominator polynomial d(s), also known as the charac-
teristic polynomial:
d(s) = det(M s2 + Cs + K) (7.38)
When the damping are small, the roots of the characteristic polynomial d(s) are complex
conjugate pole pairs, λm and λ∗m , m = 1, ..., Nm , with N.m the number of modes of the system.
The transfer function can be rewritten in a pole residual term (Balmès et al. 1996), i.e. the so-called
‘modal’ model:
Nm ∗
X Rm Rm
H(s) = + (7.39)
m=1
s − λm s − λ∗m
where s = jω if converted into modal mode. The residual matrices Rm , m = 1, ..., Nm , are defined
by
Rm = lim H(s)(s − λm ) (7.40)

s→λm
It can be shown that the matrix Rm is of rank one, meaning that Rm can be decomposed
as:
 


 Ψm (1) 



 

 
 Ψm (2) 
 
T
Rm = Ψm Ψm .. Ψm (1) Ψm (2) ··· Ψm (Nm ) (7.41)
.

 


 


 


Ψ (N ) 
m m
with Ψm a vector representing the ‘mode shape’ of mode m. From Eq. (7.39), it is concluded that
the transfer function of a MDOF system with Nm DOFs is the sum of Nm transfer functions and
that the full transfer function matrix is complete characterized by the modal parameters, i.e. the
poles λ = −σ ± iωd and the mode shape vectors Ψm . As such, the following section will focus on
the the mathematical extraction of system poles and mode shape vectors.
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Estimation of system poles If a measurement can be taken in a reliable and true
fashion, then it can be assumed that a parametric model can be defined that describe the data.
This process is often referred to as the ’curve fitting’ as the modal testing community strive to
parametrically express the measured signals, regardless whether the data are presented in frequency
domain (FRFs) or time domain (impulse response function). For impulse response function (IRF),
the relation between measurement and modal parameters is expressed:
Nm
X ∗
∗
hij = (rijm eλm t + rijm eλm t ) (7.42)
m=1
where λm is the pole value for mode m. Convert Eq. (7.39) into modal space, the similar relationship
in frequency domain can be expressed:
Nm ∗
X rijm rijm
Hij (jω) = + (7.43)
m=1
jω − λm jω − λ∗m
With the established relationship between measurement and mathematical model, curve
fitting techniques are required to interpret first the system poles λ and the corresponding mode
shapes Ψm . A variety of fitting method are available, selection of a method will primary base on
the application, DOF, domain and type of inputs. A modal analysis software manual published
by Simens LMS Lab (Simens 2011) provides a brief overview of the popular extraction methods.
However, only the method used in the ABRAVIBE program is discussed: least square complex
exponential method (LSCE). LSCE has its unique advantages of handling multiple input multiple
output (MIMO) data set and global parameter estimation ability in the time domain. Global
parameter estimation refers to fitting of multiple systems poles simultaneously, however, LSCE is
often challenged with highly coupled structure with close spaced modes. For better estimation of the
system poles and mode shapes, LSCE was applied at each manually select frequency which contains
only one peak.
The first step involved in using the LSCE method is to select the frequency range of interest
(see Figure 7.30 for example selection for the dominant mode) and convert the accelerance to recep-
tance since the transfer function shown in Eq. (7.36) is defined upon displacement. This conversion
can be found in Eq. (7.12). The frequency domain FRF were then converted into time domain
equivalent impulse response function (IRF). Since the measured data was sampled (not continuous),
223
so rather than working with Eq. (7.42), it necessary to work with:
Nm
X
n ∗ ∗n
hij = (rijm zm + rijm zm ) (7.44)
m=1
where zk = eλm δt . Instead of damped complex exponentials, the characteristics are now power series
with base number zm . It can be shown that the sampled data is the solution of a linear finite
difference equation with constant real coefficient of order 2Nm :
hij,n + a1 hij,n−1 + ... + a2Nm hij,n−2Nm = 0 (7.45)
The characteristics zk as well the system conjugate poles can be found by solving:
zk2Nm + a1 zk2Nm −1 + ... + a2Nm = 0 (7.46)
Figure 7.30: Section of frequency range for LSCE method. Figure shows the range selected for the
dominant frequency
Such procedure was repeated for each peak in the accelerance plot and thus a total of seven
poles were identified for the measured signals. Table 7.5 identifies the seven system poles and shows
agreement with previously identified natural frequencies and damping ratios (Tables 7.3 and 7.4).
Curve fitting for mode shapes Once the system poles were identified, the curve fit-
ting process for mode shapes were fairly easy considering the use of Eq.(7.43). The residual term
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Table 7.5: System poles identified for the composite beam during modal testing
Mode number System pole

Fixed–Mode1 -0.4524 ± 45.2367i
Fixed–Mode2 -1.1317 ± 99.2679i
Fixed–Mode3 -1.7904 ± 128.7929i
Fixed–Mode4 -4.4787 ± 150.7299i
Pinned–Mode1 -0.4336 ± 42.0951i
Pinned–Mode2 -1.1005 ± 97.3882i
Pinned–Mode3 -1.7187 ± 121.8817i
containing the mode shape vector Ψ can be obtained by flipping Eq. (7.43):
Rm = Hij (jω)(jω − λm ) (7.47)
Figure 7.31 shows the curve fitting result at DOF-1 for the composite beam with fixed
boundary condition. the fitted curve captured the peak location and the openness of the curve
indicated the correct amount of damping was parameterized. During the curve fitting process, each
synthesized curve was visually inspected to ensure accuracy.
Note λm is the complex conjugate system pole and Hij (jω) is the measured Receptance FRF. Curve
fitting loops through all measurement point i and generates the mode shape vector Ψ. It is well
understood that there is no unique solution for mode shapes and the mode shapes presented in this
study were scaled individually for better visualization. The 2D horizontal line and 2D orthographic
view visualization functions developed in ABRAVIBE were used to plot the mode shapes. Recall
that the test pieces was grided into 156 DOFs with 39 columns and 4 rows (Figure 7.16), the display
models were constructed in the exact same fashion with the black dot indicates the measuring point.
So one should expect to see four dots in one measuring column in the 2D plot. Figures 7.32 and
7.33 show the all mode shapes at identified mode shapes. Upon visually inspection of the plotted
mode shapes, the recognized vibration modes are summarized in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6: Vibration modes for composite CLT-Glulam beam
Mode number Natural frequency (Hz) Vibration mode

Fixed–Mode1 7.2 First bending mode
Fixed–Mode2 15.8 First torsional mode
Fixed–Mode3 20.5 Second bending mode
Fixed–Mode4 24.0 Second torsional mode
Pinned–Mode1 6.7 First bending mode
Pinned–Mode2 15.5 Torsional mode
Pinned–Mode3 19.4 Second bending mode
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Figure 7.31: Example curve fitting at DOF-1
7.9.4 Assessment of signal quality
It is clear that the mode shapes presented in Figure 7.33 contain irregularities and these ir-
regularities are not uncommon to the experimental modal analysis. Multiple causes could contribute
to the slightly degraded mode shapes: quality of the signal, the compatibility of the excitation and
response signals, the content of white noise and equally important is the curve fitting process. One of
the direct measurement of signal quality is the coherence function discussed in the Signal Processing
section. The coherence functions indicates the correlation between excitation and response and were
therefore continuously monitored during the test to ensure linear dependence. Figure 7.34 presents
the coherence functions which are plotted on top of the composite FRF. Note since each of the
measurement DOF should generate a coherence function, a set of 10 and 90 percentile functions are
provided to indicate the variance within the 156 measurements. The coherence functions indicate
excellent linear dependence between excitation and response above 5 Hz. In fact, at FRF peaks
226
(a) Fixed–Mode1–7.2Hz–First bending mode
(b) Fixed–Mode2–15.8Hz–First torsional mode
(c) Fixed–Mode3–20.5Hz–Second bending mode
(d) Fixed–Mode4–24.0Hz–Second torsional mode
(e) Pinned–Mode1–6.7Hz–First bending mode
(f) Pinned–Mode2–15.5Hz–Torsional mode
(g) Pinned–Mode3–19.4Hz–Second bending mode
Figure 7.32: 2D mode shapes at identified natural frequencies
227
(a) Fixed–Mode1–7.2Hz–First bending mode (b) Pinned–Mode1–6.7Hz–First bending mode
(c) Fixed–Mode2–15.8Hz–First torsional mode (d) Pinned–Mode2–15.5Hz–Torsional mode
(e) Fixed–Mode3–20.5Hz–Second bending mode (f) Pinned–Mode3–19.4Hz–Second bending mode
(g) Fixed–Mode4–24.0Hz–Second torsional mode
Figure 7.33: 3D mode shapes at identified natural frequencies
228
Figure 7.34: Coherence function with 10th and 90th percentile values
where natural frequencies were identified, the 90th percentile values consistently reach beyond 0.92.
It is therefore concluded that the signal obtained was of good quality. The curve fitting, on the
other hand, was only subjected to visual inspections. Some of the DOFs may not fit well due to
the complex shape of FRF or a mode close by. However, contrary to the identification of natural
frequency and damping ratios, the extraction of mode shapes is not of greater importance in the
presented modal analysis. Should mode shapes be in need of higher quality, advanced multi-input-
multi-output (MIMO) algorithms such as Algorithm of Modal Isolation (Allen and Ginsberg 2006)
can be utilized.
One of the statistical indicators, similar to coherence function, is the Modal Assurance
Criterion (MAC) for quantitative comparison of modal vectors. The MAC was originally introduced
in the modal testing in connection with the Modal Scale Factor, as an additional confidence in the
equivalent of modal vector fro different excitation locations (Pastor et al. 2012). However, it is also
often used to compare the measured mode shape against vectors determined by analytical model,
or the difference of vector from different curve fitting process or one mode shape before and after a
change in the physical structure caused by a wanted modification. In the presented study, it is used
to verify whether two modes are coupled and their correlation. The correlation between two mode
shapes is computed using:
|ΨTj Ψi |2
MAC(i, j) = (7.48)
(ΨTj Ψj )(ΨTi Ψi )
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Figure 7.35: Modal assurance criteria values for obtain mode shapes
Supply Eq. (7.48) with the mode shape vectors obtained through curve fitting, the MAC
plot for the modal test with two different boundary conditions is shown in Figure 7.35.
The MAC computation gives a real-values scalar quantity from 0 to 1.0, with 1.0 representing
perfect correlation between the two vectors and 0 indicating that the vectors are orthogonal. MAC
values in Figure 7.35 show mode shapes are lightly coupled except modes 3 and 4 in the fixed B.C.
specimen, which correlation reaches almost 0.5. Close inspection of the FRF magnitude in Figure
7.25 indicates that mode 4 is relatively a weak mode and is slightly coupled with mode 3. Therefore
it is concluded that the fitted mode shapes are reasonable and acceptable.
7.10 Finite Element Modeling of Composite Floor System
The objective of this section is to discuss the finite element (FE) modeling approach and
result for composite floor system. The capability of creating valid computational model for dynamic
frequency domain analysis provides a valuable tool for engineers, consultants and researchers to
evaluate the vibration serviceability of in-situ or proposed composite floor. The actual interpretations
of the FE modeled results are still subject of debate, let along various simplified method for evaluating
serviceability. However, without doubt, the ability to create computational models which adequately
represents the dynamic behavior provides a easiest way to avoid vibration issues in the design phase
and is much easier and cost-effective then testing even a small portion of a problematic in-situ floor.
This section discusses the fundamental principles used in developing partial composite finite
230
element models of the tested floor system. The two vibration tests include the identical member
sizes, number of inclined screw and the inclined angle, with the only exception of the boundary
conditions, one is fixed and the other is pinned. The intention of the study is not to independently
creating ideal model for each boundary condition, but rather, to model both floors with fundamental,
logic techniques that allows for future parametric studies of different design parameters. To name a
few, these parameters could include lumber species, composite layup, span length, spacing of girders,
etc.
SAP2000 Version 18 (CSI 2015) finite element software was used in the presented research.
SAP2000 was selected due to its availability, its dynamic finite element capability as well as its
popularity among practicing design engineers, especially when newer versions allows structural model
import from Revit and ETABS. Design engineers are more likely to be more familiar with commercial
FE package like SAP2000 then other packages such as ANASIS, ABAQUS or OpenSees, which gears
more towards research. Their experience maybe limited in the traditional structural static analysis,
however, dynamic model analysis in SAP2000 are very straight forward and user friendly.
Many of the basic techniques used for modeling composite floor in SAP2000 were obtained
from CSI knowledge base, a cluster of user manuals for software developed by Computers and
Structures. Within the documentation, a example of RC slab on girder with shear studs provides
the fundamental knowledge needed for composite section modeling. In addition, technical research
in the field of building component vibration (Davis et al. 2013; Davis 2008; Sladki 1999; Nguyen
et al. 2012; Alvis 2001) further improved the FE model through comparison of the modeling results
with experimental modal measurements.
Creating FE dynamic models require adequately representing mass, stiffness and boundary
conditions to analytically compute frequencies and mode shapes. In SAP200, damping of the re-
spective vibration frequency relates to the material modal damping ratio γ, which is a user input.
Due to the lack of supporting document/studies on composite lumber, damping is not studied in
this section.
The essence of modeling process includes creating the FE model and manually updating the
models to bring the computed modal properties into accordance with the experimentally measured
ones. The floor models are created in the X − Y plane with the negative Z axis represents the
gravity direction. The basic steps of creating FE model of a composite floor system for evaluation
vibration serviceability can be summarized in the following steps:
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1. Based on the geometry of the composite floor, create grid system for the location
of shell, frame and link elements;
2. Define materials and sections for shell and frame elements; define the correct link
stiffness to represent connections between flange and web;
3. Adjust model to adequately represents mass, stiffness and boundary conditions;
4. Perform SAP2000 modal analysis to compute frequencies and mode shapes;
5. Perform additional parametric study for evaluation of vibration serviceability of
composite floor in a boarder sense.
7.10.1 Assignment of Mass, shell Laminates, Stiffness, and Links
Mass & Composite Laminates Mass is used for the inertia in dynamic analyses. Within
SAP2000, the mass of the individual elements is computed from its volume and density of the mate-
rial, and lumped at its joints and assigned to the translational degrees of freedom. The distribution
of the inertia mass is therefore represented by the mass of the assembled elements.
SAP2000 does not carry a stock glulam library, therefore, the two 24F–V4 Southern Pine
glulam were modeled with user defined rectangular cross section with dimensions (11 in.x 3.125 in.),
mass density (0.02 lb/in2 ), Young’s modules (1.55·106 psi), Poisson Ratio (0.3, typical for pines).
The CLT flanges which attached to the glulams were represented by user defined rectangular
shell elements. It should be noted that the shell elements were selected in lieu of plate elements
since the ability to handle in-plane deformations is a advantage for vibration analysis of composite
floor made of laminated material (CLT in this case). The build-in layer shell elements was used to
defined the stiffness and fiber orientation of 3-ply CLT: two longitudinal layers are oriented parallel
to the X-axis with E0 = 1.55 · 106 psi, the middle transverse layer is rotated 90 degress to be parallel
to Y-axis with E90 = E0 /30 = 5.16 · 104 psi. The location and stacking sequence of the laminate
composite is specified using ply thickness and the distance from its centriod to the neutral axis, see
Figure 7.36 where the top longitudian layer is highlighted in darker blue.
Due to the nature of FE program where the mass and stiffness are distributed among the
elements, it was important to use enough elements to mesh the object, so accurate results can be
obtained. A convergence study was performed to benchmark the composite model, with the criterion
that the mid-span deflection of the beam under 0.4 klf to be within 0.1 in. (see M odelBenchmark).
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Figure 7.36: User defined layer shell element in SAP2000
It was found that the mesh size of 24 in. along each side of the shell elements gave convergent
results. Similarly, frame elements were meshed along its length at each mesh joint. The layout of
the composite floor model is show in Figure 7.37.
Figure 7.37: Composite floor model. Red: shell elements; blue: frame elements; green: links and
restraints
Stiffness The fundamental concept of hollow core long span system is to create the com-
posite action between wood members to increase its structural mechanics properties. In the presented
study, the composite action between CLT and glulam beams was achieved by mechanical fasten-
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ers, to be more specific, self-tapping screws installed with a angle. The continuous contact and
the limited slippage between the members therefore provide the composite action of the system.
By modeling both the shell element and the framing element which represent the CLT flanges and
Glulam beams, a series of links must be added to the stiffness property to properly account for the
composite behavior.
In SAP2000, three modeling approaches are available to simulate the composite action of a
build-up member: link, body constraint and joint offset. Among them, link is selected in this study
since the option to adjust the link stiffness allows for the modeling of partial composite actions where
the interface slippage can be made to be known. However, body constraint and joint offset methods
are only capable of modeling full composite action.
To start building up the FE model, frames and shells were drawn at the elevations of their
respective centroids. Rigid links were assigned to connect the shell and frame elements at the grid
lines defined by the actual location of the screws. At this moment, the beam is considered full
composite since all members are connected rigidly and no interface slip is allowed. To introduce the
partial composite action, zero-length links with user defined stiffness were assigned to the location
where shell element and rigid link meet, on both top and bottom CLT. These links were fixed in the
vertical direction (global Z direction), see Figure 7.38. The fixed stiffness in the vertical direction
(local x axis) creates a ‘Hard Contact’ at the interface, preventing elements from intruding into each
other. However, without specifying the link stiffness in other DOFs, the assembly would still act as
non-composite. As mentioned before, link element is a powerful restrictive element where stiffness
of all DOFs can be user specified. For example. to model fully composite action, the links will have
all 6 DOFs fixed, in another word, interface slippage or rotation is not allowed in this case. On the
other side of the spectrum, a non-composite assembly will have links with fixed x direction, while
the rest being all free. Somewhere in between where the interface movement is allowed but limited,
the links will have a stiffness specified with a numerical value in girder longitudinal direction. The
property of links used in the model benchmark is summerized here:
1. Links for fully composite action: fixed all DOFs
2. Links for partial composite action: fixed x direction, specify stiffness in y direction,
and set the rest DOFs free
3. Links for non composite action: fixed only x direction
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Figure 7.38: Centroids of respective elements
It is recommended to take advantage of the ‘Group’ command in the SAP2000, where
elements can be selectively picked and assign different section properties when needed. As long as
the geometry stays the same, the model can easily accommodate adjustment for parametric study
or any other analysis created by a design engineer.
Model benchmark Prior to the model benchmark, a mesh size convergence study was
performed and concluded that 24 in. by 24 in. shell element size satisfy the convergence criteria.
Therefore, the reported benchmark results were based on this mesh dimension. The benchmark
contained a CLT-Glulam beam with cross section shown in Figure 7.38, span length 40ft, and pin
connection at one end and roller at the other. A uniform load of 0.4 kip/ft was applied at the frame
elements (0.2 kip/ft per glulam) and deflection was measured at the mid-span. Two cases were
considered in the benchmark problem: fully composite and non-composite. Analytical predictions
and SAP2000 outputs are summerized below:
Table 7.7: Benchmark results of the FE model
Benchmark Analytical Prediction SAP2000 Output Percentage Difference

Case (in.) (in.) (%)*
Full Composite 0.723 0.732 1.274
Non Composite 10.850 10.841 -0.079
*The percentage difference=(SAP-Analytical)/Analytical x 100%
The calculated difference shown in Table 7.7 confirmed the SAP2000 user manual (CSI 2015)
where it over-predicted the the fully composite case. It is because the shear deformation is considered
in the deflection while the analytical solution does not. Meanwhile, SAP under-predicted the non-
composite case by fraction of a percentage, possible reasons could be the mesh size or the deflection
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Figure 7.39: Deflection of a composite beam
measuring point. However, based on the small difference, it was concluded that the composite model
developed was accurate enough for further modal analysis in the presented research.
7.10.2 FEM modal analysis and parametric study
The previous section presented the general steps for creating an FE model of a floor sys-
tem for evaluation of vibration serviceability. Here, FEM modal analysis and parametric study was
performed and the results are evaluated. There are a variety of dynamic case types available in
SAP2000. including multi-step static, modal, response spectrum, time history, moving load, buck-
ling, steady state, and power spectrum density. Modal analysis was the only case type studied
and discussed in the presented study. It should be noted that since the evaluation of vibration
serviceability mainly concerned with the dominant or fundamental frequency, only the first mode
was interested in the presented study. The following paragraph discusses the general procedure for
modal analysis with SAP2000, however, the detailed background on the computational methods
used in the FEM program is best left to the SAP2000 user manual.
SAP2000’s modal analysis of the floor’s FEM model computes the frequencies and mode
shapes based on the assembled mass and stiffness matrices, without consideration of the presence
or level of damping in the structure. The most important aspects of the modal analysis feature for
evaluation of floor serviceability are the computed dominant frequency and the visual shapes of the
vibration for each mode. For the experimental measurements, the lowest modes of a floor system
generally have single curvature, and double curvature is not encountered until higher frequency
modes. For a computed mode shape, the response may be localized to its members, such as isolated
CLT or glulam vibration modes. These localized mode shapes usually come with low amplitude
and are therefore difficult to detect in the experimental measurement with accelerometers attached
only to the top surface of the test piece. Another distinguish difference between the experimental
modes and computed modes lies in the direction of vibration measured. PCB 333B50 is a single
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CLT-GlulamwithInclinedScrew_V16.sdb 6/13/2017
YZ X
YZ X
(a) transverse mode (b) axial mode (compression side on the right)
Figure 7.40: Computed transverse mode and axial mode
axis accelerometer, and it was placed with the arrow up measuring the vertical vibration of the
structure. Therefore all experimental mode shapes are vertical mode shapes. On the contrary,
SAP2000 18.1.0 Deformed Shape (MODAL) - Mode 11; T = 0.00779; f = 128.33923 lb, in, F
computed modes include mode shapes in all three axes. Due to the higher stiffness in beam’s
transverse and axial direction, their natural frequencies are typically higher than the corresponding
ones on the vertical direction, see Figure 7.40 which shows a second bending mode in transverse
direction a compression–tension mode in the axial direction. The natural frequencies associated
with these mode shapes are beyond the interested range of floor vibration serviceability study and
thus excluded from the presented study. If the need of measuring vibration in all three axes does
present itself, triaxial accelerometer would be a ideal candidate for such purpose. For the FE aided
modal analysis, frequencies were visually inspected along with the computed mode shapes to ensure
consistency in the results interpretation.
SAP2000 offers two methods of modal analysis, eigenvector analysis and Ritz-vector analysis.
Eigenvector analysis determines the undamped free vibration natural frequencies and mode shapes
using only the mass and stiffness matrices to solve generalized eigenvalue problem, whereas Ritz-
vector analysis looks and computes the modes that are excited by a particular applied loading pattern
(CSI 2015). Theoretically, Ritz-vector method yields excellent results in forced response analysis
where spatial distribution of the loading is accounted for. For example, an acceleration load or any
defined load cases can be a form of spatial distribution of loading. As Barrett (2006) indicated, the
Ritz-vector method may be advantageous in filtering unnecessary modes by a starting load vector
in the direction of interest. However, for the plane rigid floor modes, the direction of vibration was
never in question. Eigenvector analysis consistently produced logical mode shapes and this it was
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used exclusively for the floor model in the presented research.
Following the general steps previously discussed, the floor skeleton model was laid out for
the composite beam. A user defined frame section and area plate element were created to represent
the glulam beams and CLT panel, respectively. The input values of the material used in the model
development are presented in the Table 7.8. Also included in this table are the stiffness properties
obtained from small scale inclined screw shear tests. These stiffness values were assigned to the
zero-length link property in the longitudinal direction along the span length of the structure (global
X in the FE model).
Table 7.8: Composite floor modeling parameters
Timber Mass Properties Link Stiffness Properties

E0 1.55 · 106 psi Static initial (< 0.0600 ) 13.33kip/in
E90 5.17 · 104 psi Static linear (0.0600 ∼ 0.2500 ) 31.47kip/in
Mass density 0.02lb/in3 Static secant 24.33kip/in
Poisson ratio 0.3 Fatigue initial 15.90kip/in
It was found that the use of static linear stiffness (31.47 kip/in) to represent the connection
between flange and web gave the most acceptable natural frequencies when compare to the ex-
perimentally obtained ones. With this configuration, the boundary conditions were modeled using
restraint commands in the SAP2000. For pinned connection, pins were assigned to each side bottom
CLT flange, restraining the CLT only; whereas for the fixed boundary condition, all six DOFs of the
respective glulam beam and CLT ends were restrained. The boundary condition resulted in a clear
span of 39 ft with 6 in overhang on each side, same as the experimental setup during the heel drop
testing. Eigenvector modal analyses were performed on the floor model to compute the frequencies
and mode shapes. The frequencies of the first four modes are presented in Table 7.9 with the values
from experimental modal analysis also included, the corresponding FE mode shapes are presented
in Figure 7.41.
There are some interested items to note in the computed natural frequencies and mode
shapes shown in Table 7.9 and Figure 7.41. First and most obvious one is that the 2nd torsional
mode in the pinned B.C. was picked up in the analytical modal analysis. As a matter of fact, this
mode do and should exist in the experimental FRFs, it most probably falls out of the 0–30 Hz range
of interest and not analyzed in the curve fitting process. Second observation is that the fixed B.C.
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CLT-GlulamwithInclinedScrew_Fixed.sdb 6/13/2017
CLT-GlulamwithInclinedScrew_Fixed.sdb 6/13/2017 CLT-GlulamwithInclinedScrew_V16.sdb 6/13/2017
YZ X
Z
Y X
(a) Fixed–Mode1–7.9Hz (b) Pinned–Mode1–6.1Hz
CLT-GlulamwithInclinedScrew_Fixed.sdb 6/13/2017 CLT-GlulamwithInclinedScrew_V16.sdb 6/13/2017
YZ X
Z
Y X
(c) Fixed–Mode2–14.7Hz (d) Pinned–Mode2–13.8Hz
CLT-GlulamwithInclinedScrew_Fixed.sdb 6/13/2017
Z
YZ X
Y X
(e) Fixed–Mode3–19.8Hz (f) Pinned–Mode3–19.3Hz
Z
YZ X
Y X
(g) Fixed–Mode4–29.8Hz (h) Pinned–Mode4–28.0Hz
Figure 7.41: Floor model computed mode shapes
SAP2000 18.1.0 Deformed Shape (MODAL) - Mode 13; T = 0.0336; f = 29.76494 lb, in, F 239
Table 7.9: Comparison of experimental and computed natural frequencies
Fixed B.C. Pinned B.C.

Experimental (Hz) Analytical (Hz) Experimental (Hz) Analytical (Hz)
Mode 1 7.2 7.9 6.7 6.1
Mode 2 15.8 14.7 15.5 13.8
Mode 3 20.5 19.8 19.4 19.3
Mode 4 24.0 29.8 N.A. 28.0
created a slightly more stiff specimen compared to the pin connection one, causing a increase in all
natural frequencies with corresponding mode shapes. This increase on average is 5.0% and 11.1% for
experimental analysis and FEM analysis, respectively. The third observation is that the computed
natural frequencies are close to the measured ones, with average 14.2% difference in all detected
modes.
Comparison of frequencies and mode shapes was a necessary step in the model validation
process. If the FEM model is further used for force response analysis or other types of transient
analysis, the matching frequencies to experimental measurement will be a pre-requisite for such
application. However in the presented study, the intention of the FE model is to create a quick
assessment tool for floor vibration serviceability analysis that has reasonable level of complexity
and accuracy and can be used by practicing engineers. It is therefore concluded that the the
computed frequencies for these modes and their respective mode shapes are in good agreement with
the measured frequencies of the long span floor system.
For a typical eigenvalue problem, it is known that the characteristic values, i.e. natural
frequencies in the presented research, are dependent on the mass, stiffness and damping matrices.
A general rule of thumb is that the addition of mass decreases the vibration frequency whereas
the addition of stiffness increases the frequency. What sets the task at hand unique to the typical
eigenvalue problems is the introduction of self-tapping inclined screw. These screws not only serve
the connection between flanges and webs, but also provide composite behavior to the floor system.
The stiffness gain resulted from the screw connections directly translates into increased frequencies
since the additional mass was minimal compared to the stiffness gain. Since both experimental
and computational modal analyses indicated a low dominant frequency in terms of human vibration
annoyance perception, it is of great interest to explore the sensitivity of screw stiffness contribution
to the vibration frequencies. In the presented parametric study, only dominant frequency (first
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bending mode) was investigated since they usually possess the largest magnitude and it happened
to fall inside the annoyance frequency range (4-9.5 Hz).
A front-end program MATLAB was used to control the SAP2000 program through Applica-
tion Programming Interface (API), where the frequency output was recorded during each parameter
iteration. The two FE models (Fixed and Pinned B.C.) were the same as those used in the FE
validation, only with link element stiffness being variable during the parametric iteration. Figure
7.42 shows the analysis results with stiffness values plotted in log scale. Also shown in the figure is
the linear stiffness of inclined self-tapping screw (31.47 kip/in in green dash-dot line) obtained from
small scale shear test, and the DG11/ISO 4-9.5 Hz frequency basin. It is easily seen that the the
floor system provides a poor vibration serviceability since its dominant frequencies fall inside the
undesired annoying frequency range. Based on the provided screw spacing, the dominant frequency
is sensitive to the connection stiffness in the range of 10 to 100 kip/in. In another word, as soon
as the inclined screw engages the connecting members, the stiffness gain resulted from the com-
posite behavior increases the natural frequencies. However, the frequency gain was not substantial:
the model with fixed boundary condition varied from 4.2 Hz at non-composite to 15.0 Hz at fully
composite; whereas the pin connection model varied from 1.86 Hz to 9.44 Hz. While nothing being
fully composite, the use of interface connection didn’t quite bring the floor system into satisfactory
in terms of vibration serviceability, its contribution is limited since the stiffness of the floor system
(CLT and glulam) was under-designed in the first place.
7.11 Vibration Serviceability Assessment and Recommenda-
tions
7.11.1 Assessment
In section 7.3, the initial assessment of floor vibration serviceability discussed the use of
DG11’s simplified hand-calculation where the computation was performed in two steps: frequency
and peak acceleration. Through experimental and analytical modal analysis, the true frequency pro-
file has been identified, and dominant frequency of the grounded specimen was found to be falling
inside the undesired frequency range. The low frequency is sensitive to human organs and may cause
annoyance, frustration or medical conditions that designers should stay away from. To completely
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Figure 7.42: Frequency gain in link element stiffness
quantify the floor vibration serviceability using DG11/ISO guide, the peak acceleration needs to be
estimated in addition to the discovered frequency profile. Note that the acceleration measurement
specified in the DG11/ISO is expressed in terms of Root Mean Square (RMS) acceleration (Figure
7.2), rather than the peak value during each impact. The RMS acceleration (GRM S ) is the square
root of area under the Acceleration Spectral Density (ASD) vs. frequency curve, it expresses the
acceleration history in a ‘average’ sense and therefore should be less than the value of peak accelera-
tion. The GRM S was computed for each heel-drop response measurement in the frequency range of
0-30 Hz, resulting a total of 780 data points for each test. As one may realize, the magnitude of the
GRM S varies as the DOF closer to the driving point often experience large accelerations. However,
the distribution of GRM S accelerations depicts the true variation of the acceleration response where
the impact source may or may not be direct adjacent to the building occupants at all times. The
GRM S values computed for fixed and pinned B.C. specimens were fitted into various distributions
and it was found that the 2-parameter Weibull distribution well fits the data, see Figure 7.43. A
notable difference observed when comparing the distribution of GRM S reveals that the acceleration
measured in the pinned B.C. specimen is slightly higher than that of the fixed B.C. one. This behav-
242
ior is anticipated since under the same impact, vibration in a higher frequency often accompanies
with a lower magnitude.
Figure 7.43: 2-parameter Weibull distribution fitting for GRM S
Upon obtaining the acceleration profiles, the vibration serviceability of CLT composite floor
system can be further assessed using the DG11 guide. In Figure 7.44, the Weibull probability density
functions (PDF) for GRM S profiles are plotted on the DG11 occupancy comfort chart. The perfor-
mance of the floor system under footstep impact can be therefore evaluated by marking its dominant
frequency and RMS acceleration on the occupancy comfort chart. Since GRM S is best described by
Weibull distribution and not deterministic in nature, their mean values are used as a acceleration
response indicator. In Figure 7.44, the circular dot and the filled diamond shape represent the
vibration performance points of the grounded composite floor for the fixed and pinned boundary
conditions, respectively. It is clearly seen that based on the predefined occupancy comfort level, the
as-build CLT composite beam is considered Acceptable for floor designed for rhythmic activities
and outdoor footbridges. For office or residential occupancy and indoor footbridge, shopping mall,
dancing or dining venues, the performance points may lead to the conclusion of unsatisfactory per-
formance. However, the grounded composite beam tested was at its bare minimum, without dead
load and non-structural components. The additional mass and associate damping may dampen out
the response and therefore decrease the RMS acceleration. In addition, the boundary condition used
in the experimental modal analysis consider a single, separated floor beam; whereas in forming a
complete floor diaphragm, a series of composite beams are to be parallelly connected and share the
load together. The real boundary condition may result in a more stiff floor system and therefore
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drives up the frequency and RMS acceleration. Field measurement of in-situ mass timber floor
dynamic properties is recommended for future research. Since the boundary condition, along with
true loading on the floor, can be considered in the performance interpretation.
Figure 7.44: Vibration serviceability assessment for CLT-Glulam composite beam floor system
As discussed earlier in the chapter, it is the easiest to tackle the problematic floor in the
design phase, rather than performing a costly and time consuming rehabilitation project for a in-situ
floor system. There are a handful of solutions that can be used to improve its performance. For
stiffness requirements, selecting deeper and/or wider glulam beams may drive up the frequency as
well as reducing the response magnitude. Another common practice for the finish of engineered
wood subfloor is to pour a thin underlayment of concrete or gypcrete. It is extensively used in the
condominium, apartments and hotel construction for sound reduction, fire ratings, radiant heating
and floor leveling. The light weight cement based underlayment with dowel connections provides
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additional stiffness gains as it serves the same purpose of increasing the beam’s stiffness without
introducing tremendous of mass. As far as the acceleration response, the as-tested floor performed
poorly since it was a bare floor and the damping was minimum. The finished floor system with various
underlayment, bearing and partition walls as well as occupational contents would definitely cushion
the acceleration response. Future research should look into the viability of using floor underlayment,
such as dense board, rubber underlayment, acoustic board etc, to improve the impact and acoustic
performance of composite mass timber floor system.
7.11.2 Recommendations
This chapter covers the preliminary vibration serviceability assessment using DG11 guide,
the experimental modal testing of a ground composite floor system and its data analysis and results
interpretation. Similarly, the recommendations will be addressed in those areas.
Criteria used in assessment of floor vibration serviceability If the true stiffness of
the floor system can be accurately estimated, DG11’s simplified hand calculation provides a reliable
estimates on fundamental frequency and acceleration response. However, it is only recommended
for preliminary vibration serviceability analysis since it was one of the least stringent criteria existed
in the literature. DG11 essentially limits the acceleration response within each occupancy category
to a concave curve, with its flat lowest basin at 4 to 9.5 Hz. There is no absolute frequency limit set
for the floor system.
The DG11 guideline may not be directly applicable to a mass timber floor system since
timber is much lighter than that of a steel joint concrete floor and the lack of mass could result in
excessive acceleration response. In addition, for a lighter system, it is much easier to excite harmon-
ics resonance of walking excitations, which are the integer multiply of occupancy step frequency. If
the floor system’s fundamental frequency can be designed far above the occupants’ activity forcing
frequency, regardless whether it is walking or rhythmic activities, the acceleration response will be
drastically decreased as the harmonic diminishes exponentially with the increasing integer multiply.
Therefore it is recommended to apply a lower fundamental frequency boundary to limit the harmonic
response, and this limit can vary with the indented occupancy. For example, the 2005 Canadian
National Building Code specifies that the light weight joisted floors, the minimum natural frequency
shall not be less than 15 Hz. This can be a good start for vibration design of mass timber floor
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system, however future research should investigate occupants comfort sensitivity to higher funda-
mental frequency. The second recommendation is that the additional mass and stiffness provided by
cement based topping, such as light weight concrete or gypcrete, may improve occupants’ comfort
level as they feel ‘less’ vibration.
Experimental modal analysis The capacity of the experimental modal analysis largely
depends on the availability of the testing equipment. However, simply having the appropriate
equipment and ample time does not guarantee high quality measurement. It is the combination of
proper selection of equipment, continuous monitoring of the data throughout the testing, along with
the reliable parameter extraction techniques that yields the acceptable vibration characteristics of
the floor system. The following is a list of recommendations that includes the planning, conducting
and data analysis of referenced modal testing, to ensure satisfactory measurement quality and results
interpretation:
1. Identify the overall objectives of the investigation. The objectives vary
from project to project as it may simply involve a rough estimation of floor natural frequency
or a complete set of FRF measurements for forced vibration analysis. These objectives need
to be clearly identified prior to any other decisions such as selection of excitation source or
equipment purchase.
2. Select proper testing method and allot time and equipment. Based on
the intended modal analysis purposes, select testing (referenced or unreferenced) and obtain
test equipment. The selection of equipment relies extensively on the decision of the excitation
source and data analysis software/hardware. The associated cost varies significantly from
a in-house made force plate plus software to a electrodynamic shaker with fully functioned
spectrum analyzer. In the presented study, the heel-drop and force plate were selected as
the excitation source, as it is considered to be an economic setup to perform basic reference
modal analysis. However, the heel-drop impact only provides adequate energy in the 0-30 Hz
frequency range and is only suitable for exciting light test piece with small to moderate area
coverage. For advanced testing purposes and/or larger area coverage, electrodynamic shaker
will be ideal albeit its higher initial cost.
3. Estimate test parameters and allot ample time for the testing. Upon
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the section of testing equipment, the recorded length and sampling frequency should be be
determined since these are drive by the desired frequency domain resolution. It is strongly
suggested to perform a few measurements and examine the signal quality before fill effort of
measurement. Auto, cross spectrum and coherence functions are among the key plots that
need to be continuously monitored during the signal measurement process.
4. Conduct floor vibration testing with the recommended practice and
expect the unexpected. Depending on the testing environment, the number of averages
need to be determined on the spot. A perfect balance between signal quality and time needed
for the test is what experimentalists strive for during the test. Extreme caution should be
taken when handling the cables as they tends to tangle together. Never force a cable since a
kink would irreversibly destroy it. Keep a spare cable whenever possible to avoid any delay or
possible frustration.
5. Post processing. The last process involved in the experimental modal testing
which explained in the least detail in the presented study is the post processing and curve
fitting process. A full suite of parameter extraction often include frequency, damping and
visually display mode shapes. Depending on the complexity of the measured FRFs, different
approached can be applied to estimate the parameters.
Experimental modal analysis is a entertaining and rewarding study activity as it often
requires decision making for compromises. For first timers, it may be difficult to initiate the test,
however, it is more of a learn by doing type of activity. The experimental testing method and
practice presented in this chapter provide an accessible experience for the dynamic modal testing
for floor systems.
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Chapter 8
Conclusion
8.1 Summary of Research
With the surging demand for mass timber construction, the presented dissertation discussed
various aspects of the structural performances and application of cross-laminated timber (CLT)
panels. There were two phases to this research. In phase one, a pilot-scale study was carried out
to evaluate the manufacturing process of CLT panels using Southern Yellow Pine, a group of tree
species native to the Southeast US. A series of small-scale tests were conducted to verify the adhesive
and structural performances of the CLT panels for flexure and rolling shear.
The small-scale test specimens consisted of a combination of laboratory and commercially
manufactured CLT panels. The test results generated from the pilot scale study were used in the
second phase of this study where the concept of a composite CLT-Glulam beam, suitable for long
span applications, was proposed. The proposed composite section takes the geometry of a hollow
core composite beam, in which the CLT panels and glulams were fasterned using inclined screws.
To investigate the feasibility the proposed composite beam for floor application, a non-destructive
vibration test and a destructive structural test were performed on a full-scale 40 ft. long composite
beam. The selection of a suitable timber-to-timber joint connection, the design and assembling of
the composite beam were discussed in this dissertation. The destructive test in full-scale verified
the composite beam can safely carry over 100 psf of live load and 20 psf of dead load. In addition
to destructive test, a non-destructive modal test was performed utilizing an instrumented heel-drop
excitation and acceleration response to quantify the vibration performance of the composite floor.
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8.2 Summary and Findings of Research Tasks
Following are the major findings of the presented research:
Chapter 4: Rolling Shear The rolling shear strengths of Southern Pine CLT made using
four different adhesives (MF, PRF, EPI and PUR) were evaluated experimentally. Rolling shear
(horizontal shear) failure in the CLT refers to the peeling of the crosswise layers when subjected to
out-of-plane load. It could lead to premature CLT panel failures as the rolling shear cracks often
propagate to the glue lines and compromise the glue bond. The rolling shear failure is typical to
many laminated materials with orthotropic plies. It was found that with proper application of the
adhesive, Southern Pine lumber can be used to produce CLT with rolling shear resistance that meets
and exceeds the PRG-320 minimum requirement for V3 layup.
Chapter 5: Bending Strength and Stiffness The bending stiffness (MOE) and strength
(MOR) were evaluated experimentally for Southern Pine CLT panels made in a laboratory and
commercial manufacturing plant. The test results show that Southern Pine can be used to produce
CLT panels that meet the reference flexural properties specified in the PRG-320 standard. However,
it was observed that the presence of finger joints and lumber defects (e.g. knots) in high flexural
demand region, namely mid-span of the bottom tension layer, can severely affect the bending strength
of the CLT panel. Lumbers with minimum defects (e.g. No.1 or MSR) are recommended to be used
in the tension layer. In addition, avoiding having finger joints located in high tension region is also
recommended.
A Monte-Carlo simulation model was developed to estimate the bending strength of CLT
numerically. The model uses a bending-tension interactive failure criterion to predict the bending
strength based on lumber species, grades, thickness, and lay-up. The developed simulation model
may be used by CLT manufacturers to design layups and optimize the CLT panel for bending
strength.
Chapter 6: Bending and Shear Strength of Composite CLT-Glulam Beam An
investigation of timber joint fastened with inclined screws was conducted to select a suitable connec-
tion method for attaching the CLT panels to the glulam beams. Inclined screws installed at a 30-deg
angle, measured from the surface of the wood, were used in the CLT-glulam joints. The strength of
the inclined screw was predicted using two analytical models and the predictions were found to be
slightly higher than that of the actual strengths measured from two small-scale shear tests of the
249
30-deg inclined screw joints.
A 5 ft. wide and 40 ft. long CLT-glulam composite floor system was constructed and tested
in full scale to validate the as-designed bending and shear strengths. It was found that the composite
floor system designed in accordance to the NDS provisions has adequate capacities in bending and
shear to safely carry the design loads (100 psf live + 20 psf dead) with overstrength factors of 2.5 and
3.6 for bending and shear, respectively. In addition to the ultimate strength, the deflection of the
composite beam was also evaluated under service level loads. It was found that, when the composite
beam was loaded as a standalone element, the beams deflection under the service live load (2.60 in.)
exceeded the L/240 (1.95 in.) limit. Note that this the bending test was conducted under a very
pessimistic boundary condition. In a real floor system, multiple composite beams are connected side
by side to form the floor. The plate action is expected to increase the overall stiffness of the floor.
All in all, the design of the composite beam was found to be limited by the serviceability, namely
deflection, and not strength.
Chapter 7: Modal Testing and Analysis When designing a long span element, the
vibration typically controls the member design. A series of non-destructive modal and vibration
tests were carried out to experimentally quantify the vibration characteristics of the CLT-Glulam
composite beam, which included the natural frequencies, mode shapes and associated damping ratios.
It was found that the acceleration response exceeded the recommended serviceability requirement for
typical office/classroom occupancy. However, consider the pessimistic boundary condition used in
the experimental study, and the absence of non-structural components and finishes, the acceleration
in a realistic fully finished floor system is expected to be lower than the recommended lower bound
for office/classroom occupancy.
8.3 Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
During the flexural experimental studies of both small-scale and full-size specimens, it was
found that the bending strengths were affected due to the presence of finger joints in tension critical
region. The CLT flexural capacity can potentially be improved with the enhanced performance
of finger joints. In this regard, it is recommended that future research be focused on the finger
geometry, adhesive selection, curing process, and strategic placement of the finger joint locations, in
the aim to improve the flexural and tensile strength of the CLT panels.
250
The vibration characteristics (frequency and acceleration response) of the floor system are
heavily influenced by its mass, stiffness, and boundary condition. As stated previously, the com-
posite beam was tested under a very pessimistic condition. Addition of non-structural components
and continues bracing along the span direction could reduce significantly the vibration. It is recom-
mended that in-situ vibration test be conducted on CLT floors in full-scale buildings.
The composite beam was tested as an isolated element in this study. Future research should
examine the connection and load sharing behavior between adjacent composite beams. Lap/butt
joint or perforated plate reinforced with wood screws may be a feasible connection solution. In
addition, the bottom tension flange may be omitted to form double-T composite wood beam, as
long as the webs are structurally detailed and braced along the length, and have adequate capacity
to carry the design loads. Future research may explore the use of double-T composite wood beam.
Finally, a cost-benefit study is recommended for future work to evaluate the potential mar-
kets for using the proposed long-span composite CLT-glulam beam in lieu of steel and concrete.
251
Appendices
252
Appendix A Pictures of Major Strength Direction Finger
Joint and Lumber Knot Failures
Figure 1: Specimen1-2 FJ and 1 knot failures
253
Figure 3: Specimen3-1 FJ failure
Figure 4: Specimen4-2 FJ failures
254
Figure 6: Specimen6-2 knot failures
255
Figure 10: Specimen10-2 FJ failures
256
Appendix B Screw Joint Capacity Estimation
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257
1/3
Appendix A. Strength Estimation of Shear-Tension Inclined Screw
Joint
Problem Statement: 3/8'' diameter 15 3/4'' length ASSY VG Cylindrical screw is used in a shear tension joint for a
CLT-glulam composite beam. Screw is installed 30 degree to the plane of side member. CLT is a 3-ply South Pine
V3, glulam all No.2 lumbers.
Estimate the joint capacity.
Method 1. Using method from ref. [1] and [2]
Many of the ASSY screw properties can be found in the European Technical Approval ETA-13/0029. Note the prov
table contains characteristic values.
(http://x.etadanmark.dk/danish/eta/pdf/ETAer/ETA130029%20Wuerth%20ASSY%20Plus%20VG%20r1.pdf)
d  0.375in  9.525  mm use 10mm in the table
M yk  36N  m
Dowel bearing strength from NDS Table 11.3.3
Fpara  6150psi Fperp  4200psi
Bearing strength at an angle

Fpara  Fperp 3
Fθ   5.51  10  psi
2 2
Fpara   sin
π    π 
   Fperp   cos  
  6    6 
258
2/3
d 1  0.248in core diameter
factor 1.1 is recommended if the plastic hinge developed in the
d eff  1.1  d 1  0.273  in threaded part from reference [1]
Rv  2  M yk  Fθ  d eff  0.979  kip Lateral load carrying capacity
Lag screw withdraw design value (NDS table 11.2A)

lbf
W  307  15.75 in  4.835  kip withdraw strength
in
W
Rax   2.93  kip inclined screw withdraw strength
2 2
1.2   cos    1   cos  
π π
  6    6 
μ  0.26 kinetic friction
R0  Rax   μ  sin
π  π    π  π 
  cos    Rv   sin   μ  cos    3.188  kip
 6  6   6  6 
Bring R to strength level

KF  3.32
This is the strength value of shear capacity, per screw, calculated

RR  3.32  R0  10.583  kip
using method from ref. [1] and [2].
Method 2. Using method from ref. [3]
d  0.375  in
4.125in
S1   4.763  in Embedment length in side member
cos
π

6
S2  15.75in  S1  10.987  in Embedment length in main member
ASSY withdraw allowable strength
from the influence of end- and edge distance on the loading carrrying capacity in joints with
fax30k  4.5MPa
inclined screws. By Pernilla Malborg. The data is from Hasson and Thelandersson (2003)
listedin table 2.4
259
0.2
fa1d  fax30k  
8  d
  595.03  psi 3/3
 S1 
0.2
fa2d  fax30k  
8  d
  503.435  psi
 S2 
ASSY design tension capacity

π   d 1
2
Fud  136.6ksi   6.598  kip from ASSY screw design guide
4
ASSY head pull through Fhead  130lbf
Rtd  minFud fa1d  π  d  S1  Fhead fa2d  π  d   S2  d   3.469  kip
Kinetic friction coefficient μ  0.26
Rd  1  Rtd   cos
π  π 
  μ  sin    3.455  kip
 6  6 
Bring R to strength level

KF  3.32
This is the strength value of shear capacity, per screw, calculated

RR  3.32  Rd  11.471  kip
using method from ref. [3]
References:
[1] Design model for inclined screws under varying load to grain angles. By R Jockwer, Rene Steiger and Andrea Fran
[2] Joints with inclined screw. By I. Bejtka and H.J. Blass. CIB-W18/35-7-4
[3] Joint with inclined screw. By Ari Kevarinmaki. CIB-W18/35-7-3
260
Appendix C Composite Beam Capacity Estimation
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261
1/8
Appendix B: Capacity of CLT Long Span Composite Beam
Modified June 29.2017

The design capacity of hollow CLT is calculated by the literature: Estimation of bending stiffness, moment carrying
capacity and internal shear force of SUGI CLT panel. By Minoru Okabe.
The following numbers can be found in C:\Users\mengzhg\Desktop\My project\Meeting Journal\Meeting 04.29.16\CLT
composite section property.xlsx
Section Properties
Calculate (EI)eff for Composite Floor Element 5ft wide_based on Minoru Okabe, Motoi Yasumura, Kenji Kobayashi
Layer E (ksi) Z (in) b (in) h (in) bh3/12 (in4) AZ2 (in4) Ii (in4) EI (kip in2)
1 1400.0 8.938 60.000 1.375 13.0 6590.0 6603.0 9244210.938
2 46.7 7.563 2.000 1.375 0.4 157.3 157.7 220793.4896
3 1400.0 6.188 60.000 1.375 13.0 3158.5 3171.5 4440132.813
4 1700.0 0.000 6.250 11.000 693.2 0.0 693.2 1178489.583
5 1400.0 6.188 60.000 1.375 13.0 3158.5 3171.5 4440132.813
6 46.7 7.563 2.000 1.375 0.4 157.3 157.7 220793.4896
7 1400.0 8.938 60.000 1.375 13.0 6590.0 6603.0 9244210.938
Sum 746.1 19811.6 20557.7 28988764.1
4 4
IHMT := 2.056  10 in This is the moment of inertia for composite CLT floor with conventional LCL layup.
IHMT 3 3
SHMT := = 2.136  10 in
9.625in
Eref := 1400ksi
7 2
EIHMT := 2.89887641  10 kip  in
262
2 2/8
AHMT := 4.125in  5 ft  2 + 3.125in  11in  2 = 3.915  ft
Calculate first mement of area (Q), neural axis at mid height

in 3 3
Q := 1.375in  60in  ( 1.375in  2.5 + 5.5in) + 1.375in  60  ( 1.375in  1.5 + 5.5in) ... = 1.269  10 in
30
+ 1.375in  60in   1.375 + 5.5in
in
 2 
L := 39ft
Loadings
Office building loading:ground floor or corridor: 100 psf live and 20 psf dead
lbf
35  L  AHMT
3
ft
SW := = 137.023  plf
selfweight L
dead load DL := 20psf  5 ft = 100  plf
live load LL := 100psf  5 ft = 500  plf
( SW + DL)
1.4  = 553.053  plf
0.6
[ 1.2  ( SW + DL) + 1.6  LL] 3

= 1.356  10  plf controls λ := 0.8
0.8
3
Wu := 1.2  ( SW + DL) + 1.6  ( LL) = 1.084  10  plf Factored demand
Simply supported at both ends, calculate shear and moment

L
VLRFD_demand := Wu  = 21.146  kip
2
2
Wu  L
M LRFD_demand := = 206.177 kip  ft
8
Check for bending-full composite

LRFD bending capacity, ignore all adjustment factors
NDS reference design value fb := 1050psi ft := 650psi fv := 175psi
KFb := 2.54 KFt := 2.70 KFv := 2.88
263
ϕb := 0.85 ϕt := 0.80 ϕv := 0.75
3/8
2
Wu  L
M LRFD_capacity := fb  KFb  λ  SHMT  ϕb = 322.829  kip  ft > M LRFD_demand := = 206.177 kip  ft
8
Check for shear-full composite

t web := 3.125in  2 = 6.25  in d overall := 19.25in
2
VLRFD := fv  KFv  λ  t web  d overall   ϕv = 24.255  kip > VLRFD_demand = 21.146 kip
3
This is an approximation for the I beam, reference see NS10-1beamstress.pdf
Plot shear and moment diagrams

x := 0in , 0.1in .. L
Vu( x) := ( VLRFD_demand - Wu  x) Max shear is at both supports
30
20
10
Vu( x)
0
kip
- 10
- 20
- 30
0 10 20 30 40
x
ft
Vmax := Vu( 0) = 21.146 kip Shear check
Moment Diagram
x

M u( x) :=  Vu( x) dx

0
264
300
4/8
200
M u( x)
100
kipft
0
- 100
0 10 20 30 40
x
ft
VLRFD_demand
Max momnet location is when shear=0 Xvo := = 19.5  ft
Wu
M max := M u( Xvo) = 206.177  kip  ft Moment check
Check shear for glulam beams:

For 24F V4 Southern Pine glulam, reference design values:
6 6
E := 1.7  10 psi Emin := 0.9  10 psi
Fb := 2400psi FbNeg := 1650psi
FVx := 175psi FcP := 740psi
Common Adjustment Factors NDS Supplement Table 5A
CM := 1.0 Moisture
Ct := 1.0 normal temperature
Cvr := 1.0 shear reduction factor
KFv := 2.88
ϕv := 0.75
Cvr := 1.0
Adjusted shear strength
λ = 0.8
Fvx_prime := λ  ϕv  KFv  FVx  CM  Ct  C vr = 302.4  psi
Vnx := Fvx_prime  t web  d overall = 36.383  kip Vmax = 21.146  kip Glulam beams are able to
carry shear alone
265
5/8
Spacing For Inclined Screws

Calculate corresponding shear flow in the joint, the spacing changes as the shear is different along the span.
3 3
Q = 1.269  10  in
4 4
IHMT = 2.056  10  in
Vu( 0ft)  Q
τ0 := = 208.766  psi for two glulams surfaces at support
IHMT  3.125in  2
LRFD Capacity for 1 ASSY VG 3/8'' installed at 30 degree RASSY := 8.135kip
RASSY
Spacing := = 6.235  in at support
τ0  3.125in  2
RASSY
Spacing( x) :=
Vu( x)  Q
 3.125in  2
IHMT  3.125in  2
Provide the following spacing along the beam: (symmetric)
S( x) := 4in if 0ft  x < 5ft

6in if 5ft  x < 13ft
L
10in if 13ft  x <
2
The profile of the inclined screw needs discussion and second opinion. But now check this: Assuming the third-point
bending test will achieve the same LRFD moment, design the shear for the specimen.
M LRFD_capacity = 322.829  kip  ft
L
Clear Span L = 39  ft Constant moment span = 13  ft
3
266
M LRFD_capacity
Reaction := = 24.833  kip 6/8
L
3
L
Vu3( x) := Reaction if 0ft  x <
3
L 2L
0kip if x< Max shear is at both supports
3 3
2L
-Reaction if x<L
3
30
20
10
Vu3( x)
0
kip
- 10
- 20
- 30
0 10 20 30 40
x
ft
Moment Diagram
L
M u3( x) := Reaction  x if 0ft  x <
3
L L 2L
Reaction  if x<
3 3 3
- Reaction   x -
L 2L  2L
Reaction   if x<L
3  3  3
400
300
M u3( x)
200
kipft
100
0
0 10 20 30 40
x
ft
267
RASSY L
Spacing3( x) := if 0ft  x < 7/8
Reaction  Q 3
 3.125in  2
IHMT  3.125in  2
L 2L
100in if x<
3 3
RASSY 2L
if x<L
Reaction  Q 3
 3.125in  2
IHMT  3.125in  2
40
Maximum spacing allowed: uniform load
35
Provided spacing
Spacing of inclined screw
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 4 8 12 16 20
Span (ft)
Check for deflections
SW = 137.023 plf
DL = 100 plf
LL = 500 plf
4
5 ( LL)  L L
Live load only deflection ΔLL := = 0.898 in = 1.3 in
384  EIHMT 360
Long term deflection Kcr := 1.5 structural composite lumber

4
5 ( DL + SW )  L
ΔLT := = 0.426 in
384  EIHMT
4
5 ( LL)  L
ΔST := = 0.898 in
384  EIHMT
L
= 1.95 in
ΔT := Kcr  ΔLT + ΔST = 1.536 in 240
268
Appendix D Frequency Domain Response of a Multi-Degree-
of-Freedom System under Harmonic Excitation
The finite element equation of a N degree of freedom viscously damped linear structure in
a matrix notation can be found in many textbooks, including that of Clough and Penzien (1993):
[M ]{ẍ} + [C]{ẋ} + [K]{x} = {f } (1)
where the square symmetric N xN matrices [M ], [C] and [K] contains the structure’s physical mass,
damping and stiffness characteristics, respectively. The N x1 vectors {f } = {f (t)} and {x} =
{x(t)} contain the input force applied to the structure and the resulting motion due to these forces,
respectively. The dots denote differentiation with respect to time.
Consider a case where the external force vector {f } is composed by a single harmonic force
that is applied at a single point (q th coordinate) on the structure. Mathematically,
{f } = {f0 }eiωt (2)
where
{f0 } = {0...fq ...0}T (3)
The time domain solution of Eq. (1) for the excitation of Eq. (2) is obtained by first un-
coupling the structures’ equation of motion through the following coordinate transformation (Ewins
2000):
{x} = [Φ]{y} (4)
Eq. (4) represents a linear transformation that relates the structure’s displacement in the
spatial model {x} to that in the modal model. This coordinate transformation is mapped by the
undamped mode shape matrix [Φ].
Substituting Eq. (2) and Eq. (4) into Eq. (1) and pre-multiply both sides of the equation
by [Φ]T results in:
[Φ]T [M ][Φ]{ÿ} + [Φ]T [C][Φ]T {ẏ} + [Φ]T [K][Φ]T {y} = [Φ]T {f0 }eiωt (5)
269
Eq. (5) reduces to a set of N uncoupled single degree of freedom equations of motion
on the modal coordinates if and only if the damping matrix [C] obeys the following orthogonality
requirement:
[Φ]T [c][Φ] = [Cr ] (6)
where the N xN [Cr ] diagonal matrix contains the structure’s modal damping coefficients. This
orthogonality requirement can be fulfilled if a proportional damping is assumed. In this case, the
damping matrix is expressed as the combination of the mass and stiffness according to Clough and
Penzien (1993):
X
[C] = [M ] ab [[M ]−1 [K]]b (7)
b
where ab is an arbitrary constant and b is an integer. All damping matrices that are defined based
on Eq. (7) are diagonalized by the same transformation that diagonalized [M ] and [K]. A particular
and widely employed case of proportional damping is the so called Rayleigh damping that is obtained
by setting b = 1 into Eq. (7). This gives:
[C] = a0 [M ] + a1 [K] (8)
Pre and post multiplication of both sides of Eq. (8) by [Φ]T and [Φ] gives the following
results for [Cr ]:
[Cr ] = [Φ]T [C][Φ] = a0 [mr ] + a1 [kr ] (9)
where the orthogonality relationship for modal mass [mr ] and modal stiffness [mk ] in the modal
model Eq. (7.35b) is used in the right hand side of Eq. (9):
[Φ]T [M ][Φ] = [mr ], [Φ]T [K][Φ] = [kr ] (10)
If proportional damping is assumed, Eq. (5) reduces to:
mr y¨r + cr y˙r + kr yr = [Φ]Tr {f0 }eiωt (11)
270
Division of both sides Eq. (11) by the modal mass results in an alternative form for the rth
equation on motion in the modal space:
y¨r + 2βr ωr y˙r + ωr2 yr = µr eiωt (12)
where βr is the modal damping ratio of the rth mode shape and is defined in terms of the corre-
sponding rth mode mass, stiffness and damping coefficient:
µr
βr = √ (13)
2 kr mr
The constant µr appears on the right hand side of Eq. (13) is the input force modal
participation factor and is defined as:
1
µr = {φ}Tr {f0 } (14)
mr
This constant shows how the structure’s rth mode shape interacts with the spatial distribu-
tion of input force that is applied on the structure {f0 }. When µr = 0, Eq. (12) presents a travial
solution for all values of the excitation frequency ω for zero initial conditions. Physically, this means
that the rth mode of vibration has no participation in the structure’s response to this particular
excitation.
If there is at least one non-zero µr , the time time domain solution of Eq. (11) is given as:
yr = Yr eiωt (15)
where Yr is the unknown rth mode amplitude. Substitute Eq. (15) into Eq. (11) yields the following
solution for Yr :
µr
Yr = (16)
ωr2 − ω2 + 2jβr ωr ω
The time domain solution is obtained simply by back substituting Eq. (16) into Eq. (15):
µr
yr = eiωt (17)
ωr2 − ω 2 + 2jβr ωr ω
The spatial domain displacement of a MDOF system now can be related to yr using the
271
modal transformation matrix again:
N
X
{x} = {φ}r yr (18)
r=1
Eq. (18) is frequently referred as modal superimposing (Craig 1981) since it indicates that
the finial solution x is obtained by superimposing (summing) the contribution of each mode shape
individually to the total displacement vector. Substituting Eq. (17) in Eq. (18) and use the definition
of µr leads to:
n
X {φ}r {φ}Tr {f0 }/mr iωt
{x} = e (19)
ω 2 − ω 2 + 2jβr ωr ω
r=1 r
From the time domain solution in the spatial mode, the frequency domain displacement in
the response model can be obtained as:
n
X {φ}r {φ}Tr {f0 }/mr
{X(ω)} = (20)
ω 2 − ω 2 + 2jβr ωr ω
r=1 r
At this point, Frequency Response Function (FRF) can be calculated by computing the
division of spectral displacement and spectral force, respectively. Mathematically in terms of Re-
ceptance:
X(ω)
{R(ω)} = (21)
F (ω)
Express Eq. (21) in a vector notion gives the fundamentally important Receptance FRF
solution of MDOF system incorporated with Raleigh damping:
n
X φir φkr /mr
Rik = (22)
r=1
When the excitation is coincide with the response location, i = k, Rij is called the driving
point receptance FRF. In this case, Eq. (22) can be written as:
n
X φ2ii /mr
Rii = (23)
ω2
r=1 r
− ω 2 + 2jβr ωr ω
and when i 6= k, Rik is called transfer Receptance FRF.
Two additional FRF presentations which commonly employed in the modal testing are the
272
Mobility and Accelerance FRF. If the velocity response per input force is used, this is called the
Mobility and the notation Y (ω) is used. Similarly, if the acceleration response per input force is
used, this is called the accelerance and the notation used is A(ω). The relationship between the
Mobility and Accelerance FRF to the Receptance FRF are given by:
Y (ω) = ωjR(ω), A(ω) = −ω 2 R(ω) (24)
Therefore, in the most common case where accelerometers are used in the modal testing,
the accelerance FRF which contains the structure’s modal information is given by substitute Eq.
(24) into Eq. (22):
n
X −ω 2 φir φkr /mr
Aik = (25)
r=1
where N is the number of modes; ωr is the circular natural frequency of the rth mode; mr is the
modal mass of the rth mode; βr is the modal damping ratio of the rth mode; φir and φik are the
corresponding i or k DOF term of the rth mode.
Eq. (25) is considered as the classical physical based FRF in the generalized coordinate
space. Rather than directly approximate this equation with measured FRFs, different mathematical
models were proposed for much faster fitting algorithm.
273
Bibliography
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Clemson University

Strength and Serviceability Performances of

Follow this and additional works at: https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_dissertations

Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) is a relatively new engineered mass timber construction

States (US). Thus, the use of CLT is limited to custom projects.

product standard requirements for CLT in the North America.

system in residential/office construction, a non-destructive vibration (modal) test was conducted to

governed by serviceability and not ultimate strengths. It is recommended that, in addition to

as the strength design for improved occupant comfort.

TO THE WILDLY WONDERFUL WORLD THAT CREATED ME,

MS. LUSI HONG.

will forever guide my future.

the views of the USDA and WUD.

supporting me during my studies and constantly urging me going forward.

2 Literature Review and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Commercial CLT Manufacturing, Clemson Pilot Production and Specimen

4 Rolling Shear of Southern Pine CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5 Bending Strength and Stiffness of Southern Pine CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

6 Bending and Shear Strengths of Composite CLT-Glulam Beam . . . . . . . . . .103

7 Vibration Properties of Composite CLT-Glulam Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162

3.1 Working properties of adhesives used in this study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

6.1 Shear Test Results Montgomery (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

7.1 Estimation of fundamental natural frequencies based on DG11 guideline . . . . . . . 177

1.1 A typical 3-ply CLT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.1 European CLT manufactures as of 2014. Source Grasser (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.1 Horizontal finger joint bit (Infinity Cutting Tools) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

7.1 Lenzen’s modified Reiher-Meister scale. (Lenzen 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

1 Specimen1-2 FJ and 1 knot failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

1.1 Definition of CLT

wall applications” (ANSI 2012b).

Figure 1.1: A typical 3-ply CLT

their own manufacturing capacity.

1,900 pounds of CO2 , see Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Carbon storage of wood. Adapted from Kolb (2008)

this study are as follows:

1. to evaluate the CLT manufacturing process, adhesive performance, and structural

strength in both major and minor strength directions;

2. to review the literature on timber-to-timber connections with inclined self-tapping

commercial buildings. As a part of this task, a first-floor corridor CLT-Glulam composite

4. to evaluate the vibration serviceability of long span CLT beam by performing

models are developed and calibrated using the experimental data.

1.3 Organization of the Dissertation

and conclusions are provided in Chapter 8.

Literature Review and Background

2.1 Status of the CLT Industry

worldwide supply capabilities.

venture with Idaho Forest Group (March 2014).

Figure 2.3: 7-story mass timber office building T3 (Archdaily)

2.2 Application of CLT

Figure 2.5: 17-story Brock Commons student residence in UBC(Archdaily)

mineral materials such as concrete and steel (Gagnon et al. 2011).

plans and the options for lateral system design.

Figure 2.6: Practice of platform construction at Redstone Project (Lendlease)

2.2.1 Gravity framing styles

Figure 2.7: Types of gravity framings

SCL, glulam or other non-wood materials.

5-ply CLT was selected for their horizontal decking system.

2.2.2 Lateral force system

lateral system as illustrated in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11: Lateral force resisting system of mass timber

Figure 2.13: Steel moment frame in 120 SE Clay Street

2.3 Joints and Connections

(A) Floor panels connections