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8th Sem Seminar Report
8th Sem Seminar Report
ON
BY
ARCHANA
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG.
8th SEM
EE/07/11
Submitted To:-
Mhod. ILYAS
LECTURER (ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG.)
Materials in this term paper have been drawn from a wide variety of sources
including weekly journals, books, magazines and Internet. Sources of these works
are cited where they are discussed in the text, and I hope that I have made no
omissions.
Finally I would like to thank my family & friends. I sincerely extend my deep felt
regards for their able guidance throughout this training period and Al-falah School
of Engg and Tech.,Dhauj,Faridabad for providing eminent environment and
essential resources to complete my term paper.
ARCHANA
EEE,8th Sem
EE/07/11
AFSET, Dhauj, Faridabad
Table of contents
1) Acknowledgement
2) Introduction
3) Origins
4) Fundamental Concepts
5) Misconceptations
6) Advantages and Disavantages
7) Current Resarch
8) Tools and Techniques
9) Applications
10) Conclusion
11) Health and Environmental Concern
12) Regulation
13) References
Nanotechnology
Imagine a supercomputer no bigger than a human cell. Imagine a four-person,
surface-to-orbit spacecraft no larger or more expensive than the family car.
Imagine attaining immortality by drinking a medicine. These are just a few
products expected from Nanotechnology.
Many words have been written about the dangers of advanced nanotechnology. Most of the
threatening scenarios involve tiny manufacturing systems that run amok, or are used to create
destructive products. A manufacturing infrastructure built around a centrally controlled,
relatively large, self-contained manufacturing system would avoid these problems. A
controlled nanofactory would pose no inherent danger, and it could be deployed and used widely.
Cheap, clean, convenient, on-site manufacturing would be possible without the risks associated
with uncontrolled nanotech fabrication or excessive regulation. Control of the products could be
administered by a central authority; intellectual property rights could be respected.
Products made by a PN will be assembled from nanoblocks, which will be fabricated within the
nanofactory. Computer aided design (CAD) programs will make it possible to create state-of-the-
art products simply by specifying a pattern of predesigned nanoblocks. The question of when we
will see a flood of nano-built products boils down to the question of how quickly the first
fabricator can be designed and built.
How does 'mechanochemistry' work?
It's a bit like enzymes (if you know your chemistry): you fix onto a molecule or two, then twist
or pull or push in a precise way until a chemical reaction happens right where you want it. This
happens in a vacuum, so you don't have water molecules bumping around. It's a lot more
controllable that way.
So, if you want to add an atom to a surface, you start with that atom bound to a molecule called a
"tool tip" at the end of a mechanical manipulator. You move the atom to the point where you
want it to end up. You move the atom next to the surface, and make sure that it has a weaker
bond to the tool tip than to the surface. When you bring them close enough, the bond will
transfer. This is ordinary chemistry: an atom moving from one molecule to another when they
come close enough to each other, and when the movement is energetically favorable. What's
different about mechanochemistry is that the tool tip molecule can be positioned by direct
computer control, so you can do this one reaction at a wide variety of sites on the surface. Just a
few reactions give you a lot of flexibility in what you make.
Origins
The first use of the concepts found in 'nano-technology' (but pre-dating use of that name) was in
"There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom", a talk given by physicist Richard Feynman at
an American Physical Society meeting at California Institute of Technology (Caltech) on
December 29, 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual
atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and operate
another proportionally smaller set, and so on down to the needed scale. In the course of this, he
noted, scaling issues would arise from the changing magnitude of various physical phenomena:
gravity would become less important, surface tension and van der Waals attraction would
become increasingly more significant, etc. This basic idea appeared plausible, and exponential
assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce a useful quantity of end products. The term
"nanotechnology" was defined by Tokyo University of Science Professor Norio Taniguchi in a
1974 pape as follows: "'Nano-technology' mainly consists of the processing of, separation,
consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or by one molecule." In the 1980s the
basic idea of this definition was explored in much more depth by Dr. K. Eric Drexler, who
promoted the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through speeches
and the books Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology (1986)
and Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation and so the term
acquired its current sense. Engines of Creation is considered the first book on the topic of
nanotechnology. Nanotechnology and nanoscience got started in the early 1980s with two major
developments; the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling
microscope (STM). This development led to the discovery of fullerenes in 1985 and carbon
nanotubes a few years later. In another development, the synthesis and properties of
semiconductor nanocrystals was studied; this led to a fast increasing number of metal and metal
oxide nanoparticles and quantum dots. The atomic force microscope (AFM or SFM) was
invented six years after the STM was invented. In 2000, the United States National
Nanotechnology Initiative was founded to coordinate Federal nanotechnology research and
development and is evaluated by the President's Council of Advisors on Science and
Technology.
Fundamental concepts
Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. This covers both
current work and concepts that are more advanced. In its original sense, nanotechnology refers to
the projected ability to construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being
developed today to make complete, high performance products.
One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10−9, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-
carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12–
0.15 nm, and a DNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the
smallestcellular life-forms, the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length.
By convention, nanotechnology is taken as the scale range 1 to 100 nm following the definition
used by the National Nanotechnology Initiative in the US. The lower limit is set by the size of
atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which are approximately a quarter of a nm diameter)
since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules. The upper limit is more
or less arbitrary but is around the size that phenomena not observed in larger structures start to
become apparent and can be made use of in the nano device.These new phenomena make
nanotechnology distinct from devices which are merely miniaturised versions of an
equivalent macroscopic device; such devices are on a larger scale and come under the description
ofmicrotechnology.
Areas of physics such as nanoelectronics, nanomechanics, nanophotonics and nanoionics have
evolved during the last few decades to provide a basic scientific foundation of nanotechnology.
A number of physical phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These
include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the
“quantum size effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions
in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions.
However, quantum effects become dominant when the nanometer size range is reached, typically
at distances of 100 nanometers or less, the so called quantum realm. Diffusion and reactions at
nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices with fast ion transport are generally referred
to nanoionics.
Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they exhibit
on a macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, opaque substances become
transparent (copper); stable materials turn combustible (aluminum); insoluble materials become
soluble (gold). A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a
potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems from
these quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale.
Impossible? Today, maybe, but not tomorrow. The technology to create such a machine is
speedily being developed. A nanofactory will be the end result of a convergence between
nanotechnology (molecular scale engineering), rapid prototyping, and automated assembly.
These are all present-day technologies. None of them has yet reached its full potential, but each
of them is advancing rapidly, driven by powerful economic, social, and military forces..
Some experts claim that a crash program started today could complete the first working
nanofactory within a decade at a cost of between five and ten billion dollars. And once the first
one is built, it can start making copies of itself. But imagine the economic, environmental and
humanitarian benefits, when nearly any product can be manufactured on the spot for about $1 per
pound. No more shipping costs or time spent waiting. No more wasted resources or hazardous
byproducts. No more starvation, homelessness, or poverty.
It sounds too good to be true: a non-polluting, personal-size machine that within a few hours and
for a few dollars can manufacture almost anything—clothing, books, tools, communication
devices—but there is a catch. It can also manufacture weapons, poisons, tiny surveillance
cameras, and other illicit products. How will this be controlled?
It should be noted that none of those who dismiss MM are experts in the field. They may work in
chemistry, biotechnology, or other nanoscale sciences or technologies, but are not sufficiently
familiar with MM theory to critique it meaningfully.
Many of the objections, including those of the late Richard Smalley, do not address the actual
published proposals for MM. The rest are unfounded and incorrect assertions, contradicted by
detailed calculations based on the relevant physical laws.
Designing and developing molecular nanotechnology (MNT) is a major challenge in itself. It will
not be easy, and it will not happen overnight. But it will happen, and it should happen. A greater
challenge—and one that has not been addressed—is creating the infrastructure to administer the
most powerful technology imaginable in a way that allows its safe and effective use, but that
protects investors, users, and innocent bystanders.
"Nanotechnology will give rise to a host of novel social, ethical, philosophical and legal issues.
It will be important to have a group in place to predict and work to alleviate anticipated
problems."— US Rep. Mike Honda (D-Cal.)
The technology is already on its way. But who will control it? If MNT is not administered
properly, there is great risk of it being used badly—either by the entity that first develops it, or
by groups that later gain access to it. Development or control of the technology by a special
interest group would probably lead to military or economic oppression. Two competing
programs could lead to an unstable arms race. Uncontrolled release would make the full power of
the technology available to terrorists, criminals, dictators, and irresponsible users. The safest
course appears to be a single, rapid, worldwide development program by an organization that
recognizes the necessity of wise administration.
"In developing a powerful technology, delay may seem to add safety, but the opposite could be
the case for molecular manufacturing. A targeted R&D project today aimed at this goal would
need to be large and, therefore, visible and relatively easy to monitor. As time passes, the
nanoscale infrastructure improves worldwide, enabling faster development everywhere,
including places that are hard to monitor. The safest course may be to create a fast-moving,
well-funded, highly-focused project located where it can be closely watched by all interested
parties. Estimates are that such a project could reach its goal in 10-15 years."
Effective administration will not be easy, and it is unlikely that a wise course of action can
evolve without guidance. There are too many risks to avoid, too many benefits to preserve, and
too many special interests to satisfy. A technology this powerful has implications in the areas of
national security, commercial rights, human rights, global environment, and even cultural
stability. Any single organization with a narrow focus will create too many regulations while
trying to control things that it does not know how to control; too many regulations will create an
unregulated black market, which creates unacceptable risks.
The purpose of CRN is to investigate the wise use of molecular nanotechnology, and to educate
those who will influence its use, or be affected by it. Through this we hope to see our vision
made real: a world in which MNT is widely used for productive and beneficial purposes, and
where malicious uses are limited by effective administration of the technology.
Is nanotechnology bad or good?
Nanotechnology offers great potential for benefit to humankind, and also brings severe dangers.
While it is appropriate to examine carefully the risks and possible toxicity of nanoparticles and
other products of nanoscale technology, the greatest hazards are posed by malicious or unwise
use of molecular manufacturing. CRN's focus is on designing and promoting mechanisms
for safe development and effective administration of MM.
Drexler's subsequent book, Nanosystems, substantiated these remarkable claims, and added still
more. A self-contained tabletop factory could produce its duplicate in one hour. Devices with
moving parts could be incredibly efficient. Molecular manufacturing operations could be carried
out with failure rates less than one in a quadrillion. A computer would require a miniscule
fraction of a watt and one trillion of them could fit into a cubic centimeter.
Current research
Nanomaterials
The nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique
properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.
Interface and colloid science has given rise to many materials which may be useful in
nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and
various nanoparticles andnanorods. Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also
to nanoionics andnanoelectronics.
Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial
applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor.
Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications;
see Nanomedicine.
Bottom-up approaches
These seek to arrange smaller components into more complex assemblies.
Top-down approaches
These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly.
There are several important modern developments. The atomic force microscope(AFM) and
the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) are two early versions of scanning probes that
launched nanotechnology. There are other types of scanning probe microscopy, all flowing from
the ideas of the scanning confocal microscopedeveloped by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and
the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the
1970s, that made it possible to see structures at the nanoscale.Feature-oriented scanning-
positioning methodology suggested by Rostislav Lapshin appears to be a promising way to
implement these nanomanipulations in automatic mode.However, this is still a slow process
because of low scanning velocity of the microscope. Various techniques of nanolithography such
as optical lithography, X-ray lithography dip pen nanolithography, electron beam
lithography or nanoimprint lithography were also developed. Lithography is a top-down
fabrication technique where a bulk material is reduced in size to nanoscale pattern.
Atomic force microscopesand scanning tunneling microscopes can be used to look at surfaces
and to move atoms around. By designing different tips for these microscopes, they can be used
for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide self-assembling structures. By using, for
example,feature-oriented scanning-positioning approach, atoms can be moved around on a
surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques.At present, it is expensive and time-
consuming for mass production but very suitable for laboratory experimentation.
However, new therapeutic products, based on responsive nanomaterials, such as the
ultradeformable, stress-sensitive Transfersome vesicles, are under development and already
approved for human use in some countries.
If it can be done safely, widespread use of molecular manufacturing looks like a very good idea
for the following reasons:
The ability to produce duplicate manufacturing systems means that manufacturing capacity
could be doubled almost for free.
A single, self-contained, clean-running personal nanofactory could produce a vast range of
strong, efficient, carbon-based products as they are needed.
Emergency and humanitarian aid could be supplied quickly and cheaply.
Many of the environmental pressures caused by our current technology base could be
mitigated or removed entirely.
The rapid and flexible manufacturing cycle will allow many innovations to be developed
rapidly.
Although a complete survey and explanation of the potential benefits of nanotechnology is
beyond the scope of this paper, it seems clear that the technology has a lot to offer.
All of these advantages should be delivered as far as is consistent with minimizing risks.
Humanitarian imperatives and opportunities for profit both demand extensive use of
nanotechnology. In addition, failure to use nanotechnology will create a pent-up demand for its
advantages, which will virtually guarantee an uncontrollable black market. Once molecular
manufacturing has been developed, a second, independent development project would be both
far easier and far more dangerous than the original project.
A tremendous amount of research is going on in the nanotechnology field, even though only a
few items have so far reached the commercial stage. Since the work is at a molecular level,
developments require sophisticated facilities that require a lot of time and investment.
Future Trends
Unprecedented opportunities are arising for re-engineering existing products. For example,
cluster of atoms (nanodots, macromolecules), nanocrystalline structured materials (grain size less
than 100 nm), fibres less than 100 nm in diameter (nanorods and nanotubes), films less than 100
nm in thickness provide a good base to develop further new nanocomponents and materials.
The buckyball (C60) has opened up a excellent field of chemistry and material science with many
exciting applications because of its ability to accept electrons. Carbon nanotubes have shown a
promising potential in the safe, effective and risk free storage of hydrogen gas in fuel cells,
increasing the prospects of wide uses of fuel cells and replacement of internal combustion
engine. The potential of nanotubes can be further exploited in oil and gas industry. The nanotube
market is likely to hit 1.35 billion dollars in 2005. Nanotechnology offers a myriad of
applications for production of new gas sensors, optical sensors, chemical sensors, and other
energy conversion devices to bio implants.
Solar Cells
Nanoporous oxide films such as TiO2 are being used to enhance photo voltaic cell technology.
Nanoparticles are perfect to absorb solar energy and they can be used in very thin layers on
conventional metals to absorb incident solar energy. New solar cells are based on nanoparticles
of semi conductors, nanofilms and nanotubes by embedding in a charge transfer medium. Films
formed by sintering of nanometric particles of TiO2 (diameter 10-20 nm) combine high surface
area, transparency, excellent stability and good electrical conductivity and are ideal for
photovoltaic applications. Non porous oxide films are highly promising material for photovoltaic
applications. Nanotechnology opens the opportunity to produce cheaper and friendlier solar cells.
Nanofibres
In China and U.K., nanocarbon fibres have been produced. The production of nanofibres offers
the potential of using the woven reinforcement as body armor. The future soldier’s uniform
would incorporate soft woven ultra strong fabric with capabilities to become rigid when a soldier
breaks his legs and would protect him against pollution, poisoning and enemy hazards.
Sensors
Nanotechnology offers unlimited opportunities to produce new generation pressure, chemical,
magneto resistive and anti-collision automobile sensors. Many of the novel applications such as
new sensors, better photovoltaic cells, lighter and strong materials for defense, aerospace and
automotives are already in use, and applications such as anti-corrosion coating, tougher and
harder cutting tools, and medical implants and chips with 1 nm features may be developed in
another 5-15 years. Nanostructured materials for nanoelectronic components, ultra fast
processors, nanorobots for body parts are still in the state of infancy.
Spending and Investment
Despite the hype surrounding nanotechnology, the progress achieved in the last five years is
remarkable as shown by dramatic public spending in recent years. The total global investment in
nanotechnology is currently around 5 billion euros, two billion of which comes from the private
sector.
Ultra Light Materials
Nanotechnology is viewed as a key technology for the development of ultra light materials which
would result in energy, fuel and materials savings and development of spectacular materials with
complete control over structure and properties at a subatomic level not hitherto known to
scientists and engineers. With the future development of nanocatalyst, diesel oxidant using
nanoscale layers of Pt, Pd, the major environmental killers smog, pollution and toxic pesticide
would be eliminated and humans will be able to breathe in healthy air. Improvement in
nanofilters would enable bacteria less than 30 nm to be filtered and achieve water purity of
99.999997.
Corrosion and Corrosion Prevention
Despite the progress in understanding the structure of nanomaterials, there is no evidence to
show that nanomaterials are more resistant to corrosion than their conventional counterparts. A
typical feature of nanomaterials is the defect core structure, which is caused by incorporation of
vacancies, dislocations, grains or interphase boundaries, which alter the density and conduction
in defect core regions where 50% of the atoms are located. All misfits are concentrated in the
grain boundary. The grain boundary is associated with high diffusivity and higher electrical
resistivity. Solute atoms with little solubility also segregate into the boundary regions. Summing
up, the grain boundary region is highly active in nanomaterials. Nanograin size, enhanced
diffusivity and concentration of defects would make grain boundary sensitive to attack by
corrosion. Increased electrical resistivity due to electron scattering would enhance corrosion
resistance. Increased number of grain boundaries would also lead to development of more anodic
sites for nucleation of corrosion. Theoretically, the structural evidence does not present an
optimistic picture of corrosion resistance.
Conclusion
Nanotechnology offers the ability to build large numbers of products that are incredibly powerful
by today's standards. This possibility creates both opportunity and risk. The problem of
minimizing the risk is not simple; excessive restriction creates black markets, which in this
context implies unrestricted nanofabrication. Selecting the proper level of restriction is likely to
pose a difficult challenge.
This paper describes a system that allows the risk to be dealt with on two separate fronts: control
of the molecular manufacturing capacity, and control of the products. Such a system has many
advantages. A well-controlled manufacturing system can be widely deployed, allowing
distributed, cheap, high-volume manufacturing of useful products and even a degree of
distributed innovation. The range of possible nanotechnology-built products is almost infinite.
Even if allowable products were restricted to a small subset of possible designs, it would still
allow an explosion of creativity and functionality.
In addition to preventing the creation of unrestricted molecular manufacturing devices, further
regulation will be necessary to preserve the interests of existing commercial and military
institutions. For example, the effects of networked computers on intellectual property rights have
created concern in several industries and the ability to fabricate anything will surely increase the
problem. National security will demand limits on the weapons that can be produced.
This paper has outlined a scenario for the safe development and use of advanced
nanotechnological manufacturing. Unrestricted molecular manufacturing creates several high-
stakes risks. The use of a restricted nanofactory design that is safe for widespread deployment
can mitigate some of these risks, and other risks can be dealt with piecemeal by making many
low-stakes decisions about the factory's products. Careful attention must be paid to security
during the initial nanofactory development, and wise administration must be implemented to
prevent both undesired products and pressure for black markets or independent development.
With these caveats, however, the system presented here preserves almost all the benefits of
unrestricted nanotechnology while greatly reducing the associated risks.
Internet
Through books