Introduction

A Deoxyribo-Nucleic Acid (DNA) is a primary genetic material contained within the cells and
nearly all organisms. It is used to create proteins during protein synthesis which is a multi-step
process that takes the coded message of DNA and converts it to usable protein molecule. The
first of these steps utilizes and it is called transcription which is the process of using DNA to
create RNA. This mRNA is a molecule carries DNA coded instructions for making proteins. The
paper will break down the process of transcription and explain the role and properties of DNA in
protein synthesis. To understand the role of DNA the paper will explain the basic structure of
DNA and its characteristics which enables it to be synthesized
Functions of DNA
According to Chen et al (2013) DNA has four major functions for example it contains the
blueprint for making proteins and enzymes ,it plays a role in regulating when the proteins and
enzymes are made and when they are not made, it carries this information when cells divide and
it transmits this information from parental organisms to their offspring. The paper seeks to
explore the structure of DNA, its language, and how the DNA blueprint becomes translated into
a physical protein. Hence bringing out it roles and functions.

Physical structure of DNA

Firstly, physically, DNA resembles a spiral staircase. For our purposes here, imagine that we
twist the staircase to remove the spiral so we are left with the ladder-like structure. The two
backbones to this ladder are composed of sugars and phosphates (P). The whole action of DNA
is in the rungs. Each rung of the ladder is composed of two chemicals, called nucleotides or base
pairs that are chemically bonded to each other (Dale 2012). DNA has four and only four
nucleotides: adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine, usually abbreviated by the first letter of
their names—A, T, G, and C. these four nucleotides are very important, so their names should be
committed to memory.

Secondly inspection of picture reveals that the nucleotides do not pair randomly with one
another. Instead A always pairs with T and G always pairs with C. According to Dale (2012) this
is the principle of complementary base pairing that is critical for understanding many aspects of
DNA functioning. Dale (2012) posits that because of complementary base pairing, if we know
one strand (i.e., helix) of the DNA, we will always know the other helix. Dale further posits that
one would still be able to know the sequence of nucleotides on this missing piece because of the
complementary base pairing. The sequence on the remaining left-hand piece starts with
ATGCTC, so the missing right-hand side must begin with the sequence TACGAG.

Protein synthesis
DNA play a role in the manufacture of a protein. The basic building block for any protein or
enzyme is the amino acid (Watson et al 2013). There are twenty amino acids used in constructing
proteins5, most of which contain the suffix “ine,” e.g., phenylalanine, serine, tyrosine. Amino
acids are frequently abbreviated by three letters, usually the first three letters of the name—e.g.,
phe for phenylalanine, tyr for tyrosine. There are three major sources for the amino acids in our
bodies.

Firstly, the cells in our bodies can manufacture amino acids from other, more basic compounds
(or, as the case may be, from other amino acids). Second, proteins and enzymes within a cell are
constantly being broken down into amino acids. Finally, we can obtain amino acids from diet.
When we eat a juicy steak, the protein in the meat is broken down into its amino acids by
enzymes in our stomach and intestine. These amino acids are then transported by the blood to
other cells in the body Watson et al, (2013).

Importantly Gilmour and Fan (2013) notes that a series of amino acids physically linked together
is called a polypeptide chain. The series is linear in the sense that it does not branch into a Y-like
structure and the notion of a polypeptide chain is absolutely crucial for proper understanding of
genes, so permit some latitude to digress into terminology Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012).
The word peptide is used to describe a chain of linked amino acids when the number of amino
acids is small, say, a dozen or less. The word peptide is also used as an adjective and suffix to
describe a substance that is composed of amino acids Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012). For
example, a peptide hormone is a hormone that is made up of linked amino acids, and a
neuropeptide is a series of linked amino acids in aneuron. The phrases polypeptide chain or
polypeptide usually refer to a longer series of coupled amino acids, sometimes numbering in the
thousands.

According to Gilmour and Fan (2013) notes that protein is one or more polypeptide chains
physically joined together and taking on a three dimensional configuration. The polypeptide
chain(s) comprising a protein will bend, fold back upon themselves, and bond at various spots to
give a molecule that is no longer a simple linear structure. An example is hemoglobin, a protein
in the red blood cells that carries oxygen. Gilmour and Fan (2013) posits that a hemoglobin is
composed of four polypeptide chains that bend and bond and join together. Some proteins
contain chemicals other than amino acids. For example, a lipoprotein contains a lipid (i.e., fat) in
addition to the amino acid chain.

According to Gilmour and Fan (2013) an enzyme is a particular class of protein responsible for
metabolism. With these definitions in mind, we can now present one definition of a gene. A gene
is a sequence of DNA that contains the blueprint for the manufacture of a peptide or a
polypeptide chain. Such genes are sometimes qualified by calling them structural genes or
coding regions. A synonym for gene is locus (plural = loci), the Latin word meaning site, place,
or location.

Transcription
This where a sequence of DNA is transcribed (or “copied”) in the form of an immature mRNA
molecule; splicing, where non-coding parts of the mRNA are removed, yielding a mature mRNA
molecule; and translation, where the sequence of the mRNA is translated into a strand of amino
acids. Thereafter, the amino acid strand will be subject to folding and then posttranslational
modifications. The strand of amino acids subsequently folds into a functional conformation,
often with the assistance of ‘chaperones’. It may also be linked with other amino acid strands in
the formation of larger structures, such as insulin molecules, which play a major role in
homeostasis of human blood sugar levels. In addition, it may thereafter be subjected to various
chemical posttranslational modifications, such as glycosylation or phosphorylation

The proteins any organism needs must be synthesized by the organism itself. The information
required to construct these proteins is present in the DNA. From this information, amino acids
present in the organism’s cells are assembled into myriads of functional proteins by cellular
structures acting in highly regulated, complex processes. In the human body, these amino acids
are released by digestive processes in the small intestine and delivered to all the cells in the body
via the blood stream. Thus, the proteins we eat are not used directly. Instead, they are
disassembled then re-assembled in the required forms by each cell’s protein building or protein
synthesis machinery.

The proteins any organism needs must be synthesized by the organism itself. The information
required to construct these proteins is presenting the DNA. From this information, amino acids
present in the organism’s cells are assembled into myriads of functional proteins by cellular
structures acting in highly regulated, complex processes. In the human body, these amino acids
are released by digestive processes in the small intestine and delivered to all the cells in the body
via the blood stream. Thus, the proteins we eat are not used directly. Instead, they are
disassembled then re-assembled in the required forms by each cell’s protein building or protein
synthesis machinery. Whenever there is a need for synthesis of a specific protein, a certain part
of one strand of the DNA encoding all or part of the protein – a gene – is copied into a mRNA in
a process called the transcription. This occurs in the nucleus of the cell, which is surrounded by a
membrane. The nuclear membrane protects the DNA (which is degraded if it enters the
cytoplasm of the cell) and has other functions that are beyond the scope of this thesis

At this stage, the newly produced mRNA is often referred to as a primary RNA transcript or
‘immature mRNA’ to clarify that it is not the final template for the protein. As can also be seen
in Figure 3, noncoding parts of the immature mRNA that will not contribute to the finalised
protein – introns – are removed and remaining parts – exons are combined into the finalised
mRNA in a process called splicing. The mRNA is now regarded as a mature form of mRNA and
the final template for the protein to be synthesised.

The produced mRNA strands bind to structures in the cell called ribosomes, often referred to as
‘cells’ protein factories’. Their sequences are read by the ribosomes and translated into
corresponding sequences of amino acids, which are assembled as the ribosome moves along
from the start to the end of each mRNA,. The amino acids ar each transported to the ribosome by
specific molecules called tRNAs. The ribosomes then assemble the amino acids in the order
described in the mRNA. When the reading – ‘translation’ – of each mRNA is finished, a
translated counterpart of the information contained in the DNA sequence transcribed in the
mRNA (a polypeptide) has been formed.

DNA can be Denatured

Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012) Like other noncovalent structures, the Watson-Crick double
helix disintegrates at high temperatures. Heat denaturation of DNA is also called melting.
Because A-T base pairs are held together by two hydrogen bonds and G-C base pairs by three,
A-T–rich sections of the DNA Unravel more easily than G-C–rich regions (Figs. 6.8 and 6.9).
At physiological pH and ionic strength, this typically happens between 85 ° C and 95 ° C. Heat
denaturation decreases the viscosity of DNA solutions because the single strands are more
flexible than the stiff, resilient double helix. Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012) It also increases
the ultraviolet light absorbance at 260 nm, which is caused by the bases, because base pairing
and base stacking are disrupted. Other ways to denature DNA include decreased salt
concentration, extreme pH, and chemicals that disrupt hydrogen bonding or base stacking.
Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012) When cooled slowly, denatured DNA “renatures”
spontaneously. This process is called annealing. Small DNA molecules anneal almost
instantaneously, but large molecules require seconds to minutes

DNA is Supercoiled
According to Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012) Many naturally occurring DNA molecules are
circular. When a linear duplex is partially unwound by one or several turns before it is linked
into a circle, the Number of base pairs per turn of the helix is greater than the usual 10.4.
Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012) posits that the torsional strain in this molecule leads to
supercoiling of the duplex around its own axis, much as a telephone cord twists around itself.
This is called a negative supertwist. The opposite situation, in which the helix is overwound, is
called a positive supertwist. Most cellular DNAs are negatively supertwisted, with 5% to 7%
fewer right-handed turns than expected from the number of their base pairs. This underwound
condition favors the unwinding of the double helix during DNA replication and transcription.

DNA Replication is semi conductive

DNA makes identical copies of itself, which are transmitted to the daughter cells during mitosis
and even to the next generation through the gametes Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012). In this
sense, DNA is the only immortal molecule in the body. The organism is best understood as an
artificial environment, created by genes for the benefit of their own continued existence.
Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012) DNA is replicated in two steps. The double helix unwinds to
produce two single strands. This requires ATP-dependent enzymes to break the hydrogen bonds
between bases. DNA unwinding creates the replication fork. This is the place where the new
DNA is synthesized. 2. A new complementary strand is synthesized for each of the two old
strands. This is possible because the base sequence of each strand predicts the base sequence of
the complementary strand. DNA replication is called semiconservative because one strand in the
daughter molecule is always old and the other strand is newly synthesized Simmons and
Meinsnberg (2012).

DNA is synthesized by DNA Polymerases

Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012) Because a single-stranded DNA is required as a template for
the synthesis of the new strand, unwinding of the double helix is required before the DNA can be
replicated. A DNA polymerase then synthesizes the new DNA strand stepwise, nucleotide by
nucleotide, in the 5′ → 3′ direction while reading the template in the 3′ → 5′ direction. The
precursors are the deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates: deoxy-adenosine triphosphate (dATP),
deoxy-guanosine triphosphate (dGTP), deoxy-cytidine triphosphate (dCTP), and deoxy-
thymidine triphosphate (dTTP). Simmons and Meinsnberg (2012) DNA polymerase elongates
DNA strands by linking the proximal phosphate of an incoming nucleotide to the 3′-hydroxyl
group at the end of the growing strand. The inorganic pyrophosphate that is formed in this
reaction is rapidly cleaved to inorganic phosphate by cellular pyrophosphatases. DNA
polymerases are literate enzymes. They read the base sequence of their template and make sure
that each base that they add to the new strand pairs with the base in the template strand.
Simmons and Meinsnberg 2012
Therefore the new strand is exactly complementary to the template strand. The DNA
polymerases are lacking in creative spirit. They are like the scribe monks in medieval
monasteries, who worked day and night copying old manuscripts without understanding their
content.

Conclusion
In conclusion the paper has managed to identify the roles and importance of DNA. It has
identified that proteins are one of the vital biomolecules of life. Protein compounds perform a
variety of essential processes to sustain an organism's survival, which include clotting of blood,
transporting oxygen, contracting muscles and catalyzing chemical reactions. The building blocks
of proteins are called amino acids. DNA has several characteristics like it can be synthesized by
DNA Polymerases, its replication is semi conductive, can be supercoiled and can be denatured.
DNA plays a role in regulating when the proteins and enzymes are made and when they are not
made, it carries this information when cells divide and it transmits this information from parental
organisms to their offspring.